Cyclic Codes.

Detailed solutions to problems

3.1) The polynomial 1 + X + X 3 + X 4 is a generator polynomial of a binary linear

cyclic block code with code length n ≤ 7 if this polynomial is a factor of X n +1 , with

n = 5 ,6 ,7 . The number of redundant bits is r = 4

n =7

X 7 +1 ! X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X7 + X6 + X4 + X3 X3 + X2 + X
__________________
X 6 + X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X6 + X5 + X3 + X2
___________________
X 5 + X 4 + X 2 +1
X5 + X4 + X2 + X
___________________
X +1

This polynomial can not generate a cyclic code C cyc (7 ,3 )

n =6

X 6 +1 ! X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X6 + X5 + X3 + X2 X 2 + X +1
__________________
X 5 + X 3 + X 2 +1
X5 + X4 + X3 + X
___________________
X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X 4 + X 3 + X +1
___________________
0

This polynomial can generate a cyclic code C cyc ( 6 ,2 )

n =5
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

X 5 +1 ! X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X5 + X4 + X2 + X X +1
__________________
X 4 + X 2 + X +1
X 4 + X 3 + X +1
___________________
X3 + X3

This polynomial can not generate a cyclic code C cyc ( 5 ,1 )

3.2) Cyclic code C cyc ( 8 ,5 )

X 8 +1 ! X 3 + X 2 + X +1
X8 + X7 + X6 + X5 X 5 + X 4 + X +1
__________________
X 7 + X 6 + X 5 +1
X7 + X6 + X5 + X4
___________________
X 4 +1
X4 + X3 + X2 + X
______________
X 3 + X 2 + X +1
X 3 + X 2 + X +1
____________
0

The polynomial g( X ) = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 is a generator polynomial of a cyclic code

C cyc ( 8 ,5 )

If the message is m = (10101) , that is, m( X ) = 1 + X 2 + X 4

X n − k m( X ) = X 3 m( X ) = X 3 + X 5 + X 7
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

X7 + X 5 + x3 ! X 3 + X 2 + X +1
X7 + X6 + X5 + X4 X4 + X3 + X2 + X
__________________
X6 + X4 + X3
X6 + X5 + X4 + X3
___________________
X5
X5 + X4 + X3 + X2
______________
X4 + X3 + X2
X4 + X3 + X2 + X
____________
p(X) = X

Then

c( X ) = X + X 3 + X 5 + X 7 , c = (01010101)

3.3)

a) Since r = 4 = n − k , ⇒ k = 3

Code rate is equal to R c = 3 / 7 = 0.43

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 
G = 0 1 0 1 1 1 0  ,
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 
rows 1+2 replaces row 2 G´ = 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 
rows 1+2+3 replaces row 3 G" = 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 

0 0 1 0
 
H = 0
T
0 0 1
1 0 1 1
 
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 

Code table:

m c w

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 4

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 4

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 4

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 4

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 4

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 4

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 4

Minimum distance d min = w min = 4 , then

t = 1, l = 3

b) Code vector for the all ones message is c = (0010111) in systematic form, obtained

by adding the three rows of the generator matrix G"

c) The syndrome corresponding to an error in the first information symbol corresponds

to an error pattern e = (1000000 ) , or e( X ) = 1 . The corresponding syndrome is

calculated as S( X ) = e( X ) mod g( X ) :
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

1 / X 4 + X 3 + X 2 +1
1 0

This can be also determined multiplying e = (1000000 ) by the transpose of the parity

check matrix H T , which results S = (1000 ) . As an example, the received vector

r = (1111001) is the second code vector in the above table, containing one error in the

first bit. Thus, r ( X ) = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 + X 6 , and:

X 6 + X 3 + x2 + X +1 ! X 4 + X 3 + X 2 +1
X6 + X5 + X4 + X2 X2 + X
__________________
X 5 + X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X5 + X4 + X3 + X
___________________
S(X) = 1

Since S( X ) = r ( X ) mod g( X ) = 1 , then the error is at the first position. By inspection of

the transpose of the parity check matrix H T , we can see that there are seven different

syndrome vector to be used for correcting any error pattern of size t = 1

3.4) Define what is meant by a cyclic error control code

3.5) A binary linear cyclic block code C cyc ( n , k ) has code length n = 14 and

generator polynomial g ( X ) = 1 + X 3 + X 4 + X 5 :

a) Since r = n − k = 5 , k = 9

For the all ones input vector

m( X ) = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 + X 4 + X 5 + X 6 + X 7 + X 8

X n − k m( X ) = X 5 m( X ) = X 5 + X 6 + X 7 + X 8 + X 9 + X 10 + X 11 + X 12 + X 13
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

X 13 + X 12 + x 11 + X 10 + X 9 + X 8 + X 7 + X 6 + x 5 ! X 5 + X 4 + X 3 +1
X 13 + X 12 + X 11 + X8 X8 + X5 + X3
__________________
X 10 + X 9 + X 7 + X 6 + X 5
X 10 + X 9 + X 8 + X5
___________________
X8 + X7 + X6
X8 + X7 + X6 + X 3
______________
p(X) = X 3

Then, c( X ) = X 3 + X 5 + X 6 + X 7 + X 8 + X 9 + X 10 + X 11 + X 12 + X 13 , or

c = (00010111111111)

b)

An error in the last bit is represented by the error pattern polynomial e( X ) = X 13 . The

syndrome calculation consists on taking the remainder of the following polynomial

division:
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

X 13 ! X 5 + X 4 + X 3 +1
X 13 + X 12 + X 11 + X 8 X8 + X7 + X5 + X 4 + X 3 + X 2
__________________
X 12 + X 11 + X 8
X 12 + X 11 + X 10 + X 7
___________________
X 10 + X 8 + X 7
X 10 + X 9 + X 8 + X 5
______________
X9 + X7 + X5
X9 + X8 + X7 + X 4
______________
X8 + X5 + X4
X8 + X7 + X6 + X 3
______________
X7 + X6 + X5 + X 4 + X 3
X7 + X6 + X5 + X 2
______________
S(X) = X 4 + X 3 + X 2

This code can correct this error pattern. If for instance we have the received vector

r ( X ) = X 3 + X 5 + X 6 + X 7 + X 8 + X 9 + X 10 + X 11 + X 12 , which is the code vector for

the all ones input message containing an error in the last bit, the calculated syndrome

polynomial is S( X ) = X 4 + X 3 + X 2 .

c) Can cyclic codes be non-linear?

Cyclic codes can be non-linear. This condition is verified when the addition of two code

vectors of the code does not belong to the code. The code however will lose all the

characteristics of a linear block code.

3.6)

a) The code table is obtained by polynomial division

m = ( 01 ) , m( X ) = X , X n − k m( X ) = X 4 m( X ) = X 5

X5 ! X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X5 + X4 + X2 + X X +1
__________________
X4 + X2 + X
X 4 + X 3 + X +1
___________________
p(X) = X 3 + X 2 + 1

then , c( X ) = X 5 + X 3 + X 2 + 1 , c = (101101)

m = (10 ) , m( X ) = 1 , X n − k m( X ) = X 4 m( X ) = X 4

X4 ! X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X 4 + X 3 + X +1 1
__________________
p(X) = X 3 + X + 1

then , c( X ) = X 4 + X 3 + X + 1 , c = (110110 )

m = (11 ) , m( X ) = 1 + X , X n − k m( X ) = X 4 m( X ) = X 4 + X 5

X5 + X4 ! X 4 + X 3 + X +1
X5 + X4 + X2 + X X
__________________
p(X) = X 2 + X

then , c( X ) = X 5 + X 4 + X 2 + X , c = ( 011011)

m c w

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 4

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 4

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 4
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

b)

d min = 4 , t = 1, l = 3

3.7)

a)

r =6, n − k = r =6 , k =8

b)

number of code vectors 2 k = 2 8 = 256

c) The generator matrix is

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
G=
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 

By using Gaussian elimination, the generator matrix in systematic form is:

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
G´ = 
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
 
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 

0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 1 0 0  (*)
0 0 0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
HT =  
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
 
0 1 0 1 0 1  (*)
 
1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1  (*)

d) Rows of H T indicated with a (*) are three rows that added, results into the all zero

vector, and thus, the minimum Hamming distance of this code is d min = 3

e) For an error pattern of ( n − k ) or less consecutive error positions, e( X ) = X j B( X ) ,

where 1 ≤ X j ≤ X n −1 . Then,

deg ree( B( X )) ≤ n − k − 1

Since deg ree( g( X )) = n − k , then g( X ) can not divide B( X ) .

On the other hand g( X ).α ( X ) = X n + 1 and X is not a factor of g( X ) , so that X j is

neither a factor of g( X ) , and thus X j and g( X ) are co-prime polynomials. Therefore

g( X ) can not divide e( X ) and the corresponding syndrome is zero. This means that

an error pattern of ( n − k ) or less consecutive error positions is correctable. In this

case n − k = 6 .
Cyclic Codes. Detailed solutions to problems

3.8)

a) The code vector in systematic form of the message vector m = (11001101011) is

evaluated as follows:

m( X ) = 1 + X + X 4 + X 5 + X 7 + X 9 + X 10

X n − k m( X ) = X 4 m( X ) = X 4 + X 5 + X 8 + X 9 + X 11 + X 13 + X 14

X 14 + X 13 + x 11 + X 9 + X 8 + X 5 + X 4 ! X 4 + X +1
X 14 + X 11 + X 10 X 10 + X 9 + X 4
__________________
X 13 + X 10 + X 9 + X 8 + X 5 + X 4
X 13 + X 10 + X 9
___________________
X8 + X5 + X4
X8 + X5 + X4
______________
p(X) = 0

c( X ) = X 4 + X 5 + X 8 + X 9 + X 11 + X 13 + X 14

b) The received vector r = (000010001101011) is the code vector of item a) affected

by an error in the fifth position

r ( X ) = X 4 + X 8 + X 9 + X 11 + X 13 + X 14

We calculate the syndrome as:

X 14 + X 13 + x 11 + X 9 + X 8 + X 4 ! X 4 + X +1
X 14 + X 11 + X 10 X 10 + X 9 + X 4 + X
__________________
X 13 + X 10 + X 9 + X 8 + X 4
X 13 + X 10 + X 9
___________________
X8 + X4
X8 + X5 + X4
______________
X5
X5 + X2 + X
___________
S(X) = X 2 + X

And the syndrome polynomial S( X ) = X 2 + X is the same as that corresponding to the

error pattern e( X ) = X 5 , which identifies an error at the fifth position.