lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.1 Reproduction
6.1.1 Sexual and asexual reproduction
Fundamental biological concept / principle 2

“That variation occurs when gametes fuse at fertilisation from the section Sexual and asexual reproduction.”

Students should be able to recall and use this knowledge in questions that link different areas of the
specification in either paper.

Explain how sexual reproduction leads to genetically varied offspring

● Sexual reproduction = joining (fusion) of male & female gametes (fertilisation)

○ Gamete formation involves cell division by meiosis → genetic variation
○ Mixing of genetic information from 2 parents → genetic variation

Define ‘gamete’ and give examples

A sex cell formed by meiosis Animals - sperm & egg cell; plants - pollen (male) and egg cell (female)

Explain how asexual repro. leads to genetically identical offspring (clones)

● Involves only one parent

● No fusion of gametes so no mixing of genetic information
● Cell division occurs by mitosis only so all cells are identical

Compare sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

Number of parents 2 1

Gametes involved? ✓ ✗

Fertilisation (fusion of gametes)? ✓ ✗

Mixing of genetic information? ✓ ✗

Genetic variation in offspring? ✓ ✗

Exam insight: common misconception ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Meiosis is sexual reproduction.” Meiosis is important in, but not the same as, sexual reproduction.

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

📈
AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Example application questions

Suggest two advantages for garden centres of ● Only need 1 parent plant
growing flowers by asexual reproduction ● Will produce (many genetically) identical plants / is a
compared with sexual reproduction. (2) faster process

Suggest two disadvantages for garden centres ● Genetically identical so will all be susceptible to
of growing flowers by asexual reproduction same diseases / pathogens
compared with sexual reproduction. (2) ● No genetic variety for new colours to offer customers

6.1.2 Meiosis
Fundamental biological concept / principle 1

“The structure and functioning of cells and how they divide by mitosis and meiosis from sections Cell biology
and Meiosis.”

Students should be able to recall and use this knowledge in questions that link different areas of the
specification in either paper.

Explain the importance of meiosis

● Halves number of chromosomes in gametes

● So when 2 gametes fuse at fertilisation the
full number of chromosomes is restored

Describe the process of meiosis

1. DNA replicates
2. Cell divides twice
3. Forming 4 cells called gametes:
● Each with a single set of chromosomes,
half number of original cell
● All genetically different

What happens after fertilisation?

● Fertilised cell divides repeatedly by

mitosis to increase number of cells
● Ball of genetically identical cells =
embryo
● As embryo develops cells differentiate
into different types of specialised cell

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Compare mitosis and meiosis

In both, DNA replicates and number of sub-cellular structures (eg. mitochondria) increases before cell division.

Mitosis Meiosis

1 cell division; produces 2 cells 2 cell divisions; produces 4 cells

Maintains number of chromosomes Halves number of chromosomes

Produces genetically identical cells Produces genetically different cells

Happens in body cells Happens in (cells in) reproductive organs

Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“All cells produced by meiosis Different species have cells with different numbers of chromosomes. If a
have 23 chromosomes.” body cell of a horse has 64 chromosomes, its gametes have half (32).

“Meiosis occurs in gametes” Meiosis occurs in the cells that go on to produce gametes, but doesn’t occur
in gametes. Gametes are the product of meiosis.

“Meiosis requires two parents.” Meiosis is a type of cell division in which a cell divides to form 4 gametes.
Sexual reproduction requires two parents, but this is different to meiosis.

Example application questions 📈

The diagram shows a normal body cell with 6 chromosomes. ● 3 chromosomes
● 1 from each pair, eg.:

Draw a diagram to show one cell produced from the original

cell by meiosis. (2)

Biologists have discovered a way to produce oysters with 3 ● (Meiosis will not work because) number
sets of chromosomes (triploid) instead of the usual 2 sets of chromosomes cannot halve / form
(diploid). Triploid oysters cannot reproduce, so grow faster. pairs
Suggest why they are not able to reproduce. (1)

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.1.4 DNA and the genome

What is DNA?
● Chemical that genetic material in nucleus is composed of
● Contained in structures called chromosomes

Describe the basic structure of DNA

● A polymer (made of many small, repeating units / monomers)

● Made of 2 strands which twist around each other to form a double helix

Define ‘gene’

● A small section of DNA on a chromosome

● Codes for a particular sequence of amino acids to make a specific protein

Define ‘genome’

Entire genetic material (DNA) of an organism

Explain the importance of understanding the human genome

The whole human genome has now been studied and this will have great importance for medicine in the future.

1. Identify genes linked to different types of diseases (eg. cancer) → better prevention / treatment
2. Improve understanding / treatments for inherited disorders
3. Trace human migration patterns from the past → better understand ancient history of humans

Exam insight: common misconception ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Genes code for This is too vague. Genes code for proteins (eg. enzymes). It is the different blend of
characteristics.” proteins that a cell creates that gives it its different characteristics.

Example application questions 📈

Explain how a change in a gene causes a different ● Different genes means difference in DNA
protein to be produced. (2) ● Different codes for making proteins OR different
(order of) amino acids (in proteins)

Two parents do not have any alleles for polydactyly ● Caused by mutation
(inherited disorder) in their ordinary body cells, but ● During meiosis
parents produced a child with polydactyly. Explain ● Causing a change in amino acid sequence
how polydactyly suddenly occurred in this family. (4) ● Causing a different protein to be produced

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.1.6 Genetic inheritance

What are chromosomes?

● Thread-like structure of (tightly coiled) DNA in nucleus of cells In a pair both chromosomes carry
● Carries many (often thousands of) genes the same genes but may have
● Normally found in pairs in body cells (one from each parent) different forms (alleles) of these.

What is a gamete?

A sex cell (eg. sperm) formed by meiosis (so has half number of chromosomes as a body cell)

What are genes and alleles?

Gene ● Small section of DNA on a chromosome

● Codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein

Allele ● Different form of a gene

Give examples of characteristics controlled by a single gene

Fur colour in mice and red-green colour blindness in humans.

What is the difference between a dominant and recessive allele?

Dominant Always expressed (even if only

allele one copy is present)

Recessive Only expressed if 2 copies are

allele present (no dominant allele)

Define homozygous and heterozygous

Homozygous 2 of the same alleles of a

(homo = same) particular gene eg. BB or bb

Heterozygous 2 different alleles of a

(hetero = different) particular gene eg. Bb

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Genotype Alleles present (genetic constitution) The alleles present, or genotype, operate at
a molecular level to develop characteristics
Phenotype Observable characteristics of an organism that can be expressed as a phenotype.

Most phenotype features are the result of multiple genes interacting rather than a single gene.

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Describe how to construct a genetic cross by Punnett square diagram, using

the example

In mice, fur colour is controlled by a single gene which has two alleles:

● The allele for black fur is dominant and can be represented by the symbol B
● The allele for brown fur is recessive and can be represented by the symbol b

Use a genetic diagram to predict the outcome of a genetic cross between two heterozygous mice.

1. Parents’ phenotype Black fur X black fur Students should be able to

complete a Punnett
2. Parents’ genotype Bb X Bb square diagram and
extract and interpret
3. Gametes’ genotype
information from genetic
crosses and family trees.
4. Punnett square
Students should be able to
use direct proportion and
simple ratios to express
the outcome of a genetic
cross.

HT only - students should

5. Offsprings’ genotype ¼ or 25% BB, ½ or 50% Bb, ¼ or 25% bb
be able to construct a
genetic cross by Punnett
6. Offsprings’ phenotype ¾ / 75% black fur (BB / Bb), ¼ / 25% brown fur (bb)
square diagram and use it
7. Ratio of offsprings’ Black fur : brown fur to make predictions using
phenotype 3:1 the theory of probability.

Ratio of offspring seen may differ from expected due to probability / chance.

What is the problem with single gene crosses?

Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting, rather than a single gene.

How can family trees be interpreted?

● Read key carefully

● Parents joined by horizontal lines / children joined to parents by vertical line with branches

How can you tell if a characteristic is caused by a recessive allele?

● Two parents without disease / characteristic produce a child with disease / characteristic
● So parents must be carriers (if it was dominant one would have it to pass it on)

10

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Describe how to extract and interpret information from family trees, using
the example

Worked example: The figure shows the inheritance of a genetic

disorder in a family.

Person 7 and person 8 plan to have another child. Determine

the probability that the child will be a male who has the
disorder.

You should:

● Identify the genotype of person 7 and the genotype of

person 8
● Draw a Punnett square diagram
● Identify the phenotype of each offspring genotype
● Use the symbols: H = dominant allele, h = recessive allele

1. Is the disorder caused by a Normally stated in question but this example is challenging! Must
dominant or recessive allele? be recessive as two unaffected parents (eg. 1 and 2) produce
children with the disorder (eg. 6 and 7).

2. Identify genotypes of person 7 ● Person 7 (has disorder) = hh

and 8 ● Person 8 (no disorder) = Hh (carrier as has child with disorder)

3. Punnett square

4. Offsprings’ genotype & ½ Hh = no disorder; ½ hh = has disorder

phenotype

5. Probability of male with disorder ½ male, ½ have disorder → ½ x ½ = ¼ (or 0.25) male with disorder

Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“I will get full marks if I just draw a Some of the marks in inheritance questions are often awarded for
punnett square.” identifying which parent is which and assigning phenotypes to
offspring genotypes, for example. Read the question carefully and
do all the things it tells you to ensure full marks.

“Dominant alleles are always Generally, yes. Examiners do however occasionally catch pupils out
represented by an uppercase letter and by asking them to use something different. Use this when
recessive alleles are always represented completing a punnett square, but remember the principle remains
by a lowercase letter.” exactly the same.

11

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.1.7 Inherited disorders

Describe two inherited disorders

Polydactyly Cystic fibrosis (CF)

What is it? Having extra fingers or toes (not severe Disorder of cell membranes (severe as
as can be removed in surgery) causes mucus buildup in lungs / pancreas)

Cause A dominant allele A recessive allele

Genotype Homozygous dominant / heterozygous Homozygous recessive

Inheritance Can be passed on by only 1 parent who has Both parents must have CF or be carriers
disorder with only 1 recessive allele (so without CF)

What is embryo screening?

Testing embryo DNA (eg. before implanted in IVF) to see if it has alleles for specific inherited disorders

What are some general arguments for and against embryo screening?
You will be given information in the exam which you will need to use to make informed judgements about the
economic, social and ethical issues. These are common points but you must apply your knowledge.

For Against

● May alleviate suffering ● Risk of miscarriage / harm to mother

● Reduce healthcare costs of ● Expensive → money better spent elsewhere?
treating disorders ● Have to make a decision whether to terminate pregnancy
● Allows people to make ● Suggests those with genetic disorders are unwanted → ↑ prejudice?
choices about termination ● Chance of false (positive or negative) results

Example application questions 📈

Two parents do not have any alleles for ● Caused by mutation
polydactyly in their ordinary body cells. These ● During meiosis / formation of gametes
parents produced a child with polydactyly. Explain ● Causing a change in amino acid sequence
how polydactyly suddenly occurred in this family. ● Causing a different protein to be produced /
(4) none of a (specific) protein to be produced

Marfan syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that ● Gametes / sperm / eggs produced by meiosis
causes problems with many body systems. Very ● When gametes fuse this mutation is in fused /
rarely, a new case of Marfan syndrome can occur new cell
because of a mutation during meiosis. Explain how ● (After fertilisation) mitosis produces every cell of
a mutation during meiosis could affect every cell in embryo
one offspring. (4) ● Which will be genetically identical

12

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.1.8 Sex determination

How is sex determined in humans?
● Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes → 22 pairs control characteristics only
● One of pairs (sex chromosomes) carries the genes that determine sex:

Females Sex chromosomes are the same - XX

Males Sex chromosomes are different - XY

Construct a genetic cross to show sex inheritance

● Chance of male offspring = 50% or ½ or 0.5

● Chance of female offspring = 50% or ½ or 0.5
● Ratio of male : female = 1 : 1

How does probability apply to sex inheritance?

● It is (50%) chance if sperm cells which fertilised the egg has X or Y chromosome
● So every child has a 50% chance of being male or female

Exam insight: common misconception ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“The probability of having male or female children changes The probability always remains the
depending on prior children.” same - 50%.

Example application questions 📈

If a couple has 3 children, calculate the There is a 50% chance for each child so (0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5) x 100 =
probability that all 3 are females. (1) 12.5%

A couple have three sons. The woman is 50% (every child has a 50% chance of being male or female)
pregnant with their fourth child. What is the
chance of the next child being a girl? (1)

13

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.2 Variation and evolution

6.2.1 Variation
What is variation?

Differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population of a species.

Describe the causes of variation

1. Genetic causes Differences in inherited genes due to mutations, meiosis and sexual reproduction.
Eg. causing blood group, eye colour, ear lobe shape

2. Environmental Differences in the conditions in which an organism has developed.

causes Eg. causing scars, language, accent

3. Combination Differences in a combination of genetic and environmental causes.

of both Eg. causing skin colour, weight, height

What is the cause of all genetic variation?

There is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species.

● All genetic variation is caused by mutations (change in (sequence of bases of) DNA)
● Mutations happen continuously and randomly (during copying of DNA in cell cycle)

What influences the development of the phenotype of an organism?

The genome, and its interaction with the environment.

Most mutations... have no effect on phenotype

Some mutations... slightly influence phenotype

Very few mutations... determine phenotype

How could a mutation lead to a relatively rapid change in species?

● Very rarely a mutation will lead to a new phenotype

● If the new phenotype is suited to an environmental change, natural selection will happen

Exam insight: common misconception ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Mutations are always harmful.” Most have no effect but when they do, the effect is not always negative.

14

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

📈
AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Example application question

Give one environmental factor that might ● Eg. light / water / rain / temperature / minerals / space
affect the number of peas in a pod. (1) (ignore climate / weather - too vague)

6.2.2 Evolution
What is evolution?

● A change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time

● Through the process of natural selection
● May result in formation of new species (organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring)

What does the theory of evolution by natural selection state?

All species of living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than 3 billion years ago.

Explain how evolution takes place through natural selection

1. Individuals within a species show a wide range of variation for a [named] characteristic due to
differences in their genes due to mutations.
2. Certain individuals have [named] characteristics better suited to the environment [explain how]
3. These [named] individuals are more likely to survive to breed successfully
4. These individuals pass on their [named] genes / alleles to the next generation.
5. Over many generations the [named] advantageous characteristic increases in the population

Explain how you could know if two populations of one species had become
two new species
● They would no longer be able to interbreed to produce fertile offspring
● Because they have become too different in phenotype

Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Evolution occurs in individuals Evolution occurs in populations and happens over many generations.
throughout their lifetime.”

“If I just repeat the generic answer Exam questions about evolution are almost always application based.
about evolution, I’ll get full marks.” Link it to the question as per the example below.

“Variation does not link to For natural selection to happen, there has to be pre-existing variation
evolution.” due to mutation within a species, so that only the better adapted survive.

“Mutations are intentional.” DNA mutations happen randomly - an organism cannot control this.

15

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

📈
AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Example application question

The vole is a small, mouse-like ● Variation in sizes of voles exists due to differences in their genes,
animal. Voles found on some cold due to mutations
islands to the north of Scotland are ● Larger voles have more fat so are better insulated and store
much larger than voles found in more energy
warmer areas such as southern ● So larger voles are more likely to survive to breed successfully
France. Explain how natural selection ● So larger voles pass on their genes / alleles for larger size to the
may have caused the northern voles next generation
to be larger in size. (5) ● Over many generations northern voles became larger in size

6.2.3 Selective breeding

What is selective breeding (artificial selection)?

Process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics.

How long have humans been doing selective breeding for? Give examples.
For thousands of years since they first bred food crops from wild plants and domesticated animals.

Give examples of characteristics chosen for usefulness or appearance

● Food crops → disease resistance
● Animals → produce more meat or milk
● Domestic dogs → gentle nature
● Flowering plants → large / unusual flowers

Describe the process of selective breeding

1. Select parents with [named] desired characteristics from a mixed population

2. Breed parents together to produce offspring
3. Select & breed offspring (who show variation) with [named] desired characteristics
4. Repeat this for many generations
5. Until all offspring show [named] desired characteristic

Explain the risk of selective breeding

● Breeding together closely related animals or plants can lead to ‘inbreeding’

● This reduces number of different alleles (genetic variation) in the population
● So some breeds are more prone to:
○ Inherited defects (more likely to inherit recessive traits)
○ (New) diseases (less chance of some having alleles for resistance, so all susceptible)

16

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

❌
AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Exam insight: common misconceptions

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Selective breeding gives immediate It takes many generations of breeding for all offspring to show
results.” the desired characteristics. This mark is often missed.

“If I just repeat the generic answer about Exam questions about selective breeding are often application
selective breeding, I’ll get full marks.” based. Link it to the question as per the example below.

“Selective breeding is the same as genetic These are two completely different processes but are often
modification.” mixed up.

“All offspring are bred together.” Due to variation from sexual reproduction, not all the offspring
will have the desired characteristic. Breed only those that do.

Example application question 📈

Scientists produced a new variety of rice ● Select traditional varieties of rice plants with short stems
plant, to help feed the rapidly increasing and rice plants with large grains
population. The new variety gave a yield ● Cross-pollinate (breed) them
of up to ten times traditional varieties. It ● Select offspring with the shortest stems and biggest grains
has short stems and large rice grains. ● Breed again
Describe how the new variety of rice was ● Breed repeatedly until all plants have desired
produced by selective breeding. (5) characteristics

6.2.4 Genetic engineering

What is genetic engineering?

● Modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another organism

● To give a desired characteristic

What happens in genetic engineering?

● Genes from chromosomes of humans / other organisms are ‘cut out’
● Then transferred to cells of other organisms

Describe examples of how plant crops have been genetically engineered to

produce genetically modified (GM) crops
To generally show increased yields, for example:

● Resistance to herbicides (weed killers) → can spray herbicide to kill weeds without affecting crops
● Resistance to insect attack → less damage by insects / less pesticide use
● Resistance to disease → reduce crop losses
● Produce bigger or better fruits

17

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Describe some concerns about GM crops

● Possible effects on populations of wild flowers / insects → could lead reduction or extinction
● Genes may contaminate / enter other species / breeds (eg. herbicide resistant weeds = superweeds)
● Eating may harm long term human health → some people feel effects not fully explored

Describe examples of how bacteria have been genetically engineered

To produce useful substances, for example:

● To produce human insulin which can be harvested & purified

● This is used treat people with (type 1) diabetes (who cannot produce insulin)

What is modern medical research exploring the possibility of genetic

modification for?
Overcoming some inherited disorders eg. cystic fibrosis (gene therapy)

Describe some concerns with using genetic engineering in medicine

● Ethical concerns → desire to manipulate genes of future children to ensure certain characteristics?
● Long term effects of gene therapy not known → potential effects on other genes?

Describe the main steps in the process of genetic engineering (HT only)

1. Enzymes used to isolate (‘cut out’) [named] gene from DNA / chromosome
2. [Named] gene inserted into a vector (transfers DNA from one organism to another) using enzymes
● Vector is usually a bacterial plasmid (loop of DNA) or virus
3. Vector used to insert gene into [named] cells

Explain when genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants of

microorganisms (HT only)
● At an early stage in their development
● So they develop with desired characteristics as all cells receive transferred gene

Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Genes are cut out from or inserted into This is too vague. You need to mention DNA / chromosomes to
the cell or nucleus.” get the mark.

“GM plants can be immune to herbicides.” GM plants can be resistant to herbicides.

“GM plants can be resistant to pesticides.” GM plants may be resistant to certain pests, but never pesticides.

18

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.3.4 Evidence for evolution

Describe the evidence for evolution
The theory of evolution by natural selection is now widely accepted. Evidence for Darwin’s theory is now available:

1. It has been shown that characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes

2. Fossil record (show how organisms change over time)
3. Knowledge of how resistance to antibiotics evolves in bacteria

6.3.5 Fossils
What are fossils?

‘Remains’ of organisms from millions We can learn from fossils how much or how little different
of years ago found in rocks. organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.

Describe the three main ways fossils can form

1. Conditions needed for decay absent (eg. lack of warmth / oxygen / moisture)
2. Parts of organisms (hard parts / bones) replaced by minerals during decay (mineralisation)
3. As preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and (plant) rootlet traces

Explain why scientists cannot be certain about how life began on Earth

● Many early forms of life were soft-bodied (no shell / skeleton) → left few traces (decay completely)
● What traces there were have been mainly destroyed by geological activity eg. volcanoes
● Most don’t become fossils (conditions needed for fossilisation absent)
● Lots of fossils still to be found

Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Fossils form when a whole organism decays.” If the whole organism decays, a fossil will not be formed.

“Fossils can form when organisms become Initially, fine sediments like sand or mud cover the
covered by layers of rock, or compressed into organism. These conditions lead to mineralisation,
rocks.” effectively turning it into rock.

Example application question 📈

Amber is a solid, glass-like material formed from a thick, ● Trapped / held (since sticky)
sticky liquid which oozes out of pine trees. Suggests how ● Prevented decay
ants could become preserved in amber. (2)

25

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.3.6 Extinction
What is extinction?

Extinctions occur when there are no remaining individuals of a species still alive.

Describe the factors which may contribute to the extinction of a species

1. New predators (or hunters / poachers)

2. New disease / pathogen
3. New (better adapted) competitors → outcompete eg. for food
4. Named changes to environment eg. ice age, global warming, drought, destruction of habitat
5. Named catastrophic events eg. asteroid collision, volcanic activity

Exam insight: common misconception ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Extinction can be caused by This is too vague - temperature and weather can change by the hour.
changes in temperature / weather.” You need to use an example of something that is a long term change.

Example application question 📈

Suggest how the ● Herbivore not eaten so population increases
extinction of a carnivore ● So much that food source decreases
could have resulted in ● Herbivores compete with each other so much that they all die
the extinction of a
OR
herbivore. (3)

● Led to population increase / evolution of another predator

● As carnivore no longer competing for food / resources
● Other predator population hunted more herbivore

OR

● Led to population increase / evolution of another herbivore

● As carnivore no longer predating other herbivore
● More competition with other herbivore

26

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.3.7 Resistant bacteria

Give an example of an antibiotic resistant strain of bacteria
MRSA

Why can bacteria evolve rapidly?

They reproduce at a fast rate.

Explain how antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria emerge and spread

1. Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strains

2. Some strains might be resistant to antibiotics, and so are not killed by them
3. They survive and reproduce, so population of resistant strain rises
4. Resistant strain will then spread as people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment

Explain what can be done to reduce the rate of development of antibiotic

resistant strains of bacteria

1. Doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately eg. treating…

● non-serious (healthy immune system can fight off infection)
● viral infections (will not work)
2. Patients should complete their course of antibiotics
● So all bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains
3. Agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted (often used to prevent rather than treat infections)

Why can’t we overcome antibiotic resistance by constantly making new

antibiotics?

● Development of new antibiotics is costly and slow

● So unlikely to keep up with emergence of new resistant strains

27

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

❌
AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

Exam insight: common misconceptions

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“Antibiotics kill viruses.” Antibiotics have no effect on viruses - viruses aren’t even cells.

“Antibiotic resistance is where bacteria Bacteria don’t have immune systems. Being resistant means
become immune to antibiotics.” they resist their effect, ie. they are not killed.

“Antibiotic resistance is where a person It’s the bacteria that become resistant to a particular type of
becomes resistant to antibiotics” antibiotic, not our bodies.

“Stronger bacteria are not killed by This is too vague. Use the term resistant.
antibiotics.”

“Overuse of antibiotics causes mutations Mutations occur continuously and randomly in bacteria, creating
to occur in bacteria.” variation. This has nothing to do with the antibiotic.

Example application question 📈

In farming, antibiotics are given to ● Antibiotic passed into environment / rivers in animal
animals to prevent disease spread. Most faeces / urine / sewage
of the world’s production of antibiotics is ● Bacteria in water / land become antibiotic resistant
used in farming. Explain how the ● Some of these bacteria are human pathogens
widespread use of antibiotics in farming ● So cause diseases which now cannot be cured as bacteria
is a threat to human life. (4) are antibiotic resistant

28

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

6.4 Classification of living organisms

Describe how living things have traditionally been classified

● Into groups depending on their characteristics and structure

○ Subdivided into smaller and more specialised groups
● System developed by Carl Linneaus (1700s)

List the groups that Linneauas classified living things into, in size order

Kingdom (largest) → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species (smallest)

How are organisms named?

● Binomial system (two part name) eg. Homo sapiens

● First part = genus, second part = species

Why were new models of classifications proposed?

1. Improvements in microscopes (eg. electron microscopes)

● Allow better examination and evidence of internal structures
2. Improvement in understanding and comparison of biochemical processes

Describe the modern classification system

● ‘Three-domain system’ developed by Carl Woese (1990s)

● Based on evidence from chemical analysis eg. DNA
● Organisms first divided into 3 large groups called domains:
○ Archaea - primitive (simple) bacteria (prokaryotes)
usually living in extreme environments
○ Bacteria - true (modern) bacteria (prokaryotes)
○ Eukaryota - includes protists, fungi, plants and animals

What are evolutionary trees?

A method used by scientists to show how they believe organisms (species) are related

What types of data are used to create evolutionary trees?

● Current classification data for living organisms

● Fossil data for extinct organisms

29

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|42368025

AQA GCSE Biology Topic 6 Inheritance, variation and evolution stan.store/biologywitholivia

How can evolutionary

trees be interpreted?

● Branch point →
common ancestors of
species → split to show
speciation
● More recent common
ancestor → more
closely related two
species

Exam insight: common misconceptions ❌

Misconception Why is this wrong?

“A binomial name is a A binomial name is a two part name (hence ‘bi’) - genus + species. You may need
single word.” to extract this from a table of information about classification groups, for example.

“Evolutionary trees show Evolutionary trees use branches to illustrate relationships, not direct evolution,
direct evolution.” showing divergence from common ancestors.

Example application questions 📈

Suggest two advantages of the binomial ● Same name to all / universal / latin / avoids confusion
system. (2) ● Genus part gives information on ancestry

Suggest one way that classification systems ● To know which species are closely related
are useful to scientists. (1) ● To monitor biodiversity
● To identify different organisms such as different species

Complete the table for the classification of 1. Eukaryota

the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus. (2) 2. Phylum
3. Family
Classification group Name 4. Danaus

Domain (1) 5. Plexippus

Kingdom Animalia

(2) Arthropoda

Class Insecta

Order Lepidoptera

(3) Nymphalidae

Genus (4)

Species (5)

Created with BioRender.com

30

Downloaded by vh bjz fycgdbhxsnajkfugt ([email protected])