Animal Science Refresher

DAIRY SCIENCE
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Table 1: Standards for SNF according to Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA-1976)
S.N. Solid Not Fat (SNF) Animals milk
1. 9.0% Buffalo milk, Sheep milk, Goat milk, Double toned milk
2. 8.7 % Skim milk
3. 8.5 % Cow milk, Toned milk, Standard milk, Recombined milk

Table 2: Standards for milk fat according to PFA-1976

S.N. Milk fat Animals milk
1. 0.5 % Skim milk
2. 1.5 % Double toned milk
3. 3.0 % Toned milk, Sheep milk, Goat milk, Recombined milk
4. 3.5 % Cow milk
5. 4.5 % Standard milk
6. 5.0 % Buffalo milk

Table 3: Chemical composition of milk of different animals

S.N. Animal Water Fat Protein Lactose Ash
1. Cow 86.6 4.6 3.4 4.9 0.7
2. Buffalo 84.2 6.6 3.9 5.2 0.8
3. Sheep 79.4 8.6 6.7 4.3 1.0
4. Goat 86.5 4.5 3.5 4.7 0.8
5. Camel 86.5 3.1 4.0 5.6 0.8
6. Sow 89.6 4.8 1.3 3.4 0.9

Table 4: Methods of pasteurization (for the preservation of milk)

S.N. Methods Temperature-time protocol
1. Low-Temperature-Long Time (LTLT) method 630C /30 minutes
/Batch/Holding pasteurization
2. High-Temperature-Short-Time (HTST) 720C /15 seconds
pasteurization/Flash pasteurization
3. Stassanization 740C /7 seconds
4. Ultra high temperature (UHT) pasteurization 130-1350C /fraction of second
5. Ultra-pasteurization (Uperization) 1500C / fraction of second
6. Vacuum pasteurization (Vacreation) By Vacreator instrument (direct
steam)
Note:-
 HTST is the modern method of pasteurization and used at commercial level
 In Vacuum pasteurization, milk is pasteurized under reduced pressure by direct steam
 Vacreator is used to remove feed & other volatile flavors from cream & pasteurize it for butter
making
Advantages & disadvantages of pasteurization
 Diminishes the nutritive value of milk
 Reduces cream line or cream volume
 It causes complete destruction of Phosphatase enzyme
 It causes 100% destruction of pathogenic bacteria
 It fails to destroy bacterial toxins in the milk
 Rennet cannot clot the pasteurized milk.
Note:-

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Index organism for pasteurization is Coxiella burnetti (causative agent of Q-fever)

Phosphatase enzyme in normally present in raw milk, but it is destroyed by pasteurization so
phosphatase test for pasteurized milk is negative hence phosphatase test is used to detect
inadequacy of pasteurization.
Table 5: Quality control tests for milk
S.N. Name of test Purpose (to detect or to determine)
1. Organoleptic test Colour, flavour & taste of milk
2. Hansa test Mixing of cow & buffalo milk
3. Lactometer reading, freezing -point Adulteration of milk with water
depression test
4. Coliform count test Possible faecal contamination (E.coli)
5. Clot-on-boiling(COB)test Heat stability of milk
6. Acidity test, Alcohol precipitation test Acidity of milk
7. Alcohol -Alizarine test pH & heat stability of milk

8. Dye reduction test(methylene blue Extent of bacterial contamination

reduction test, resazurin test)
9. Direct microscopic count(DMC) Types of microbes present in milk (Total number of
bacteria=both live +dead)
10. Standard plate count(SPC) Extent of bacterial contamination (Total number of viable
bacteria)

Table 6: Other tests for milk

S.N. Tests/Reagents Significance (to detect)
1. California mastitis test (CMT), Strip Diagnosis of Mastitis
cup test, CAMP test, Bromo-Cresol-
Purple test(BCP), Bromo-Thymol-Blue
test(BTB), Hotis Miller test
2. Phosphatase test Inadequacy of pasteurization
3. Delvo kit test Presence of antibiotic & sulphur residue in milk
4. Iodine solution test Starch adulteration in milk
5. Storch,s peroxidase test Mixing of heated milk in fresh milk
6. Bromo-cresol-purple solution Detergent in milk
7. Picric acid solution Gelatin in milk
8. p-dimethyl amino benzaldehyde Urea in milk
reagent

(1) Standard plate count (SPC) of raw milk

Objective: -To estimate total no. of viable bacteria in milk
Table 7: Interpretation of SPC
S.N. Plate count of raw milk (per ml) Grade of milk
1. Less than 2 lakhs Very good
2. 2 -10 lakhs Good
3. 10-50 lakhs Fair
4. More than 50 lakhs Poor
Note: Plate count for pasteurized milk should not exceed 30,000 per ml of raw milk

(2) Methylene blue reduction test

Objective: -To determine the extent of bacterial contamination in milk
Principle: - Time taken to reduce M.B. is a measure of its bacterial contamination
Table 8: Interpretation of Methylene blue reduction test

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S.N. Time taken to reduce M.B.(in hours) Grade of milk

1. 5 hours or more Very good
2. 3-4 hours Good
3. 1-2 hours Fair
4. 0.5 hour or less Poor

(3) Cow milk composition

 It contains 87% water & 13% total solids (TS/dry matter)
 Total Solids is categorized under (a) Fat/Lipid (b) Solid Not Fat(SNF)
 Fat includes: Phospholipids, Cholesterol, Carotene &Fat soluble vitamins(A,D,E,K)
 SNF includes: Lactose(milk sugar), Proteins, Ash(minerals) &others
 Milk proteins includes- (a) Casein protein (b)Whey proteins/milk serum proteins
 Whey proteins includes:- α-lactalbumin & β-lactoglobulin
 Riboflavin is a greenish-yellow pigment that provides characteristic colour to whey.
Note:-
 Cow milk contains 3% casein while buffalo milk contains 4.3% casein
 Casein contributes about 80% of total milk protein
 Casein exists in milk in the form of Calcium-caseinate-phosphate complex
 Casein is responsible for viscosity & white colour of milk
 There are three types of casein protein: α, β, γ
 α -casein consists of two components namely αs-casein (calcium-sensitive casein) and K-casein
(calcium-insensitive casein)
 αs-casein is precipitated by calcium ion while K-casein is not precipitated by calcium ion.
Table 9: Milk constituents
S.N. Milk constituents Form in which they exist in the milk
1. Fat Emulsion
2. Casein protein Colloidal suspension
3. Whey protein Colloidal solution
4. Lactose, Ash True solution

Table 10: Emulsions types

S.N. Items Types of emulsion
1. Milk, Cream Fat in water
2. Butter Water in fat
3. Meat Oil in water

(4) Milking methods:-

A. Hand milking- most common practice among individual farmers
B. Machine milking- practiced in organized government & military dairy farm

Table 11: Comparision of fisting, knuckling and stripping

S.N. 3 Types of hand Procedure Special points
milking
1 Full hand Grasp the teat with all five fingers Best method of milking dairy
method/fisting & pressing it against the palm animals
2 Knuckling Bend thumb against teat Wrong method of milking(injury may
occur in teat)
3 Stripping Holding the teat between thumb & It is used in following conditions: (a)
forefinger & drawing it down To remove left milk after machine
(Mainly used in sheep & goat) milking (b) When teats are too small
(c) Towards completion of milking
Note:-
 The cow should be milked from the left side
 First few strips of milk should not mix with rest of the milk because fore- milk contains large no.
of bacteria

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(B) Machine milking:-

It performs two basic functions:-
(a) It opens the streak canal with partial vacuum, allowing the continuous flow of milk
(b) It massages the teats that prevent congestion of blood in the teat.
Note:-
 Minimum herd size for machine milking is = 20
 Recommended vacuum in machine milking is 10-15 inches
 The optimum pulsation rate in machine milking: 60 cycles/minute
 Pulsation rate should not less than 40 cycles/minute & not more than 120 cycles per minute
 Pulsator is also known as “heart of milking machine”
 Pulsation ratio of milking machine- (a) For cattle: 60/40 (b) For buffalo: 50/50
 Ideal vacuum of milking machine- (a) For cattle: 352 mmHg (b) For buffalo: 400 mmHg
(5) Colostrum/1st milk/Beestings:-
 Colostrum is fed to newborn calf @ 10 % of its body wt. (or) 2-2.5 liters per day up to 3-4
days.
 Placental transfer of antibodies does not occur in ruminants so their neonates depend upon
colostrum as a source of antibodies.
 Colostrums provide passive immunity to the calf.
 It act as laxative & clears the meconium(1st faeces voided by new born calf)
 Colostrum of ruminant contains a trypsin inhibitor that protects the immunoglobulins from
digestion in G.I.T. of the calf.
 Milk lost its colostral property within 3-4 days after parturition.
Table 12: Composition of Bovine Colostrum & whole milk
S.N. Constituents Colostrum (%) Whole milk (%)
1 Water 76 87
2 Total Solids 24 13
3 Protein 14.3 (6%Igs) 3.2 (0.09% Igs)
4 Fat 6.7 4
5 Lactose 2.7 5.0
6 Ash 1.1 0.7
Note:-
 Predominant immunoglobulin in bovine colostrum is IgG while in human colostrum is IgA
 Immune factors present in bovine colostrum are lactoferrin & immunoglobulins like IgG > IgM >
IgA > IgG 2 (according to decreasing order of their concentration).
 Lactoferrin is an iron-binding protein, very important during mammary involution.
 High yielding breed produce lower fat %
 Final stripping contains higher fat percentage than foremilk.
 Evening milk contains higher fat than morning milk.
Table 13: Physico-chemical properties of milk
S.N. Physical Measured by (at what Normal value Comments
property temperature)
1 Specific Quevenne Cow milk:-1.028-1.030 Specific gravity of milk
gravity lactometer(15.60C) Buffalo milk:-1.030- depends on its SNF
1.032 content
Skim milk:-1.035-1.037
Colostrum:-1.070
2 Density Hydrometer or
Pycnometer(200C)
3 Refractive Zeiss Refractive index of milk
index refractrometer(200C) is 1.344 to 1.348
4 Viscosity (250C) 1.5-2.0 Centipoises
5 Surface (200C) 54.5 dyne/cm
tension
6 Freezing Hortvet cryoscope Avg. freezing point
point depression of Cow milk is

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0.5470C and
Buffalo milk is 0.5490C
7 Fat% Gerber,s butyrometer
(Best method),
Soxhlet apparatus
8 pH Cow milk:-6.4-6.6 Higher pH of fresh milk
Buffalo milk:-6.7-6.8 indicates udder
infection(mastitis)
9 Acidity Cow milk:-0.13-0.14% Freshly drawn milk is
Buffalo milk:-0.14- amphoteric to litmus
0.15%
10 Boiling 100.50C
point
Recknagel phenomenon: The specific gravity of freshly drawn milk is low. It increases by 0.001 as time
advances.
Note:-
(1) Specific gravity:-
 Specific gravity of milk = 1+ CLR/1000 (where CLR is Corrected Lactometer Reading)
 The specific gravity of water is one
 Specific gravity of milk is lowered by addition of water or by addition of cream/fat
 Specific gravity of milk is increased by addition of skim milk or by removal of cream/fat
(2) Freezing point:-
 The freezing point of pure distilled water is 00C while freezing point of milk is slightly lower
than that of water due to the presence of soluble constituents like lactose, minerals etc., which
depress the freezing point.
 Lactose and chloride are primarily responsible for depressing the freezing point.
 Freezing point of cow or buffalo milk ranges from (−) 0.5350C to (−)0.5500C with an Avg.of
(−)0.5450C
 The addition of 1% water to milk will raise its freezing point by 0.006 0C.
 Mastitis milk shows the normal freezing point.

Udder (Mammary gland)

 Mammary glands are modified sudoriferous (sweat) glands.
 Udder is ectodermal in origin
 Mammary glands are innervating with only sympathetic fibers. Parasympathetic fibers are absent
in udder.
 Inter milking interval: time interval between subsequent milking. The ideal inter- milking
interval is 12 hours.
The proportion of milk stored in cistern/alveolus:-
 Goat-80:20, Sheep:-50:50 , Cattle:-30:70 , Buffalo & Camel :-5:95 , Sow:- 0:100
 Dairy cows store only 30% of the total milk yield volume in the cisterns after a normal milking
interval. However, the cisternal milk accounts for up to 80% in dairy goats that is why we can
draw milk at any time from goat because there is no oxytocin reflex is required in case of
goat for a letdown.
Circulatory system:-
 Arterial blood supply: -by external pudic artery(mammary artery)
 Venous return(3 primary routes)
(a) Subcutaneous abdominal vein (milk vein)-1st route
(b) External pudic vein-2nd route
(c) Perineal vein-3rd route
 Subcutaneous abdominal vein act as an “index for milking ability”
Suspensory structures of udder
a) Median suspensory ligament
b) Two lateral suspensory ligament
c) Skin
 Median suspensory ligament is elastic while laterals are non-elastic

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 The median suspensory ligament is primarily responsible for udder “break-down”.

 There is no communication among all 4 quarters of the udder. It will minimize the spread of
infection within the udder.
 Note: 400-500 ml of blood must pass through udder for producing 1 ml of milk.
Table 14: Animals with their teat numbers
S.N. Animal Number of pairs of teat No. of teat canal or streak
canal per teat
1 Cattle, Buffalo 2 1
2 Sheep, Goat 1 1
3 Camel 2 -
4 Bitch 5 8-14
5 Mare 1 2
6 Sow 7 2

Table 15: Disease transmitted to human via milk (milk-borne diseases)

S.N. Way of transmission Examples of diseases
1 Infection of milk directly from the cow Bovine T.B., Malta fever or undulant fever
2 Infection from man to cow& than to milk Septic sore throat; Scarlet fever; Diphtheria
3 Direct contamination of milk by human Typhoid fever or Para-typhoid fever,
gastroenteritis, dysentery
4 Indirect contamination of milk by human Typhoid fever or Para-typhoid fever, Diarrhoea
or Dysentery

Table 16: Classification of Indian dairy products

S.N. Types of Indian dairy products Examples
1 Concentrated whole milk product Kheer/Basundi, Khoa/Mawa, Rabri, Kulfi
2 Coagulated milk product Dahi, Srikhand, Paneer, Channa
3 Product of clarified butterfat industry Makkhan, Ghee, Lassi

Khoa: It is partially dehydrated whole milk product

Table 17: Classification of Khoa
S.N. Types of Khoa Fat% Specific sweets prepared
1 Pindi 21-26% Burfi, Peda etc.
2 Dhap 20-23% Gulabjamun,Pantooa etc.
3 Danedar 20-25% Kalakand, Gourd barfi etc.
Note: Milk of high acidity produces a granular khoa known as Danedar
Table 18: The chemical composition of khoa (Percentage)
S.N. Milk used for Moisture Fat Protein Lactose Ash Iron
khoa making
1 Cow milk 25.6 25.7 19.2 25.5 3.8 103 ppm
2 Buffalo milk 19.2 37.1 17.8 22.1 3.6 101 ppm
Note: Milk normally contains only 2−4 ppm of iron. But the high iron content of khoa is because of karahi
is made up of iron.
Special points about khoa
 Buffalo milk is preferred
 A minimum fat level of 4% in cow milk & 5% in buffalo milk is necessary to obtain good quality
khoa.
 Normal yield of khoa: 17-19% from cow milk & 21-23% from buffalo milk

Dahi/Indian curd: It is a fermented milk product

Types of dahi-
(a) Sweet/Sour dahi: 0.5-1% starter (previous day‟s dahi or buttermilk)
(b) Sweetened dahi: famous in Eastern region of India (mainly in West Bengal) & prepared by adding
6.25% cane sugar to milk. It is also known as Misti dahi/Lal dahi or payodhi

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Some special points:-

 Buffalo milk is white in colour due to casein protein while cow milk is yellow in colour due to β-
carotene.
 Least variable component of milk is lactose while a most variable component of milk is fat.
 Most commonly used adulterant in milk is water.
 The real acidity of milk is due to lactic acid formed by bacterial action.
 Milk sourness is due to Volatile acids.
 Milk sweetness is due to lactose while bitterness or saltiness is due to chloride.
 Milk – Milk Serum= Coagulum
 Milk –Milk Fat= Skim milk
 Fishy odour in milk is due to kephalin while fishy odour in the egg is due to E.coli.
 Fishy odour in butter is due to rancidity
 Butter contain all fat soluble vitamins (Vita.A, D, E & K)
 Flavoring agent used in butter is Diacetyl (not more than 4ppm)
 Yellow colour of butter is due to Annatto
 Colouring agents used in milk are: -Annatto, Coal tar dye & Turmeric
 Cooked flavor of heated milk is due to formation of Sulfhydryl compounds
 Thickening agents used in milk are: Cane sugar (sucrose), Starch, Gelatin
 Preservatives used in milk are: Boric acid, Borax, Benzoic acid, Formalin, H2O2, Salicylic acid,
Na2CO3, NaHCO3
 Natural preservatives present in milk are -Lactoperoxidase, Lactoferrin, and Conglutinin.
 Homogenization of milk: - the process of making a stable emulsion of milk serum & milk fat by use
of a homogenizer.
(a) We cannot separate cream from homogenized milk
(b) Size of fat globule in homogenized milk is 2 microns.
 Bactofugation: the process of removing 99.99% bacteria by use of centrifugal forces.It triples the
shelf life of market milk
 Milk letdown hormone is oxytocin while hormone responsible for holding up of milk is epinephrine.
 Lactation period of dairy cattle divided into three phases: Early phase (1 to 100 days), Mid-phase
(101 to 200 days) and Late phase (201 to 305 days)
 Peak milk yield in cattle is in 6-8 weeks after parturition. Milk yield increases over lactation.
Maximum milk yield occurs between 4th-6th lactation in cow & fourth lactation in buffalo.
 In dairy cattle, dry matter intake is at peak during mid-phase of lactation.
 Residual milk: It is the amount of milk left in the udder after normal milking.It can obtain only after
oxytocin injection or by remilking.
(a) Older cows have a higher percentage of residual milk than first-calf heifers.
(b) % of residual milk is more in low yielders than high yielders
(c) A cow with a high percentage of residual milk shows a lower persistency of lactation.
 Acetate (VFA) is responsible for milk fat synthesis.
 Vitamin B1 &Vitamin C are lost during process of pasteurization& sterilization of milk.
 Irradiated milk: Vitamin D content of the milk is increased by U.V.rays treatment.
 Stainless steel and aluminium alloy mainly used for the manufacturing of the dairy utensils.
 Milking utensils should be sanitizing with hypochlorite before use.

Reference Books
1. Outlines of Dairy Technology by Sukumar De
2. A Textbook of Animal Husbandry by G.C.Banerjee, 8th edition
3. Handbook of Animal Husbandry by V.K.Tanja, 3rd revised edition

*****

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MEAT SCIENCE
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Table 1: Animal meats & their dressing percentage

S.N. Animal Meat Color of meat Dressing percentage
1 Goat Chevon Light red 49 %
2 Sheep Mutton Light to dark red 50 %
3 Cattle Beef Cherry red 55 %
4 Buffalo Cara-beef/Buffen Cherry red 57 %
5 Pig Pork Greyish pink 72 %
6 Poultry White meat/Chicken Grey-white 65-70 %
7 Rabbit Game
8 Calf Veal Brownish pink
9 Deer&Antilope Venison

The composition of animal meat:-

72% water & remaining 28% DM (DM consists of 21% Protein, 6% Fat & 1% Ash)
Note:-
 Bright red color of meat is due to oxymyoglobin
 Brown color of meat is due to metmyoglobin
 Pink color of cured meat is due to nitro-haemochromogen
 Variety meat/organ meat: -organs such as tongue, brain, thymus, heart, liver & kidney are known as
variety meat
 Pork contains 5-10 times more vita.B1 (thiamin) than beef& mutton.
 Folic acid & vita.B12 is higher in beef & mutton
 Bacon: meat from the sides and the back of a pig
 Bacon is preserved by curing with brine
 Ham: meat of the thigh or buttocks of a pig
 Prime pork: carcass of castrated male & virgin female of a pig
 Poultry meat is known as white meat while the meat of other animals is known as red meat
 Vita.B12: Vitamin found in highest amount in animal meat.
 Niacin: Vitamin found in highest amount in poultry meat.
 Vitamin A is present in beef and mutton but absent in buffalo meat, chevon or pork

Pale, soft & exudative meat/PSE meat/Watery pork:

It commonly occurs in stress-susceptible animal‟s where pH fall very quickly to 5.8 – 5.6
 Most commonly found in pork
 PSE meat has lower water binding properties and loses weight rapidly during cooking resulting in a
decrease in processing yields.

DFD meat/Dry, Firm &Dark meat/Dark cutting in beef animals:-

It commonly occurs in animals which have not been fed for a period before slaughter, or which have
been excessively fatigued during transportation and lairage.
 Most of the muscle glycogen has used already. Thus, muscle pH does not fall below pH 6.0.
 The high pH causes the muscle proteins to retain most of their bound water and they absorb most of
the light striking the meat surface, giving a dark appearance.
Note:
 Casing: - Sub-mucosal lining of intestine cleaned & used for stuffing sausages.
 Sausage: - Meat filled casing is known as sausage
Terminology related to casing industry:
 Rounds: -casing from small intestines of sheep, goat
Cattle casings:
 Runners: Casing from small intestine of cattle
 Middles: Casing from large intestine of cattle

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 Bung: Casing from caecum of cattle

 Weasand: Casing from esophagus of cattle
Pig casings:
 Maws: -casing from pig stomach
 Chitterlings: - casing from large intestine of pig
The optimum growth temperature of bacteria:
 Psychrophilic bacteria: Below 200C
 Mesophilic bacteria: 20-450C
 Thermophilic bacteria: Above 450C

Table 2: Properties of animal‟s meat

S.N Animal Consistency of Odour of Body fat
. meat meat meat
1 Chevon Very firm Buck odour
2 Mutton Firm &dense Ammonical Maximum intra-muscular fat (marbling of
meat)
3 Beef Fairly firm Intramuscular fat
4 Veal No intra-muscular fat
5 Pork Very soft Urine like Maximum Subcutaneous fat among all
animals
Intra-muscular fat also
Minimum water content among all meat
6 Chicken Mostly subcutaneous

Table 3: Ante-mortem examination

S.N. Ante-mortem Examples of diseases
Judgement
1 Emergency slaughter Acute pain, fracture of limb, pregnancy toxaemia & enterotoxaemia in
sheep
2 Casualty slaughter Chronic condition eg.obturator paralysis, post-partum paraplegia
3 Unfit for slaughter Emaciation, rabies, anthrax, B.Q, H.S, F.M.D, tetanus
4 Suspect Pneumonia, T.B, mastitis, actinobacillosis, actinomycosis
5 Delayed slaughter Fatigued, excited, transit sickness

Table 4: Meat proteins are three types

S.N. Index Myofibrillar protein Sarcoplasmic Stroma or Connective
protein tissue proteins
1 Solubility Salt-soluble Water soluble & Salt- Almost insoluble
soluble
2 Examples Actin, Myosin, Myoglobin, Collagen, Reticulin,
Tropomyosin Glycolytic enzymes Elastin
Desmin, Connectins
Troponins-T,C,I
3 Composition 50-60% of total muscle 30-35% of total 10-15% of total muscle
proteins muscle proteins proteins
Note:-
 Physical changes in stored meat: (1) Shrinkage (2) Sweating (3) Loss of bloom
 Freezing losses in meat: (1) Bone darkening (2) Freezer burn (3) Drip loss

Methods of disposal of carcass:-

1) Burial method: Most commonly used method of disposal of carcass
2) Burning or Incineration method: Preferred method of disposal for anthrax carcass
 Incinerator temperature for carcass disposal is 600-8000C
3) Chemical treatment: Lime water (1:20) or suspension of bleaching powder (1:20) is mainly used.

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Methods of preservation of meat:-

(1) Chilling/Refrigeration: At 40C,
 Method of choice for short-term preservation because it slows down the microbial growth and
enzymatic activities
(2) Freezing: At (−) 180C,
 Method of choice for long-term preservation because it stops the microbial growth and enzymatic
activities
The shelf life of frozen meat at (−) 180C:-
 For mutton, chevon, beef, and carabeef: 6 months
 For pork and chicken meat: 4 months
 For cured and salted meat: 2 months
(3) Curing: Oldest method of preservation of meat
 Commonly used curing agents: Salt, sugar, nitrite, nitrate etc
 The permissible level of nitrate is 500 ppm & nitrite is 200 ppm
(4) Smoking: to develop flavor, aroma, and color in meat
(5) Thermal processing: Pasteurization &Sterilization
(6) Canning: Sterilization of product in thermatically sealed container at 1210C
(7) Dehydration: Removal of water from meat
(8) Irradiation:
 Gamma rays are cheapest & most frequently used radiation in food preservation
 Gamma-rays are obtained from isotopes like Co60 & Cs137

Abattoir/Slaughter house:-
(1) Area requirement for abattoir:-
 1 Buffalo/Cattle = 1 Livestock unit
 1 Pig = 0.5 Livestock unit
 1 Sheep/Goat = 0.2 Livestock unit
 1 Calf = 0.3 Livestock unit
 1 Livestock unit = 1 buffalo/cattle= 2 pigs=3 calves=5 sheep/goat
Table 5: Types of abattoir
S.N. Types of abattoir Area required No. of livestock unit
slaughtered per day
1 Small abattoir slaughtering 1-2 Acres Less than 100
2 Medium abattoir slaughtering 2-4 Acres 100-200
3 Large abattoir slaughtering 4-6 Acres More than 200

(2) As per FAO (1978) water requirement for both clean & unclean operations in abattoir per
animal per day:
 Cattle/Buffalo: 1000 liters
 Pig: 450 liters
 Sheep/goat: 100 liters
(3) The light requirement in abattoir:
 For inspection & packing point: 550 Lux or 50 ft candle
 For work room: 220 Lux or 20 ft candle
 For chilling room: 110 Lux or 10 ft candle
Note: These intensities are measured at a height of 0.9 meters from the floor but in case of inspection
point, it is measured at a height of from 1.5 meters.
(4) Chill rooms:-
 Chilling temperature should not exceed 70C for carcasses and 40C for offals.
 Rail spacing in chill room should be 0.9 m for buffalo,0.7 m for pig and 0.5 m for sheep/goat
carcasses
Note: For proper drainage, abattoir building should have a floor gradient of 2 cm per meter or (1:50)

Lairage:-
Before slaughter, animals need a rest of nearly 24 hours to restore their normal physiological condition.

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 Arrangement of feeding, watering & antemortem inspection

 Animals are protected from cold, rain and heat
 Space required in lairage per animal: 2.8 m2 for buffalo/cattle and 0.6 m2 for small animals.
Race: It is a narrow space between lairage & slaughter hall. It should be at least 10 meters.

Methods of slaughter:-
There are two methods (A) Scientific/humane (B) Ritual
(A) Scientific /Humane slaughter: -Scientific slaughter avoids unnecessary pain and suffering to the
animals.
Stunning: process use to create a state of immobility or unconsciousness at the time of slaughter
 Stunning time: 30 seconds to 1 minute
 Stunning is performing only in case of humane slaughter, not in ritual slaughter.

Stunning techniques are three types:-

1) Mechanical stunning:
 Instruments used: Captive bolt pistol, percussion stunner etc
 Commonly used in cattle & buffaloes
2) Electrical stunning:
 Commonly used in stunning of Sheep, Goat, Pigs & Poultry
 Instrument used: Elther apparatus (alternating current of high frequency (250mA) and low voltage
(75 volts) is passed through the brain for 10 seconds.
3) Chemical stunning/Gas stunning:
 It is most suitable for pigs
 70% CO2 & 30% O2 used for 45 seconds
 CO2 gas blocks the nerve endings.
Note:-
1) Sticking/bleeding in animals: By severing carotid arteries & jugular veins
2) Back bleeding/over sticking: If knife reaches too far in the chest during sticking, blood may be
aspirated in the thoracic cavity and lungs become contaminated.
 It mainly occurs in pigs slaughtered by the Evernazine method.

The average yield of blood per animal & their bleeding time:
(1) Buffalo/cattle: 10-12 Kg in 6 min
(2) Pig: 2-3 Kg in 5 min
(3) Sheep/Goat: 1-1.5 Kg in 5-6 min
(4) Fowl: 30-50g in 1.5-2 min

(B) Ritual slaughter:

(1) Jewish method/Schechita method
(2) Muslim method/Halal method
(3) Sikh method/ Jhatka method
(4) Evernazine method/Neck Stab method
Note:-
 Feeding& watering is done before slaughter in both Jhatka & Halal method of ritual slaughter
 Jugular veins& carotid arteries are severed in the case of Jewish & Muslim methods of slaughter
 The neck is separated by a sharp object in case of Jhatka & Evernazine methods of slaughter.
 Carcass fit for Jewish consumption is stamped with “Kosher seal” on brisket
 Carcass unfit for Jewish consumption named as “Terepha”
 In India, buffaloes & most of the sheep & goat are slaughtered by the Halal method
 In the case of the Evernazine method of slaughter, a double-edged knife “Puntilla” is used.
 Puntilla separates the neck at the occipito-atlantal joint and severing the medulla oblongata.
 In the case of Jhatka and Evernazine method of slaughter, bleeding remains incomplete because
medulla oblongata is damaged during the slaughtering
 The five principles of schechita: Neck should be severed without pause, pressure, stabbing,
slanting or tearing

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