COMMUNICATION NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Communication can be defined as:

 The process of passing information or message from one person to another through
medium or a channel.

 Process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through

speech, signals, writing, or behavior.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

For any effective communication to take place the following elements must be present.

Sender: the sender initiates communication

Receiver: the receiver is the target of the communication
Message: the message is what the sender communicates to the receiver.
Channel: the channel is the means used to transmit the message from the sender to the
receiver.
Feedback: it is the response the sender gets from the receiver.

PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
1. Good reputation
Effective communication with customers and either business enables company establish good
reputation this increase prestige of the company.
2. Improves public relations
When a company communicates with general public to keep them informed of its
activities more people become interested to deal with that company.
3. Better business prospects
Due to good communication the company can attract more customers.
4. It helps us improve our services

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 5. Job requirements
Most jobs require communication skills such as personnel public relations, marketing,
editing, research, advocates, etc. executives are expected to make speeches, give
interviews to media and all these require good communication skills.

6. To inform
One of the most important objectives of communication is passing and receiving information.

7. To advice
Information is factual and objective, advice on the other hand involves personal opinions. It is
subjective and neutral. When advice is given to person he/she may use it to decide or not to use
it. Advice flows downwards and horizontal and is aimed at influencing the opinions or behavior
of other person.

8. To order
An order is an authoritative communication, directive. Orders flow from top to bottom.

9. To suggest
A suggestion is different from other forms of communication. In other forms it flows from
superiors to subordinates but a suggestion may flow from subordinate to superior. It is mild and
subtle and moves in all directions.

10. To persuade
It is aimed at influencing the attitudes, feelings or beliefs of others.

11. To educate
Education is a conscious process of communication. Its main purpose is to widen knowledge and
improve skills.

12. To warn
To caution people of any impending issues or behaviours.

13. Raise morale

Morale is a powerful factor representing the sum of many qualities such as courage, fortitude,
resolution and confidence.

14. To motivateMotivation means to energize and activate a person and challenge their
behavior towards the attainment of desired goals.

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PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

For communication to be effective, the communicator has to observe the following principles:

1. Clarity;
Communicator must use simple words/means and avoid the use of jargon.
2. Completeness/content;
The communicator must include all the relevant facts in his message.
3. Conciseness;
The communicator must be as brief as possible so as to win the attention of the receiver.
This can be achieved through observing the following:-
 Including only the relevant parts.
 Avoid repetition.
 Organizing the message in a simple, logical way.
4. Consideration;
The communicator must try to understand the audience. This will enable the
establishment of rapport with audience and hence, communication will be smooth. The
communicator should not always emphasize on the negative aspect of the audience.
5. Courtesy;
The communicator will create friendliness with the audience. This can be achieved by use
of common courtesy and being civil e.g. Thank you, good morning etc.
6. C orrectness;
The communicator must ensure that:-
 He gives the correct facts
 Uses the correct language
 Sends the message at the correct time
 Sends the message through the correct medium.
7. Concreteness
 Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague. Facts and figures being
presented in the message should be specific.

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ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

As an effective communicator, you should understand the following essentials of

communication:

The subject: also known as the content of communication, is the information that you would like
to be understood by your receiver.

The audience: is the receiver of your message and you need to have enough information about
them. For example their personality, age status, education, political inclination, etc how are they
likely to react to the content of your message?

Purpose: in other words you ask yourself whether you want to persuade, inform, influence,
educate, advice, entertain, provoke, stimulate thought.

Appropriate channel: is the vehicle by which the message is passed on to the audience. for
example by use of words, pictures or both, or use spoken or written.

Proper presentation: is the means by which you will achieve the most desired response from
your audience. It is the best way you organize your points you want to drive home to your
audience.

ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN

COMMUNICATION

1. Information Communication and Technology allows a number of people to have

access to the same information at the same time instead of having to wait
e.g for a file to be returned to the cabinet i.e information is instantly available.

2. Computers can be used to produce volumes of information sufficient for

operations.

3. Tasks that were previously done by hands in what are known as manual system can now
be done much more quickly and efficient by electronic means.

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4. Electronic mail allows messages to be sent faster to parts of the world in different time
zones without the need to wait for an appropriate time or the next working day.

5. Electronic conferencing makes it possible to be held between people at different ends of

the country or even in different parts of the world by use of television, camera and
receivers, computer technology and telephone lines.

6. Most organizations/companies are able to store information in data bases and that
information can be retrieved easily and quickly.

7. Confidentiality:- electronic data base make it possible for any authorized uses to have
access to certain information.

8. Portability:- carrying a large amount of information has been made easier by using e.g
flash disk, diskettes, floppy disc e.t.c.

9. Storage of vast amount of data and processing.

10. Editing:- errors can be corrected on screen so that there should be no errors in the final
document.

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COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Stages of communication process

Communication is a two way process that takes place through several stages:

a. Conception of the message: at this stage an idea, thought or feeling is formulated in the
minds of the sender as a result of an external or internal stimulus or motivation.

b. Encoding: this involves giving the message a communication form in verbal or non
verbal language

c. Channel selection: the sender selects the most appropriate and effective vehicle that will
deliver the message to the receiver, for example telephone, letter, e- mail.

d. Transmission: the message is transferred to the receiver through the selected channel. At
this stage there is a possibility of the message being interfered with by “noise”

e. Reception: this is the physical act of receiving the message through any of the six senses-
hearing, touching, tasting seeing and smelling.

f. Decoding: this involves the receiver trying to assign meaning to the language used as
he/she relates the language to his knowledge of terms and vocabulary.

g. Comprehension: takes place when the receiver tries to spend moments to absorb the
meaning and to understand the technical jargon used by the sender.

h. Interpretation: is similar to what is loosely termed as reading between the lines. This
means that you as a receiver should search out the underlying meaning.

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 i. Feedback: the receiver reacts to the message by encoding his response in a language that
the sender can understand and transmit it back to the originator of the message. The
receiver goes through the same communication process as the sender had done only when
this cycle is completed can communication can be said to have been effective

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

However, carefully an act of communication is planned, it is inevitable that breakdowns will

sometimes occur. Some of the breakdown or barriers arise in the process of communication
mainly from the sender and the receiver, while others are due to external factors.

A. Barriers caused by the sender

1. Sender‟s lack of awareness of receivers needs

If the sender does not have a clear idea of what the communication aims to achieve before
encoding the message there will be a breakdown.

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2. Language
If the language used by the sender is unfamiliar to the receiver there will be a breakdown in
communication and how it is said. Facial expressions, gestures and the way in which a
message is conveyed can also result in a receiver gaining a false impression. The tone of
voice can also be detected even in a written message.

3. Use of the wrong medium

If the medium chosen is not appropriate for the message, the message can be delayed or
distorted. For example, if you had to tell a group of employees about their new salaries each
of which is different, it would be tactless to type a notice and to display it on a notice board
instead of sending personal letters to those concerned. A careful choice of medium would
avoid any misunderstanding.

4. Poor timing
Deciding on the most appropriate time to communicate is as important as knowing what
medium to use. Ensure that the receiver has enough time to pay careful attention to a message
in order to understand the message and give the expected feedback.

5. Information overload
The message the sender wishes to communicate should contain the right amount of
information to avoid an overload. Too much information is bad as too little information
because it reduces audience‟s ability to concentrate effectively on the most important
messages.

B. Barriers caused by the receiver

1. Poor listening skills

The receiver may deliberately refuse to listen to an incoming message. This is what is known
as selective listening. However, lack of concentration, lack of interest, difficulty in
comprehending the content, poor mental attitude and cultural differences between the sender
and the receiver also cause a breakdown in communication.

2. Prejudice
This means preformed attitude towards the sender, the message or both. Prejudice may arise
from the difference between the sender and receiver owing to their differing social status,
education or age.

3. Lack of feedback

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 If the receiver fails to give feedback to the sender or he gives a delayed feedback, this will
automatically result to breakdown in communication.

4. Psychological factor
Such as people‟s state of mind e.g health or marriage problems.

C. Barriers caused by external factors

1. Noise
This can be physical noise in a room, a poor telephone connection, or other forms of
interference like poor handwriting.

2. Physical distance
The geographical distance between the sender and receiver may also be a source of
communication breakdown.

3. Too many steps in the communication process

If an oral message is channeled through many people, the message is likely to get distorted.
In written communication, for example a letter passing through many bureaucratic steps in an
organization may not reach the correct destination in the desired time for appropriate action
to be taken.

Ways of overcoming barriers

1. Training employees in relevant techniques of communication e.g. listening skill, or

speaking skills
2. Ensuring that the media of communication is carefully chosen
3. Communication must be well planned and well constructed
4. Ensure that only necessary message is communicated to avoid overload.
5. Observe the principles of effective communication
6. A climate of trust and confidence should be created in the organization e.g.
employees should be encouraged to share information whatever their position.
7. Equipment used for communication must be maintained
8. Ensuring that the organization structure is straightforward and the commun

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION

Ethics in communication essentially deals with how honest, fair, and responsible communicators
are being at the individual, group, and mass communication levels.

1. Truthfulness
A communicator has a responsibility to ensure that the information given out is truthful.
Conscious distortion of facts on the part of the communicator is clearly unethical. However,
truth may at times conflict with other virtues such as public interest, privacy and
confidentiality.
2. Fairness
In giving information concerning parties, the communicator should not consciously lean
towards one side at the expense of another.
3. Cultural sensitivity
Respect is very important in communication. A communicator has the responsibility of
avoiding making offensive or discriminatory speech on the grounds of race, gender, creed or
otherwise.
4. Honesty
It is unethical for one to attempt to pass other people‟s ideas and theories as their own. Credit
should always be given when quotes from other people; whether copyrighted or not are cited.
If the information is intended to achieve a sale, the salesperson is obliged not to withhold any
piece of information that may put the potential buyer at a disadvantage.
5. Censorship
Authorities, including governments may feel compelled to control what kind of information
reaches the public. It is mostly due to self interest and survival. This withholding of
information may result into the public being not adequately empowered to make beneficial
decisions.
Sometimes, censorship is done on propriety reasons, such as the control of pornographic
material.
6. Objectivity
Communicators need to be faithful to the facts of the subject and report dispassionately.
Personal emotions should be avoided as much as possible, as they have the likelihood of
influencing the audience unduly.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be broadly classified into six main categories:

A. Formal Communication

This is the type of communication that follow formal channel of communications and includes,
organizational channels and officially recognized positions. Thus it followed the course laid
down in an organizational structure of the enterprise. Therefore as the name formal suggests is
the deliberately created, officially prescribed path for flow of communication in an attempt to
regulate the flow of organizational communication to ensure that information flows smoothly
accurately and timely.
Formal channel of communication emphasized on the charnel of command or thro proper
channels.
Therefore it can be summarized that formal communication follows channel of formal
relationships of continuity and responsibility established by management.

Uses of formal communication

 Communicates the vision of the organization
 Communicates the objectives to the members very clearly
 Used to instill the necessary discipline as required by the organization

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 B. Informal Communication

This is quite often described as “grapevine”. It takes place between persons or groups at the same
time the same or different levels of hierarchy on the basis of informal relationships. Information
passes informally between persons or groups as they come in to contact with each other in the
course of performing their duties example: According to structure, a section commander (CPL)
maybe required to report direct to the [platoon sergeant yet because of their informal
relationship with the platoon commander, they may prefer to take orders or instructions from
the platoon commander. Informal communication is also known as “grapevine”. This
communication does not arise out of the organization needs but this is never the less an integral
part of its communication system. Rumors that all the time spread in any organization follow
the grapevine.

Uses of informal communication

 Used in informal relations with friends, workmates or family

 It is used any time and place to give feedback to any organization
 Used to air grievances
 Used to help put people at ease and avoid or relieve stress
C. Internal Communication

Internal communication refers to the exchange of information or messages between persons

and departments of the same organization e.g., Communication between the employer and the
employees, or communication between a company and its shareholders.

Uses of internal communication

 Used to create good relationships within the organization
 Brings about coordination, cooperation and team work
 Used to encourage and motivate the members to continue and to work harder for better
output.

D. External Communication

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 External communication refers to the exchange of information or messages between particular
organizations and outside offices, outside persons or other outside organizations.
Communication with the customers and suppliers, other business organizations, government
departments and service institutions come within this category.

Uses of external communication

 Enables organizations to access other services
 Used for business purposes
 Used to inform and bring awareness
 Used for analysis, this brings about improved performance.
E. Inter-personal Communication

This is the communication that exists between a person or people or organization without the
same purpose but with mutual understanding despite being in different entities in their
businesses or operations.
Uses of inter – personal communication
 Used to create mutual understanding between individuals
 Used to bring about healthy competition in organizations, businesses or even
individuals.
 Used to ensure security
 Used for socialization and creating friendship.

F. Intra-personal Communication

This is the kind of communication within oneself, a person, group or an organization within
itself and having the same goal and purpose to achieve for themselves or to all of them as a
group.
Uses of intra – personal communication
 Used to create teamwork and unity
 Used for reconciliation in case of differences

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FORMS OF COMMUNICATIONS

I. Oral Communication

Oral communication means communicating by the word of mouth, face to face conversation,
telephone (mobile) conversation, training courses, consultation, meetings, conference, radio
broadcast, group discussion and seminars and announcements over public address system,
speeches etc.
Therefore, oral communication takes place through the spoken word. Hence its primary medium
is the word of mouth.

Advantages of oral communications

1. It saves time - In a number of cases where action is required to be taken

immediately, it is best to transmit the message orally.

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 2. Gives immediate feedback - Most of oral communication allows immediate feedback of
information and unlike written communication where the sending of the message and the
sending of feedback occurs at different times.
3. It is Convenient - Normally orally communication requires no advance preparation of
the message, as in the case with written communication.
4. It’s cost effective - Oral communication does not involve a lot of cost for example (when
it is within the organization). One does not incur the extra cost of procuring written
materials or facilities.
5. It is more reliable - it provides an opportunity for feedback and clarification
6. It also provides opportunities for responding appropriately to a non-verbal
communication.

Disadvantages of oral communication:

1. Costly - Oral communication may be costly in terms of the cost of mediums d

e.g. meetings, conferences and seminars are very expensive in terms of money and
materials.
2. Oral communication provides no record for future references and oral message cannot be
retrieved for future use or reference.
3. It may sometimes be time consuming especially in meetings and conferences when after
various deliberations nothing concrete comes out.
4. Although all messages offer a great opportunity for clarification, there are also greater
chances of misunderstanding.
5. Sometimes it may be affected by previous strained relationships i.e. between superiors
and subordinates.
6. In oral messages, there are no responsibilities for mistakes if any cannot be specifically
traceable or assigned.
7. Constantly there may be more opportunities for misunderstanding owing to the relative
immediacy of both the communication and feedback opportunities with no time for
reference.
8. Adequacy - It allows adequate illustration of messages as it is capable of accommodating
illustrative mediums like charts, graphs, maps e.t.c.This helps to improve the clarity of
meaning in communication.

II. Written Communication.

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 This is communication through written words for example where the primary medium is the
written word. There are times when writing is the best method of communication i.e. letters
memos telegrams, minutes, and questioners‟ e.t.c.

Advantages of written communication

1. Accurate and precise - meaning it‟s formulated with great care.

2. Used for future reference- unlike oral, it acts as a record for the future.
3. Durability- written communication always conveys the message for a long time, thus
provides a permanent record.
4. Provides evidence – proves that a communication was made at a certain time.
5. Cheap- sometimes cheaper compared to oral communications, circulars can be sent
to a large number of people saving may be times for meetings.

Disadvantages of written communication

1. Time consuming- in prove reading, mailing and typing.

2. Non-confidential- mostly passed through third party hand.
3. Slow and lacks speed
4. Costly
5. May be personalized

III. Visual Communication

Visual communication includes gestures and facial expressions, tables and charts, diagrams,
posters, slides, films strips e.t.c.
We are all familiar with two pieces of bone put in a cross, fashioned with a skull placed in
between, and we all know that they signify danger. In public places and vehicles we often see a
notice showing a lighted cigarette with cross mark on it; again the meaning is clear to everybody:
no smoking.
Communication through such visuals is very effective because it‟s sure and instantaneous.

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Advantages of visual communication

1. It‟s very precise, concise and instantaneous information can be summarized by use of
sound messages with an impact.
2. It‟s relatively cheap.
3. Can be used to change attitudes and behavior.
4. Can be used to send elementary ideas, orders, warnings and instructions.
5. It can be used in combination with other media.
6. Visual aids command attention.

Disadvantages of visual communication

1. It does not give comprehensive details about the subject matter.

2. It requires time and special skills or knowledge to prepare and present.
3. It can be costly, mostly when it involves the use of new technology

IV. Audio-visual communication

Audio-visual communication is a type of communication that makes use of telecast films,

cinemas, video tapes, digital videos, and the like. It is the latest medium of communication.
It‟s the combination of sight and sound. It may make use of written word also.
Visual communication is not found to be adequate itself. People will usually casually glance at it
and let it go just like that. It is likely that they will miss the message, but if the slides are
accompanied with explanation and narration, it will facilitate interpretation and ensure that the
message is fully understood.

Advantages of audio visual communication

1. Information is retained much longer than through any other means.

2. It can be used for mass publicity such as advertising, mass propaganda and mass
education.
3. Audio visual appears much to our senses ensuring comprehension of the subject matter.

Disadvantages of audio visual communication

1. It‟s quite expensive

2. It always consumes a lot of time e.g. In preparation
3. Requires a lot of skills, knowhow and expertise.

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CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

An organization‟s structure influences the communication patterns within the organization. The
structure of an organization should provide for communication in three distinct directions:
vertical, horizontal and diagonal. These three directions establish the framework within which
communication in an organization takes place.
Directions of communication

1. Vertical Communication

In organization, vertical communication is between those who are on different levels of authority
within the company. Examples are manager to employee, general manager to managers etc. This
communication channel occurs in two ways: Upward and Downward.

(i) Upward Communication

Upward communication is the process of information flowing from lower levels of hierarchy to
the upper levels. Five types of information communicated upward in an organization are as
follows (Canary, 2011)

 Problems and exceptions. These messages describe serious problems and exceptions to
routine performance in order to make the leader aware of difficulties.
 Suggestions for improvement. These messages are ideas for improving task- related
procedures to increase the quality or efficiency of organization members.
 Performance reports. These messages include periodic reports that inform the leader
how individual organization members and departments are performing.
 Grievances and disputes. These messages are employee complaints and conflicts that
travel up the school organization hierarchy for a hearing and possible resolution. If the
grievance procedure is backed up by the presence of a collective bargaining agreement,
organization members are even more encouraged
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  Financial and accounting information. These messages pertain to costs, accounts
receivable, interest on investment, tax levies and other interest to the
board/administration.

Importance of upward communication

 Gives an employee an opportunity to express problems and grievances

 It provides feedback to management e.g. on what employees likes or dislikes about
the organization
 It provides the employee an opportunity to offer constructive suggestions.
 Makes the working environment friendly hence creating harmony and
cohesion between subordinate and superiors.

Limitations

 Information may be deliberately distorted before it is passed to the superior to avoid

irritating them.
 Superior or bosses may not take information from subordinate seriously [this may be
due to superiority complex]
 Most employees/subordinates are usually reluctant to communicate to their bosses.
This may be due to fear of victimization or being seen as incompetent.
 Problem of bypassing - This problem arises where some workers ignore their
immediate superiors and up to the top most authority.

(ii) Downward communication

It is the flow of information from higher to lower levels of an organization. Canary (2011) has
identified five general purposes of downward communication:

 Implementation of goals, strategies and objectives. Communicating new strategies and

goals provides information about specific targets and expected behaviours.
 Job instructions and rationale. These are directives on how to do a specific task and
how the job relates to other activities of the organization.
 Procedures and practices. These are messages defining the institution‟s policies, rules,
regulations, benefits and structural arrangements in order to get some degree of
uniformity in organization practices.
 Performance feedback. Departmental progress reports, individual performance
appraisals, and other means are used to tell departments or individuals how well they are
doing with respect to performance standards and goals.
 Socialization. Every institution/organization tries to motivate staff members to adopt the
institution‟s mission and cultural values and to participate in special ceremonies. It is an
attempt to get a commitment, a sense of belonging, and a unity of direction among staff
member (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008).

The downward flow of communication provides a channel for directives, instructions, and
information to organizational members. However, much information gets lost as it is passed from
one person to another. Moreover, the message can be distorted if it travels a great distance from
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its sender to the ultimate receiver down through the formal organization hierarchy (Tourish,
2010).

Importance of downward communication

 Providing feedback to the subordinate

 Give specific directives about the job
 May be used to appraise subordinate for their performance
 Explain policies and organization procedure.

Limitations
 Delay may occur if the communication lines are long
 Information may also be lost along the line
 Information may be distorted and hence it looses its originality
 Subordinates may tend to resist information if they feel that they are not
involved in decision making.

2. Horizontal communication

Is the communication between people of the same level of authority. Like an organizational
chart one communicates horizontally with people of same
„authority‟ with similar „power‟ or grade or pay band. It is usually less structured and
informal compared to vertical communication. This communication may take place as
telephone call, e-mails, memos, letters, informal discussions, gossip, teleconferencing,
videoconferencing etc.

Importance
 It promotes understanding and co-ordination among various departments

Diagonal communication

Diagonal communication occurs between officers who are at different levels of authority and
who serve under different commands. It could take place between a sergeant in a department unit
and the internal affairs division or legal advisor at headquarters. This type of communication is
common in tactical situation which require the quick transfer of information or advice; in hostage
situation or cases of civil unrest. Diagonal communication is usually verbal and thus is
conducted by telephony or radio.

Advantages of diagonal communication

1. It is a most direct method of communication as employees gets quick answers to

questions asked that would have taken long.
2. It is a most selective method of communication
3. It is one of the fastest methods of communication by disseminating information.
4. In critical situations, it would seem to be the most essential and logical type of
communication.
5. It allows cross communication between departments
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Disadvantages of diagonal communication

1. It can destroy lines of authority and formal chains of command

2. It can leave immediate superiors uninformed of what their subordinates are doing.
3. It can lead to conflicting orders and hence to further confusion.
4. It is usually verbal, and thus is untraceable if things go wrong.

OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

Etiquette is guidelines and rules on the proper way to behave at work, how to practice good
business etiquette, and how to make a good impression on your boss and co- workers. 'Etiquette'
in the dictionary, it will be defined as an aspect of decorum which is a code that governs the
various expectations of social behavior as per the conventional norm, within a society, a social
class or a group. Etiquette is usually unwritten and generally tend to reflect the formulae of
conduct in the society.

Proper etiquette generally, among others dictates that:-

a) When walking on the path or driving on Kenyan roads, always keep left.
b) When sneezing or coughing cover your mouth
c) When receiving handshake, do not allow your hand to linger for long.
d) When you need something that is not within your reach, kindly ask the person seated next
to you to pass it on.
e) When you step on someone‟s toe, say sorry.
f) When lining up for service, do not jump the queue.
g) When you come across a lost and found item, hand it back to the owner.
Official etiquette encompasses circles of rules governing social or diplomatic intercourse.
These circles vary from the more or less of social usage to the rigid conventions of e.g Court,
Police, Military circles e.t.c and they extend to the legal, medical and other professions. It is
important to note that every profession or occasion has got its own unique conventional
requirements or norms.

Police etiquette is within the confines of disciplines.

Disciplines being defined as obedience to orders and considerate to surbodinates. Being a

disciplined service all aspects of etiquette must be interpreted along the lines of discipline.

In the Police Service, etiquette dictates that:-

a) A Police officer should not smoke when actively engaged and in uniform.
b) An officer should appear tidy in arms, clothing and equipments.
c) Should always respect their seniors.
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d) Should not drink intoxicating liquor while on duty.

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 e) Should not use any obscene abusive or insulting language to a fellow officer.
f) Should not engage in a fight with a collegeue.
g) Police officer should maintain confidentiality of information.
h) Observe official working hours.

PROTOCOL

Means the formal etiquette and code of behavior, precedence, and procedure for state and
diplomatic ceremonies. Protocol has always been associated with acknowledgment of
hierarchical standing of all present.

In the Police service, protocol follows the ranking structure from the Constable to the Inspector
General.
DIPLOMACY

Refers to the skill in managing negotiations, handling people so that there is little or no ill will.

Language of communication

Language development is the development of the basic form of communication between human
beings. Just as it is the basic form, it is also the most developed. We cannot communicate in any
real sense without language since communication involves a mutual exchange of information
and understanding by effective means. This implies that for communication to be effective, it
must have an exchange of ideas with understanding. Unless the flow goes both ways, no real
communication takes place.
Skill in communicating does not come without planning and effort. Like any other skill, it
develops through practice.

Categories of language of communication

a) Verbal communication (verbal language)
b) Non verbal communication (body language)
Verbal language (verbal communication)

Speaking is the primary means of communicating. Verbal as a means of communication has the
following advantages:
 It can personalize the message.

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  It can tailor the message to the person present
 It‟s a fairly faster means of communicating that gets feedback immediately.
 It allows for a quick reaction to analyze whether the message is sent
Writing on the other hand establishes a permanent record of the message for referral at a later
date.

Body Language (Non Verbal Communication-NVC)

We communicate with much more than words. Research shows that much of our communication
is non verbal. NVC or body language includes facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, postures
and even tone of voice. The ability to understand and use non verbal communication is a
powerful tool that will help one connect with others, express what he/she really means, navigate
challenging situations and build better relationships, for example at home, in work place, etc.

Types of Non Verbal Communication (Body Language)

i. Facial Expression: -i.e. happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear , disgust etc
ii. Body Movement and postures:- sit, walk, stand up etc
iii. Gestures
iv. Eye contact :- the way you look at someone can communicate affection,
hostility, attraction etc
v. Touch :- i.e. a firm handshake, a tap on the shoulder etc
Non verbal communication plays five roles:

 Repetition: - used to repeat the message someone is making verbally

 Contradiction
 Substitution
 Complementing:- e.g. a senior person who pats on his her juniors back in addition
to giving praise
 Accenting: - pounding a table can underline a message.
NB; It is not what you say that matters but how you say it.
Both verbal and non verbal communication can be used simultaneously in communication.

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COMMUNICATION WITHIN THE RANK

As a police officer the ability to communicate effectively enables you to influence the attitudes
and actions of your colleagues, subordinates and seniors. You sell your ideas or seek redress
better through effective communication. The ability to express yourself clearly and effectively
can be your most valuable skill and therefore it is important to use the most desirable language
depending on whom you are communicating with.
In the police service, just like in any other organization where hierarchical relationship exist,
communication requires even greater effort to yield the degree of understanding necessary for
effective operations .
Formal communication flows in any of the three (3) directions:-
 Downward
 Upward
 Horizontal/lateral
Downward communication

This communication flow from the higher level to the lower level has become the most used
channel for transmitting orders, instructions and directives.
For example, the commissioner of police recalling all officers on leave or terminating all
pending leaves would communicate this through a circular to the provinces (ppos) who in turn
communicate it down to the Districts (ocpds ) down to the stations (ocss) and eventually to the
intended personnel

Upward communication

This happens when subordinates communicate with their seniors. Here the subordinates have
opportunity to make known their ideas and opinions.
For example, a police officer with grievance should present the same to his immediate
supervisor. If she/he feels that his/her grievance is not adequately addressed, he/she should
request to be paraded before or may address his grievance to the next available senior officer and
this may go on eventually to the commissioner of police i.e. from ocs to ocpd to ppo and
eventually to the compol .

Horizontal / Lateral communication

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This refers to transmitting and receiving of information between people of the same level of
responsibility or rank. It‟s the strongest of all communication flows in terms of information.
For example, a constable may notice a deficiency in their mess and communicate the same to
others who in turn request for the correction of the deficiency from their welfare. Decisions of
helping one another, advising or sharing sorrows/happiness together are entail much horizontal
communication

SUITABLE LANGUAGE AT THE WORKPLACE

1. Always use the respectful word „Sir‟ or „Madam‟, whenever talking to those senior to
you.
2. Always call your juniors by name or rank or rank and name rather than the rank only.
3. When answering the phone at your desk say… “Hello”, this is Mr. X” Do not say phrases
such as “ Mr. X here!” or simply “Hello”. Also remember to state the organizations name
to outside callers.
4. Show appreciation for the slightest courtesy extended to you.
5. Always apologize if your intrusion is an interruption of a discussion, someone‟s
concentration or other activity.
6. Never use sexist or any discriminatory language.

ACCEPTED PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

 Provide your senior with information as required.

 Keep your senior well informed in a timely fashion.
 Respect all other employees.
 Cooperate with your seniors
 Cooperate with all employees both uniformed and civilian.
 Do not be arrogant.

IMPORTANCE OF OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE

 Fosters harmony within and across the ranks.

 Boosts the confidence of junior officers when in the company of their seniors.
 Observance of etiquette makes people around feel important, respected and
appreciated.
 It helps to create a positive first impression about the individual and the
organization they represent.

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  Knowledge in etiquette builds confidence in social and business environments.
 Makes one comfortable in different environments and cultures.

WRITING SKILLS

Punctuation

The chief purpose of punctuation is to make the meaning of a written passage clear. Punctuate
carelessly and you will communicate inefficiently and probably misleading. Observe how the
apostrophe or its absence, changes the meaning of these three sentences:
These are my brothers – these people are my brothers These are
my brother‟s – these things belong to my brother These are my
brothers‟ – these things belong to my brothers My aunt, who lives
in Scotland, is 93 today.
This implies that I have one aunt. Take away the commas and the meaning changes: My aunt who
lives in Scotland is 93 today.
This implies that I have more than one aunt, and I am referring to the one who lives in Wales.
There are two broad tendencies in punctuation nowadays. You could call them
 Heavy punctuation
 Light punctuation
In simple terms heavy punctuation is the tendency to use as many different marks as possible and
as often as possible. Its aim is to make sure that the reader interprets the text exactly as the author
intended.
Light punctuation gives more scope for the reader to sort out things for himself for the sake of a
text that flows more quickly. One characteristic of light punctuation is its use of commas, instead
of brackets, dashes and semi colons and to use the comma itself as little as possible.
Heavy punctuation is appropriate for serious discussions.

FULL STOP

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  The chief use of the full stop (or point or period) is to end an assertion – typically a
declarative sentence (one that is not a question or an exclamation) such as
I want to know whether swallows really do fly south for the winter.
 Full stops are also widely used after abbreviations – e.g. M. A., a.m., etc and after
numbers and letters listing points.
 Addresses sometimes end with a full stop and have a comma at the end of each line.

THE COMMA

 Its main typical use is to separate main clause linked by conjunctions such as and, but or
for and nor.

 The comma is most likely to be used between clauses, when the clauses are long
contrasted and complete.
e.g. The cottage was old, but the garden was new.

 Commas are used to separate large whole numbers into units of three as for thousands
and millions e.g. 153,601.

THE HYPHEN (-)

 The hyphen looks like a short dash, but hyphen and dash are used very
differently. The dash separates whereas the hyphen unites.
 Mostly used after a prefix or other word element e.g Un-American, non-
European.
 The hyphen is used to unite separate words into compound forms that function as a single
unit. E.g. head-waiter, tax-payer, up-to-date.

BRACKETS ( )

The basic function of brackets is to separate the bracketed material clearly from what surrounds
it. The material set off by the brackets is less closely integrated with its surroundings than
material set off by commas.

SEMI COLON (:-)

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The most characteristic use of semicolon is to separate clauses that might have been two
different sentences but are closely connected in thought or meaning.

For example, the house was dark; the woman was extremely frightened.

COLON (:)

 Its correct use is to introduce materials that explain or interprets what precedes it. e.g.
They didn‟t sleep last night: they must be tired.
 Colon and list - It introduces a number of items listed separately
e.g we offer the following services:
 Typing
 Internet services
 Printing
 photocopying
 May be used after formal salutation preceding a message e.g
Ladies and gentlemen: it gives me great pleasure to introduce John the new sales
manager.
 It is used after various headings in correspondences. E.g. To: Subject:

APOSTROPHE (’)

 Apostrophes have two chief purposes to indicate possession and other kinds of
relationships e.g Robert‟s pen
 Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is singular e.g. one judge‟s opinion
 Apostrophe comes after the s if that s serves to make the noun plural e.g The judges‟
opinions.
 Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is already plural without the s e.g. The
people‟s palace.

QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”)

The main purpose of quotation marks also called quote marks, quotes or inverted commas is to
enclose material that is brought into a text outside it such as quotation from books or words used
by other person‟s e.g. She asked, did he say “hearing” or “earring”?.

QUESTION MARK (?)

It comes at the end of a direct question. E.g. would you like a drink?

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EXCLAMATION MARK (!)

It is often used after imperatives or commands. E.g. shut up!

THE DASH (-)

Is used to interrupt a sentence e.g she was extraordinarily tall – the tallest woman I had ever
seen. A dash can be used to indicate and finish dialogue e.g help help! I cant seem to – “she fell
to the ground, gasping for breath”.

THE SLASH (/)

 Used to indicate a choice between the words it separates.

 The slash can be translated as or and should be used where the words or could not be
used in its place.
 To avoid gender problems with pronouns, some writers use he/she, his/her, and him and
her.


THE ELLIPSIS (…)

 An ellipsis used when you‟re quoting material and you want to omit some words.
 The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence and is
especially useful in quoted speech.

COURTESY IN WRITING

Courtesy in writing refers to the respectful, polite and considerate way of communicating
through written form. Writing is a skill; like other skills, it can be learned and in like most skills
it is not inborn. It is best learned by doing.
By observing courtesy while writing, we help reduce the burden on our reader of striving to
understand and thereby making the
communication of information more effective.

There are three key elements in communicating on a paper

 Structure and layout
 Content
 Style and tone

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Structure and layout

 Correct layout should be used. Layout greatly affects the ease with which information is
assimilated. Letters are geometrical shapes with conventionalized meanings. Equally
indention, spacing, underlining and layout of blocks of types communicate much.
Appropriate layout should thus be adopted
 Correct sequence of events should be adopted. Many instructions fail because they are
out of sequence or contain gaps. E.g. An essay should have an introduction then body and
finally conclusion
 Numbering- Use appropriate numbering system. Do not use decimal numbers for
subsidiary points. They are best reserved for headings and subheadings where the
hierarchy and interrelationships or sections is being shown.

Style and tone

The style and tone of written communication is important to ensure the message is put over and
received clearly. For this one should:-
Keep it simple
 Prefer familiar words to the far- fetched
 Prefer concrete word to the abstract
 Prefer short word to the long
 Strive for clarity above all things (even above brevity)
 Be natural
 Be Concise
 Let the tone reflect your true feelings but beware of being angry, suspicious,
insulting, patronizing or presumptuous.
 Be courteous (cordial and tactful) for example while ending a letter use a phrase yours
faithfully/sincerely/affectionately accordingly.

Content

 The content should contain all the information required to be communicated. it should be
compact.

 It should be devoid of ambiguity (open to having several possible meanings or

interpretations, difficult to comprehend or lacking clearness)

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  Words with double meaning should also be avoided e.g replace, refit, reconnect.
Example: - check undercarriage locking pin if bent replace.

The pilot took out the pin and examined it. It was indeed bent, so he carefully put it back
into the mechanism. The aircraft subsequently crashed. One should take precautions to
understand these words.

 Ellipsis (omission of some part of a sentence) can lead to misunderstanding. It should

thus be avoided. E.g. put in 3 pints of water – drop in spaghetti – stir.

Examples

 In writing a business letter you should always test the draft to ensure that:
 The message is clear
 Points are made in the best order
 It has the right style and tone.
 The most appropriate word and phrases are being used.
 The grammar/spelling is correct
 The layout is attractive.
 The closing formulae/ending is appropriate.

CLASS ACTIVITY

Punctuate the following paragraphs

Nearly two thirds of deaths in the world are cause by non communicable diseases such as cancer
diabetes heart and lung disease which are rapidly increasing at a cost to the global economy of
trillions of dollars according to UN estimates and preliminary results of a new study.
Secretary general ban ki moon said in a report circulated Monday that while the international
community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV AIDS malaria and tuberculosis
the four main non communicable diseases has been side lined he added we need to put more
emphasis in combating these diseases in the developing world

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Punctuated paragraphs
Nearly two-thirds of deaths in the world are caused by non-communicable diseases such as
cancer, diabetes, heart and lung diseases which are rapidly increasing at a cost to the global
economy of trillions of dollars, according to U.N. estimates and preliminary results of a new
study.
Secretary-General Ban ki-Moon said in a report circulated on Monday that while the
international community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and
tuberculosis, the four main non-communicable diseases has been sidelined. He added, “We need
to put more emphasis in combating these diseases in the developing world.”

Courtesy in writing

Its critical that the content of your correspondence reflects the same level of politeness and
thoughtful attention to detail that would be shown if your exchange were taking place in person.
Courtesy writing should contain the following points;

1. Professionalism
When someone has the advantage of interacting with you in person, he/she can tell by your eye
contact, listening skills, body language and even the way you present yourself just how seriously
you take your position and your company‟s reputation. Always consider how someone
unfamiliar with the issue that prompted the correspondence will perceive you and your business.

2. Respect
A courteous business letter conveys to your recipient that you are not only sensitive to his/her
concerns but believe in the value of taking the time to acknowledge those concerns in writing.

3. Clarity
Frustrations in correspondence occur when you either misinterpret what the correspondent really
wants from you or assume a level of knowledge that the correspondent doesn‟t actually have.
Courtesy in business letters is a combination of paraphrasing your understanding of the problem
prior to addressing its solution as well as explaining policies, procedures and practices in a clear,
concise way.

4. Empathy

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Expressing your understanding, apologizing for any confusion or inconvenience, and offering
remedies are considerate ways to let customers know that trying to accommodate their best
interest is a company/institution priority.

5. Appreciation
People like to know they‟re appreciated. It validates their existence and affirms their contributions
towards society.
6. Use of correct language
7. Choice of words
8. Confidentiality

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one main idea or topic.

The topic sentence

The sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph is called the topic sentence.

Example: The commercials for televised football games are truly “big business” for regular
Season games, commercials can cost an advertiser thousands of dollars for 30 seconds of airtime.
For the super bonus, they can cost millions of dollars for a couple of minutes of airtime. All
together,
Football commercials earn hundreds of millions of dollars a year for advertising agencies and
television networks.
The first sentence states the topic of the paragraph that commercials during football games are
timely “big business”. The first sentence is therefore the topic sentence. The other three
sentences support this topic sentence. In this paragraph, the supporting sentences give specific
facts to explain why commercials during football games are big business.
In most paragraphs, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph, it may even come in
the middle of a paragraph or at the end.
The supporting sentences are those sentences that give examples or develop the idea stated in the
topic sentence.

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Four of the most common ways that supporting sentences develop a topic are through; examples,
analysis, analogy or narration.

EXAMPLES

One way in which a topic is developed is with examples

Example; besides the new, specialized computer stores, many retail stores have taken advantage
of growing demand for computer software. Most departments‟ store chains, for example, now
have computer departments. In addition, discount stores throughout the country are selling
growing numbers of low cost home computers. Appliances store also have added computers to
their lines of sound and audio equipments. Even book stores stock a range of software disks and
cassettes on their ever expanding shelves of computer, books and magazines.
The first sentence states the topic that many retail stores now carry computer products. The
remaining four sentences develop this topic sentence by giving four specific examples of
retailers who have done so, including department stores, discount stores, appliance stores and
bookstores.

ANALYSIS

The second way to develop a sentence is through analysis. Analysis paragraph development
means breaking down the topic sentence into its main parts or categories. Here is an example of a
paragraph developed in this way.
Example
An overhead projector has three main systems of parts. The optical system uses mirrors and
lenses to focus the image of a transparency on to a screen. The electrical system consisting of a
cord, switches, a fuse, a bulb, a fan, provides light and cooling. The housing system which
includes the main cabinet a focusing posts and the lens holder, protects the other components and
keeps them properly aligned with each other,
The topic –the three main systems of parts of an overhead projector is stated in the first sentence.
The remaining sentences analyze the topic dividing it into subtopics that presents specific
details.

ANALOGY

A third way to develop a topic is analogy. An analogy is a comparison of one topic to another
topic that is more familiar to an audience. An analogy helps develop a paragraph by relating an
unfamiliar topic to more familiar ideas.
Example

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Some financial analysts compare investing in the stock market to riding on a roller coaster. Like
a roller coaster, the stock market goes up and down. Some of these ups and downs are steeper
than others and often they occur suddenly. However, the more times a person rides a roller
coaster the more that person knows what to expect. In the same way through experience
investors can learn to predict the ups and downs of a stock market. The topic sentence is again at
the beginning of a paragraph. The four sentences that follow the topic sentence develop the
analog by showing specific comparisons between investing in the stock market and riding a
roller coaster.

NARRATION

A fourth way to develop a topic is by narration. Narration presents a series of events in the order
that they happened. In narration the audience is given an accurate description of what happened.
Examples;
The agreement between mc Gregor Technologies and foster communications took several
months to produce. The first discussions ended when major errors were discovered in mc gregor
offered to open its financial records to an independent audit. In exchange fosters management
agreed a lowered percentage of returns during the first three years of the contract. After several
weeks of negotiation on details, the agreement was signed on August 4.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

Effective paragraphs have four main characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence and
adequate development. Each of these characteristics is discussed below.

i. Unity
Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph hang
together in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer changes to a new idea
– one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the paragraph – the writer should begin a
new paragraph. Unity is important because it aids the reader in following along with the writer‟s
ideas.

ii. Coherence
Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily understood by
the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity. When a writer changes main
ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To achieve coherence, then, a writer
should show how all of the ideas contained in a paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

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iii. Adequate development

A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the topic sentence.
A good rule to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least four sentences which
explain and elaborate on the topic sentence.

iv. Topic sentences

Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity and unity
in one‟s writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the paragraph will be about,
such that the reader has clear expectations about what will follow. An effective topic sentence
typically contains only one main idea. The remainder of the paragraph then develops that idea
more fully, offering supporting points and examples.

ESSAY WRITING

An essay is a brief piece of writing which is often written from an author‟s point of view. It
contains three main sections i.e. introduction, body, and conclusion.
NB: The concept of an essay has been extended to other medium beyond writing e.g. film essay,
photographic essay etc

Importance of essay writing

 It improves writing skills
 Used as a way of assessing the performance of a student
 It improves thought system in sorting out ideas, organizing them and putting them
down for others to read.

Common types of essays

 Narrative
 Expository /explanatory

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  Descriptive
 Argumentative

1. NARRATIVE

Narration is the basic way of presenting a story. The writer tells the story as it happened, the
order of events is given in the sequence it happened (chronological order). A narrative usually
have a plot (main event) e.g. when narrating about your first day in high school.

2. EXPOSITORY/EXPLANATORY

These attempts to explain so that the reader may understand what the writer needs to be
understood. When writing make it simple and easy to understand. Do not put in your own
opinions or views . it also attempts to explain so that the reader may understand what the writer
needs to be understood. These may be any of the following:
 What the subject or topic is about
 How the thing being explained works
 Showing the relationship between one thing and another one
 Explain how various parts of one thing or objects functions.
 Why something happened the way it happened.

Expository essay may be written using the following approaches:

 Analysis
 Subject and predicate
 Compare and contrast
 Illustrations

3. DESCRIPTIVE

The purpose of descriptive writing is to make our reader see,feel and hear what we have seen felt
and heard. We may describe a place, an object, a topic, a building etc. when writing this essay
the best way to create a vivid experience is to focus on the five senses i.e sight, smell, taste,
sound, and touch. These shows your reader rather than tell them what happened

Planning your descriptive essay

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  What do you want to describe?
 What is your reason for writing your description?
 What are the particular qualities you want to focus on?

4. ARGUMENTATIVE
It is a writing that requires the learner to investigate a topic, collect, generate and evaluate
evidence and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner. It calls for extensive research.
In this kind of essay we not only give information but also present an argument with the
pros(supporting ideas) and cons (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We could clearly
take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt the new
belief or behavior.
The structure of argumentative essay is held together by the following:
 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the
essay
 Clear and logical transition between the introduction, body and conclusion.
 Body paragraphs that include evidential support
 Evidential support
 The conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis but address a light of evidence
generated.

Examples
 Stress is good for human body
Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING PROCESS

1. Decide on your topic.

2. Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
3. Write your thesis statement.
4. Write the body.
a. Write main points.
b. Write the sub-topics
c. Elaborate on the sub-topics
5. Write introduction
6. Write conclusion
7. Add finishing touches

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