GENERAL COMPUTING/INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user, processes it, produces results,
displays them to the users, and stores the results for future usage.
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further information
regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and figures".
Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To process the
data and convert into information, a computer is used.

Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions –
Receiving Input
Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital pens, etc.
Input can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
Processing the information
Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the programs.
Storing the information
After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.
Producing output
The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside world through
output devices like monitor, printer, etc.

Characteristics of a computer System

i. Input-It can accept data as input
ii. Process-It can transform the data to generate information
iii. Storage-It can store data/information for immediate use or future reference
iv. Output-it can display data/information in the desired format
v. Control-The activities of the computer are been controlled by a program, without a
program a computer cannot function

Computer Literacy Defined

Below is a three- word definition of computer literacy
Awareness-As you study computers you will become aware of their importance, their versatility,
their perverseness and their potentiality for good and ill in the society
Knowledge-You will learn what computers are and how they function. This requires learning
some technological jargons like-GIGO, FIFO, LIFO,etc

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Interaction-Computer literacy means learning to use the computer to do or perform some simple
task

Salient Features of Computer System or Reasons for using

Computers
Following are the salient features of a Computer System −
 Automation − The operating system of a computer system is automatic, as no human
intervention is required; simply you need to give the command and then it will do the
work automatically.
 Speed − Depending upon the power of the computer, it can perform, it can take Millions
of instructions per second. Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per
second.
 Storage − A computer system can store enormous quantity of data in different format. The
storage capacity of a computer system is normally expressed in terms of Kilobytes (KB),
Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB), or Terabytes (TB). Also, data is safe from normal wear
and tear associated with paper.
 Diligence − A computer neither get tired nor lose concentration.
 Reliability − As a computer system always gives accurate result; therefore, its reliability is
very high. Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without throwing up
errors due to tiredness or boredom, which are very common among humans
 Vast memory − A computer system can have a wide range of memory which can recall
the desired data at any point of time.
 Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur are
usually due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human errors.
 Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and ticket
booking to complex mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical observations.
If you can input the necessary data with correct instructions, computer will do the
processing.

Advantages of Using Computer

Now that we know the characteristics of computers, we can see the advantages that computers
offer−
 Computers can do the same task repetitively with same accuracy.
 Computers do not get tired or bored.
 Computers can take up routine tasks while releasing human resource for more intelligent functions.

Disadvantages of Using Computer

Despite so many advantages, computers have some disadvantages of their own −
 Computers have no intelligence; they follow the instructions blindly without considering the
outcome.

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  Regular electric supply is necessary to make computers work, which could prove difficult
everywhere especially in developing nations.

Booting
Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is called booting. Booting takes place in two
steps −

 Switching on power supply

 Loading operating system into computer’s main memory
 Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the user
The first program or set of instructions that run when the computer is switched on is
called BIOS or Basic Input Output System.BIOS is a firmware, i.e. a piece of software
permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting. Rebooting may be
required if a software or hardware has been installed or system is unusually slow.
There are two types of booting −
 Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on the power supply it is called cold booting.
The next step in cold booting is loading of BIOS.
 Warm Booting − When the system is already running and needs to be restarted or rebooted, it is called
warm booting. Warm booting is faster than cold booting because BIOS is not reloaded.

Major Functions of Computer System

Following are the core functions of a computer system −
 A computer accepts the command and/or data as input given by the user.
 A computer follows the instructions and stores the data given by the user.
 A computer processes the data as per the instructions given by the user.
 A computer gives the desirable results in the form of output.

Evolution of Computer System

The present Computer System has evolved after centuries of efforts from different intellectuals
who contributed their works during different periods of time.
Abacus is (most likely) considered as the earlier counting device. The Abacus was invented by
the Chinese around 500BC,and was the first computational aid.It consist of wooden frames and
beads, and it is still in use in some parts of the world today.
Blaise Pascal
Pascal was a French mathematician who invented a machine based on gear wheels, which helped
greatly in calculation. Pascal invented and developed the first mechanical aid computations called
the Adding machine around 1644AD.This calculating machine was more advanced than the
Abacus, but could only perform addition and subtraction
Charles Babbage

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Babbage was an English Polymath, Mathematician, Mechanical Engineer, Philosopher, and
Inventor, made what can be described as one of the most important contributions to the
development of computers. He built the machine called different Engine in about 1830 AD that
could be used to sole polynomial equations.
About 1833,Babbage conceived another machine, called Analytical Engine, but never built it due
to finance and technology. But the design embodied five key characteristic s of modern computer.
These are:
i. An input device
Ii. A storage facility to hold members waiting to be processed
iii. A processor or number calculator
iv. A control unit to direct the task to be performed and the sequence of calculation
v. An output device.
Babbage was the father of computer, Lady August Ada of Lovelace was the first computer
programmer. Lovelace was an English mathematician, who researched on Babbage’s work. She
has given the concept that ‘computers can be programmed’. Her work helped a great deal in the
advancement of computer system.

Role of Computer in Today’s World

In today’s world, for almost every activity whether personal (for example, operating personal
savings bank account) or business-related (for example, selling any product or services); in some
or the other way, we rely on the computer system.
Due to the growing dependency on computers, every small and big organizations and other
business companies have started offering computer-based service. Furthermore, the advancement
of communications, electronic service networks, and multimedia has opened a new door for
corporate organizations by providing an effective way of business processing, payment transfer,
and service delivery.

Advantages of Computers in Business

Following are the major advantages of introducing computer system in business
Independency
As computers help in making the business automated, the businesses are becoming more and
more independent. No more, there is the need to put man-power for every work, as with the help
of computer most of the works can be automated. Starting from ticket booking to a luxury car
manufacturing, everything is automated
Cost Cutting
A number of businesses are based online in recent times; therefore, there is no need to open
business branch in every city, rather having one centralized inventory can make the business
easier. There is no need to employ many man-power.

Marketing

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With the use of computer system with Internet facility, it is very simple to make a business global
in a given period of time. Website, email, social media websites, online advertisements, etc. are
the important tools of online marketing.
Huge Transaction Capacity
A number of tasks are being done by computer including ticket booking to money transactions;
this increases the transaction capacity.
Huge Storage Capacity
Normally, most of the businesses need to store and maintain huge data and other records;
manually, it is very difficult to maintain, but the use of computer not only increases the storage
capacity, but also facilitates the processing and retrieval of data anytime.
Improvement of Productivity & Efficiency
As most of the tasks in almost every industry has become automated, it has now become much
easier to manufacture a huge bulk of products in very less time. Through computer technology,
services also became faster and easier.
High Accuracy
There is hardly any scope of errors in an automated system; however, if any error occurs, it is
largely a human error.
Ease of Data Sharing
Data sharing has now become very simple just the way it is simple to link one computer system to
another.
Competition
The applicability of computer technology has increased competition; now, the customers can avail
support 24x7.
Enhanced the Security System
Computer also helps keep the data of businesses secure. However, this security can face threats
too. For instance, if someone hacks the system or there is a virus attack, it can have the potential
to damage all the data that is secured.

Side Effects of Computers

(i)Unemployment (ii) Loss of Privacy (ii) Computer Mistakes (iv) Computer Crimes

Classification of Computers
Historically computers were classified according to processor types because development in
processor and processing speeds were the developmental benchmarks. Earliest computers used
vacuum tubes for processing, were huge and broke down frequently. However, as vacuum tubes
were replaced by transistors and then chips, their size decreased and processing speeds increased
manifold.

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All modern computers and computing devices use microprocessors whose speeds and storage
capacities are skyrocketing day by day. The developmental benchmark for computers is now their
size. Computers are now classified on the basis of their use or size
Let us look at all these types of computers in detail.

Desktop
Desktop computers are personal computers (PCs) designed for use by an individual at a fixed
location. IBM was the first computer to introduce and popularize use of desktops. A desktop unit
typically has a CPU (Central Processing Unit), monitor, keyboard and mouse. Introduction of
desktops popularized use of computers among common people as it was compact and affordable.
Riding on the wave of desktop’s popularity many software and hardware devices were developed
specially for the home or office user. The foremost design consideration here was user
friendliness.

Laptop
Despite its huge popularity, desktops gave way to a more compact and portable personal
computer called laptop in 2000s. Laptops are also called notebook computers or
simply notebooks. Laptops run using batteries and connect to networks using Wi-Fi (Wireless
Fidelity) chips. They also have chips for energy efficiency so that they can conserve power
whenever possible and have a longer life.
Modern laptops have enough processing power and storage capacity to be used for all office work,
website designing, software development and even audio/video editing.

Tablet
After laptops computers were further miniaturized to develop machines that have processing
power of a desktop but are small enough to be held in one’s palm. Tablets have touch sensitive
screen of typically 5 to 10 inches where one finger is used to touch icons and invoke applications.
Keyboard is also displayed virtually whenever required and used with touch strokes. Applications
that run on tablets are called apps. They use operating systems by Microsoft (Windows 8 and
later versions) or Google (Android). Apple computers have developed their own tablet
called iPad which uses a proprietary OS called iOS.

Server
Servers are computers with high processing speeds that provide one or more services to other
systems on the network. They may or may not have screens attached to them. A group of
computers or digital devices connected together to share resources is called a network.
Servers have high processing powers and can handle multiple requests simultaneously. Most
commonly found servers on networks include − File or storage server, Game server, Application server,
Database server, Mail server, Print server

Mainframe
Mainframes are computers used by organizations like banks, airlines and railways to handle
millions and trillions of online transactions per second. Important features of mainframes are −

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  Big in size
 Hundreds times Faster than servers, typically hundred megabytes per second
 Very expensive
 Use proprietary OS provided by the manufacturers
 In-built hardware, software and firmware security features

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the fastest computers on Earth. They are used for carrying out complex, fast
and time intensive calculations for scientific and engineering applications. Supercomputer speed
or performance is measured in teraflops, i.e. 1012 floating point operations per second.
Chinese supercomputer Sunway TaihuLight is the world’s fastest supercomputer with a rating of
93 petaflops per second, i.e. 93 quadrillion floating point operations per second.
Most common uses of supercomputers include −

 Molecular mapping and research

 Weather forecasting
 Environmental research
 Oil and gas exploration

Classification of Computers by Design

(i)Digital Computers: These are computers that work on discrete scale or whole numbers. They
do not work on approximations. Examples are IBM and Apples personal computers (PC), that are
found in Schools and business organizations
(ii)Analogue Computers: These computers work on continuous scale or approximation. They
can be found in hospitals, telecommunication houses and even in some cars in which computers
are used to control their speed.
(iii)Hybrid Computers: These are computers built on the good features of digital computers as
well as that of analogue computers. It is used in special applications such as chemical process
control.

Analog and Digital

The following table highlights the basic differences between analog and digital −

Analog Digital

Its functions on physical analog system. It functions on discrete numbers system.

The calculations in this system are primarily The calculations in this system are converted into
converted to equations and later converted into binary numbers (i.e., 1s and 0s).
electrical signals.

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 To function, it requires physical analog. To function, it requires discrete numbers.

It gives output in the form of ‘graph’. It gives output in the form of discrete values.

Accuracy comparatively is less. Accuracy is very high.

Performs at a low speed. It performs at a very high speed.

Difficult to make changes, as it is less flexible. It is highly flexible.

It has memory of low capacity. It has memory of high capacity.

Its application is limited to certain applications. Its application is applicable to a number of

applications.

It is hardly applicable for the business applications. It is very much suitable for the business
applications.

It cannot process alpha-numeric data. It can process alpha-numeric data.

It requires RF technology. It requires IP networking.

Static channel assignment. Automatic channels exist as required.

Computer Generations
Let us now discuss the development in Computer Technology over the different generations.
First Generation
 The period 1940 to 1956, roughly considered as the First Generation of Computer.
 The first generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or thermionic valve
machine.
 The input of this system was based on punched cards and paper tape; however, the output
was displayed on printouts.
 The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0’s &
1’s). Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.

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Second Generation
 The period 1956 to 1963 is roughly considered as the period of Second Generation of
Computers.
 The second generation computers were developed by using transistor technology.
 In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was smaller; the
computing time taken by the computers of the second generation was lesser.
Third Generation
 The period 1963 to 1971 is roughly considered as the period of Third Generation of
computers.
 The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated Circuit (IC)
technology and was program with high level programming languages
like:BASIC,FORTRAN,COBOL,C,etc
 In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the computers of the
third generation was smaller; the computing time taken by the computers of the third
generation was lesser.
 The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less heat.
 The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low.
 The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for commercial
use.
Fourth Generation
 The period 1972 to 2010 is roughly considered as the fourth generation of computers.
 The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor technology.i.e
very large scale integration (VLSI)
 By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became portable.
 The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
 It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
 The production cost reduced to very low in comparison to the previous generation.
 It became available for the common people as well.
Fifth Generation
 The period 2010 to till date and beyond, roughly considered as the period of fifth
generation of computers.
 By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of hardware only,
but the fifth generation technology also included software.
 The computers of the fifth generation had high capability and large memory capacity.
 Working with computers of this generation was fast and multiple tasks could be performed
simultaneously.

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  Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include Artificial
intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, Expert System,
Robotics, Natural Language, Neural Networks etc.
 They also posses those features like: intelligence and learning, should be able to solve
problems without human written program and be able to learn from their past action
ESSENTIALS OF COMPUTING

Computer: An electronic system that can be instructed to accept data as an input, process it and
gives a result as an output, and in turn stores the data for retrieval in the long run is a computer.

Computer System: The computer system is made up of two components parts (Hardware and
Software). These components integrate and interrelate. They do this independently by interacting
together to perform the basic operations of the computer system. These components are linked
together via cords and interface connectors, except for the user who is the people ware, the
processes (procedures), and information (processed data).
– Hardware,– Software (Programs),– Information,– People (People Ware),and– Procedures
HARDWARE (COMPUTER HARDWARE OR DEVICES)
The hardware component is the physical component of a computer system i.e. those parts of the
computer that can be touched, felt and seen physically. More or less, the hardware component
consists of a combination of different devices which play specific roles in the operation of the
computer system.
These devices that make up the hardware are classified into one of four units depending on the role
they play in the computer system as follows:

Input devices (Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Camera etc)

Output devices (Printers, plotters etc)
Storage (Hard disk, floppy disk, CD, flash drives etc)
System unit (SU).

SOFTWARE
Software is the general term for the set of programs and data, which direct the hardware on
what to do. A program is an independent set of instructions, which work to direct the hardware
to perform specified tasks. In other words, software’s are set of logical instructions that put the
hardware to tasks assigned to it. Software’s are subdivided into Application and System
software.
System software focuses on handling technical details.
Application software focuses on completing specific tasks or application.

a. System Software
These are programs expressly designed to make the computer more efficient and flexible as a
human tool. System software works with end users, application programs, and computer hardware
to handle many details relating to computer operations.

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Not a single program but a collection or system of programs. These programs handle hundreds of
technical details with little or no user intervention. Four kinds of system programs are operating
systems, utilities, device drivers, and language translators.

Operating Systems (OS): coordinates resources, provide an interfaces between users and the
computer, and run programs.

Utility (service programs) performs specific tasks related to managing computer resources.

Device Drivers: This is a program developed by the manufacturer of a device or computer

hardware component to make the devices work on different software platforms. The examples of
such devices are network interface cards (NIC), sound cards, printers, and other computer
peripherals.

Language Translator: converts programming instructions written by programmers into a language

that computers can understand and process.

Operating Systems, also known as software environments or platforms, consist of a collection of

programs to handle technical details.

Functions
Operating systems perform a variety of functions. These functions can be classified into three
groups:

Resources manager – coordinates and monitor all computer resources.

Provides user interface – provides interface between users, application programs, and computer
hardware. Character based interface uses written commands. Graphical user interface (GUI) uses
graphical elements.

Applications control – load and run programs. It has the ability to switch between applications
stored in memory. Current program run in foreground. Others run in background.

Categories
There are hundreds of operating systems but only three basic categories:
Embedded for handheld computers and small devices
Network (NOS) control and coordinate computers on a network. Network server coordinates all
network communication.

Stand-alone (desktop) for desktop and notebook computers; called client operating systems in
networked environment.

Propriety operating systems are owned and licensed by a corporation;

non proprietary are free and called open source programs.

b. Application software: There are two categories:

– Basic applications (general-purpose applications, productivity applications) are widely use.

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 – Specialised applications (special-purpose applications) are more specialised.
Common Features
Common features of most application programs include:
– User interface – most have graphical user interface (GUI) that displays icons.

Graphic User Interface (GUI) is a link to an operating system that allows users to use icons rather
than command words to start processing. An Interface is the means by which a person interacts with
a computer.

– Windows – rectangular areas that can contain documents, programs, and messages.

– Menus – present commands listed on the menu bar; use pull-down (drop down) menus. Help
menu provides access to online assistance.

– Dialog box – provides additional information or requests user input.

– Toolbars – contains buttons and menus; standard toolbar common to most applications

Some of the most popular applications software’s are data management packages, spread
sheets, graphics packages; word-processing packages, communication packages; presentation
software and integrated packages. We now look at some application software’s in detail.

Software Package: An application that focuses on a particular subject, such as word processing,
and is sold to businesses and the general public. Examples are:

Spreadsheet: A table of columns and rows used by people responsible for tracking revenues,
expenses, profits, and losses.

Word-processing (WP) Program: A program that allows the user to enter, change (edit),
move, store, and print text information.

Desktop Publishing (DTP) Program: A program that combines text and image-handling
features with document-design capabilities.

Graphics Presentation Program: A program that translates data into visual representations
using charts, graphs, and map.

.Database Management Program: A program that makes it possible for users to manage the
data in ways that increase accessibility and productivity.

– Database: A collection of data and information describing items of interest to an

organization.

Browser: Client computer program designed to locate and display information on the World Wide
Web.

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Information System or Management Information System (MIS): A business information system
designed to produce the information needed for successful management of a structured problem,
process, department, or business.

Transaction Processing: A shared business information system that uses a combination of

information technology and manual procedures to process data and information and to manage
transactions.

Utility Program (Utilities): Special programs used to perform tasks that occur repeatedly using
processing.

Custom Software: Software written specially for a particular business.

IT USERS AND PROFESSIONALS
Information Technology Professional is a person who is responsible for acquiring,
developing, maintaining, or operating the hardware associated with computers and
communications networks. They are:

– Programmers: write codes using programming languages to solve problems.

– Systems Analysts: The System Analyst is the key player in most IT application projects,
because the System Analyst follows the steps described in the system life cycle (as will be
explained in the next topic). Analyst plan and design new systems or reorganize a company’s
computer resources to best utilize them. Analyst follows the systems development life cycle
through all steps: preliminary investigation, analysis, design, development, implementation, and
maintenance.

Professional Skills include;– Problem Solving,– Outcome Thinking,– Creativity,– Meeting Skills
and– Communication Skills

– System Designers: they formulate application specification and design the features of custom
software.

– Web Designers: these are specialists who focus primarily on developing applications for the
internet and the World Wide Web.

– Project Managers: coordinate the development of a project and manage the team of
programmer / analyst.

– Network Specialists: design, operate, and manage computer communications networks,

including networks that interconnect with the internet.

– Computer Operators: oversee the operations of computers in data centres. They also
perform support activities, such as starting applications, loading magnetic tapes, and any other
job that will ensure the smooth operation of the computer facilities..

THE SYSTEM UNIT AND THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

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In its general interpretation, a system is a collection of inter-related parts, working together to
achieve a common goal. For our purpose however, a system shall be considered as a set of
inter-relating elements responding to input to produce output.

THE SYSTEM UNIT

The System Unit is the hardware unit that houses a computer’s processor, ports, power supply,
casing, motherboard and add-in boards, memory chips and the various drives.

Definition: System is a technical term that refers to the case or box that encloses or houses all
functional part of the computer.

Microprocessor Concepts
Microprocessor is the brain of computer, which does all the work. It is a computer processor that
incorporates all the functions of CPU (Central Processing Unit) on a single IC (Integrated Circuit)
or at the most a few ICs. Microprocessors were first introduced in early 1970s. 4004 was the first
general purpose microprocessor used by Intel in building personal computers. Arrival of low cost
general purpose microprocessors has been instrumental in development of modern society the
way it has.

Microprocessors Characteristics
Microprocessors are multipurpose devices that can be designed for generic or specialized
functions. The microprocessors of laptops and Smartphone’s are general purpose whereas ones
designed for graphical processing or machine vision is specialized ones. There are some
characteristics that are common to all microprocessors.
These are the most important defining characteristics of a microprocessor −

 Clock speed
 Instruction set
 Word size

Clock Speed
Every microprocessor has an internal clock that regulates the speed at which it executes
instructions and also synchronizes it with other components. The speed at which the
microprocessor executes instructions is called clock speed. Clock speeds are measured in MHz or
GHz where 1 MHz means 1 million cycles per second whereas 1 GHz equals to 1 billion cycles
per second. Here cycle refers to single electric signal cycle.
Currently microprocessors have clock speed in the range of 3 GHz, which is maximum that
current technology can attain. Speeds more than this generate enough heat to damage the chip
itself. To overcome this, manufacturers are using multiple processors working in parallel on a
chip.
Word Size
Number of bits that can be processed by a processor in a single instruction is called its word size.
Word size determines the amount of RAM that can be accessed at one go and total number of pins

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on the microprocessor. Total number of input and output pins in turn determines the architecture
of the microprocessor.
First commercial microprocessor Intel 4004 was a 4-bit processor. It had 4 input pins and 4 output
pins. Number of output pins is always equal to the number of input pins. Currently most
microprocessors use 32-bit or 64-bit architecture.
Instruction Set
A command given to a digital machine to perform an operation on a piece of data is called
an instruction. Basic set of machine level instructions that a microprocessor is designed to
execute is called its instruction set. These instructions do carry out these types of operations −

 Data transfer
 Arithmetic operations
 Logical operations
 Control flow
 Input/output and machine control

THE PROCESSOR (Central Processing Unit (CPU))

Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor is the computer hardware that executes program
instructions and performs the computer’s processing actions. It is made up of the following
components housed in the Computer System Unit:

CPU is fabricated as a very large scale integrated circuit (VLSI) and has these parts −
 Instruction register − It holds the instruction to be executed.
 Decoder − It decodes (converts to machine level language) the instruction and sends to the
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit).
 ALU − It has necessary circuits to perform arithmetic, logical, memory, register and
program sequencing operations.
Arithmetic Operations: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division.
Logical Operations: Greater Than (>), Less Than (<), Equal To (=)
 Control Unit: The part of the CPU that oversees and controls all computer activities
according to the instructions it receives.

 Register − It holds intermediate results obtained during program processing. Registers are
used for holding such results rather than RAM because accessing registers is almost 10
times faster than accessing RAM.
Bus
Connection lines used to connect the internal parts of the microprocessor chip is called bus. There
are three types of buses in a microprocessor −
 Data Bus − Lines that carry data to and from memory are called data bus. It is a
bidirectional bus with width equal to word length of the microprocessor.

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  Address Bus − It is a unidirectional responsible for carrying address of a memory location
or I/O port from CPU to memory or I/O port.
 Control Bus − Lines that carry control signals like clock signals, interrupt signal
or ready signal are called control bus. They are bidirectional. Signal that denotes that a
device is ready for processing is called ready signal. Signal that indicates to a device to
interrupt its process is called an interrupt signal.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU): is known to be the brain and the computational unit of
the System Unit (SU). It performs the following major functions;

– Coordinating the activities of all units or devices associated with the computer system.
– Accepting and executing instructions to cause the computer system unit to perform tasks.

PROCESSOR CHIPS
Microprocessor is the smallest type of processor, with all of the processing capabilities of the
control unit and ALU located on a single chip.

DETERMINING PROCESSOR SPEED

In determining Processor Speed, four elements are considered:
– System Clock,– Bus Width,– Word Size,– Available Memory
System Clock: A circuit that generates electronic impulses at a fixed rate to synchronise
processing activities.

– Megahertz (MHz): Millions of electric pulses per second – a measure of a computer’s speed.

– Gigahertz (GHz): Billions of pulses per second.

Bus Width– Input/Output (I/O) bus: A bus (electronic circuit) that moves data into and out of the
processor.
– Data Bus: A bus that moves data between the central processor and memory.
Word Size– Word: The number of bits a computer can process at one time.

Cache Memory: A form of high-speed memory that acts as a temporary holding/processing cell.

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Evaluation of Microprocessor
The first microprocessor introduced in 1971 was a 4-bit microprocessor with 4m5KB memory
and had a set of 45 instructions. In the past 5 decades microprocessor speed has doubled every
two years, as predicted by Gordon Moore, Intel co-founder. Current microprocessors can access
64 GB memory. Depending on width of data microprocessors can process, they are of these
categories−

 8-bit
 16-bit
 32-bit
 64-bit
Size of instruction set is another important consideration while categorizing microprocessors.
Initially, microprocessors had very small instructions sets because complex hardware was
expensive as well as difficult to build.
As technology developed to overcome these issues, more and more complex instructions were
added to increase functionality of the microprocessor. However, soon it was realized that having
large instruction sets was counterproductive as many instructions that were rarely used sat idle on
precious memory space. So the old school of thought that supported smaller instruction sets
gained popularity.
Let us learn more about the two types of microprocessors based on their instruction set.

RISC
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computers. It has a small set of highly optimized
instructions. Complex instructions are also implemented using simpler instructions, reducing the
size of instruction set. The designing philosophy for RISC incorporates these salient points −

 Number of instructions should be minimum.

 Instructions should be of same length.
 Simple addressing modes should be used
 Reduce memory references to retrieve operands by adding registers
Some of the techniques used by RISC architecture include −
 Pipelining− A sequence of instructions is fetched even if it means overlapping of
instructions in fetching and execution.
 Single cycle execution − Most of RISC instructions take one CPU cycle to execute.
Examples of RISC processors are Intel P6, Pentium4, AMD K6 and K7, etc.

CISC
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computers. It supports hundreds of instructions.
Computers supporting CISC can accomplish wide variety of tasks, making them ideal for
personal computers. These are some characteristics of CISC architecture −

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 Larger set of instructions

 Instructions are of variable length

 Complex addressing modes
 Instructions take more than one clock cycle
 Work well with simpler compilers
Examples of CISC processors are Intel 386 & 486, Pentium, Pentium II and III, Motorola 68000,
etc.

EPIC
EPIC stands for Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing. It is a computer architecture that is
a cross between RISC and CISC, trying to provide the best of both. Its important features include
–
 Parallel instructions rather than fixed width
 Mechanism to communication compiler’s execution plan to hardware
 Programs must have sequential semantics
Some EPIC processors are Intel IA-64, Itanium, etc.
Port: A connector through which input/output devices can be plugged into the computer.
Expansion Slot: A slot inside a computer that allows a user to add an additional circuit board
Universal Serial Bus (USB): A general purpose port that can connect up to 128 devices, and also hot
swappable, meaning that devices can be plugged in or unplugged without having to shut down or
reboot the system.

INPUT DEVICES
An Input is the data or information entered into a computer or the process of entering data or
information into the computer for processing, storage and retrieval, or transmission

INTERACTION WITH COMPUTERS USING INPUT DEVICES

Input Device is a device by which input is fed into a computer’s central processor

KEYBOARD
This is the most common computer input device. All keyboards are used to enter data and text
information into a computer, but computer keyboards differ in four ways:
Characters: both alphabetic and symbolic keyboards are available depending on the country to
be put into use

Key Arrangement: the arrangement of the keyboard’s keys varies. The QWERT keyboard is the
most common in English speaking countries. This keyboard uses the conventional typewriter
layout, in which the top row of alphabetic keys begins with the letters Q, W, E, R, T, and Y
(reading from left to right).
Special-Purpose Keys: certain keys are designed to assist the user to enter data or information.

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Numeric Keys: these are found to the right of the alphabetic keys section on a keyboard, used to
key in numeric characters.

Function Key: A key designed to assist the computer’s user to control processing, e.g. the F1
key used in most software to invoke the help file that guides user through the use of the
application.

–Detachability: most desktop computers have keyboards that can be detached from the rest of
the computer system. The most popular of this kind are the wireless keyboards that transmit
data to the computer electronically.

Figure 4.1 An example of a computer Keyboard

Source: (O’Leary, 2004)

TERMINAL
A terminal is a combination of keyboard and video screen that accepts input and displays it on the
screen with communication link. Types are:– Dumb Terminals,-Smart Terminals,– Automated
Teller Machines (ATMs),– Point-of-sale (POS) Terminals

SCANNERS
Source Data Automation: A method of data entry in which details enter computers directly from
their written or printed forms without the intermediate step of keying.

Scanning: The process of transforming written or printed data or information into a digital form
that is entered directly into the computer.

OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR)

OCR is a technology by which devices read information on paper and convert it into computer-
processible form. The following are different forms of OCR:-

– Optical Mark Reader: An OCR device that recognises the location of dark marks on a special
form as the form is scanned.

– Optical Character Reader: An OCR device that recognizes printed information rather than
just dark marks.

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– Magnetic Ink Character Recognition: A form of optical character reading in which pre-
printed information written in magnetic ink is read optically or sensed magnetically.

– Optical Code Reader: An OCR device used to read bar codes.

– Universal Produce Code (UPC): A bar code that identifies a product by a series of vertical lines
of varying widths representing a unique product number.

– Image Scanning: Examining an image and translating lines, dots, and marks into digital form.

– Flatbed Scanner: A large image scanner that works like an office photocopier.
– Resolution: The clarity of sharpness of an image.
DIGITISERS
Digitiser is an input device that translates measured distances into digital values that the computer
can process.

POINTING DEVICES
They accept pointing gestures and convert them into machine readable input
– Mouse: An input device with a small ball underneath that rotates, causing a corresponding
movement of a pointer on a display screen.

THE PURPOSE OF THE MOUSE

The mouse is used to point at the screen (monitor), the process is called pointing. Everything you
do with a mouse is accomplished by combining pointing with other techniques, such as:–
clicking,,– double clicking,– dragging,– right clicking,– scrolling
– Touchpad: An alternative to the mouse that senses the user’s finger movement and downward
pressure, moving the cursor in the corresponding direction on the display screen

–Pointing Stick: A device that positions the cursor on the computer screen.
– Light Pen: An input device that uses a light-sensitive cell to draw images and to select options
from a menu of choices displayed on a computer screen.

– Joystick: An input device used to control the actions in computer games or simulations. The
joystick extends vertically from a control box

– Trackball: An input device that consists of a ball mounted on rollers. As the user rotates the ball
in any direction, the computer senses the movement and moves the cursor in the corresponding
direction.

– Stylus: A pen like instrument that is used to trace images on paper for translation into electronic
form.

DIGITISING TABLE
This is a device by which an image on paper can be translated into electronic form.

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DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera captures a photographic image as a collection of tightly grouped dots that can be
stored on disk or in memory

DIGITAL VIDEO CAMCORDERS

It is used to capture the sound and sight of events on videotape, information is recorded as
individual bytes of information. Digital recording thus increases the quality of both audio and
video.

VOICE AND SOUND INPUT DEVICES

This is an input device that can be attached to a computer to capture the spoken word in digital
form. Used as an assistive device for the disabled.

BAR CODE
A bar code is a computer-readable code consisting of bars or lines of varying widths or lengths.

WAND
A wand is an input device used to read a bar code and input this information directly into a PC.
MULTIMEDIA
This is a system that contains standard PC features but also has the capability to handle audio,
video, animation, and graphics.

Literal Meaning of Multimedia

In this section, we will understand the literal meaning of multimedia.

 Multi − it means more than one
 Medium − it is singular and it means intermediary or mean
 Media − it is plural and it means conveying the information
Likewise, Multimedia is the field of Computer Science that integrates different forms of
information and represents in the form of audio, video, and animation along with the traditional
media, i.e., text, graphics/drawings, images, etc.
Multimedia Computer System
Multimedia computer system has high capacity to integrate different media including text, image,
graphics, audio, and video.
The multimedia computer system stores, represents, processes, manipulates, and makes available
to users.

Significant Features of Multimedia Computer System

Following are the major features of multimedia computer system −

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  Its Central Processing Unit (CPU) is very fast, as it needs to process large amount of data.
 It has huge storage capacity.
 It has huge memory power that helps in running heavy data programs.
 It has high capacity graphic card that helps in displaying graphics, animation, video, etc.
 The sound system makes it easy to listen to audio.
 With all these features (discussed above), a computer system is known as high end
multimedia computer system.
 However, all the features listed above are not essentially required for every multimedia
computer system, but rather the features of a multimedia computer system are configured
as per the need of respective user.
Multimedia Components
Following are the major components of a multimedia computer system –
Text
It contains alphanumeric and some other special characters. Keyboard is usually used for input of
text; however, there are some internal (inbuilt) features to include such text.
Graphics
It is technology to generate, represent, process, manipulate, and display pictures. It is one of the
most important components of multimedia application. The development of graphics is supported
by different software.
Animation
Computer animation is a modern technology, which helps in creating, developing, sequencing,
and displaying a set of images (technically known as ‘frames’). Animation gives visual effects or
motion very similar to that of a video file
Audio
This technology records, synthesizes, and plays audio (sound). There are many learning courses
and different instructions that can be delivered through this medium appropriately.
Video
This technology records, synthesizes, and displays images (known as frames) in such sequences
(at a fixed speed) that make the creation appear as moving; this is how we see a completely
developed video. In order to watch a video without any interruption, video device must display 25
to 30 frames/second.

Multimedia Application
Let us now see the different fields where multimedia is applied. The fields are described in brief
below –

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Presentation
With the help of multimedia, presentation can be made effective.
E-books
Today, books are digitized and easily available on the Internet.
Digital Library
The need to be physically present at a library is no more necessary. Libraries can be accessed
from the Internet also. Digitization has helped libraries to come to this level of development.
E-learning
Today, most of the institutions (public as well as private both) are using such technology to
education people.
Movie making
Most of the special effects that we see in any movie, is only because of multimedia technology.
Video games
Video games are one of the most interesting creations of multimedia technology. Video games
fascinate not only the children but adults too.
Animated films
Along with video games, animated film is another great source of entertainment for children.
Multimedia conferencing
People can arrange personal as well as business meetings online with the help of multimedia
conferencing technology.
E-shopping
Multimedia technology has created a virtual arena for the e-commerce.
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
List three pointing devices
Which category of device is the Optical Character Recognition (OCR)?
What are the basic functions of a mouse?
What category of device is the joystick and what is it used for?

OUTPUT DEVICES
An output is the results of inputting and processing data and information returned by the computer,
either directly to the person using the system or to secondary storage.

OUTPUT AND INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION DEVICES

Output devices are devices through which computer transmits information to the outside
world. Output devices work to transform information processed in the computer, which is in

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machine form, to human understandable forms e.g. text, pictures etc. With the aid of output
devices information can be viewed, heard, and printed.
TYPES OF OUTPUT DEVICES
Example of output devices are: Visual Displays (Monitors),Data Projector,Printers,Audio
Response Unit, Television, Plotter, and Film Recorder.
VISUAL DISPLAYS (MONITORS)
A computer’s visual display. It is a computer hardware that resembles a television. It is capable of
displaying text and graphics. A monitor is one type of computer display, defined by its CRT screen.
Other types of displays include flat, laptop computer screens that often use liquid-crystal displays
(LCDs). Other thin, flat -screen monitors that do not employ CRTs are currently being developed.
Visual displays can be distinguished using the following features;

– Size
Monitors come in various sizes, ranging from the small screen built into palmtops and laptops to
the extra-large monitors used for special purpose by engineers and illustrators who need to
examine fine details closely
– Colour
RGB Display: A video screen display with the ability to create 256 colours and several thousand
variations on these colours by blending shades of red, green, and blue.

Monochrome Display: A video screen display that shows information using a single foreground
colour on a contrasting background colour (e.g. black on white).

– Resolution
Pixels: The dots used to create an image; the higher the number of dots, the better the resolution of
the image.

– Bit Mapping: A feature of some monitors that allows each dot on the monitor to be
addressed or controlled individually. Graphics created through bit mapping are sharp and crisp.

Character Addressing: The precursor to bit mapping that allowed only full characters to be
sent to and displayed on a VDT.

– Graphics Standard
Graphic Adapter Card: An interface board between a computer and monitor that is used to
determine the monitor’s resolution and use of colour.

– Multisync/Multiscan Monitors: Monitors designed to work with a variety of graphics standards.

DATA PROJECTOR
Data Projector: Equipment connected to the computer’s display output port by a data cable
that is used to show the contents of a computer video display on a movie screen.

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–Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector: An LCD projector works on the principle of blocking
light rather than emitting it. The brightness of the light (measured in lumens) determines how easily
the images can be viewed in a room with ordinary lighting (as opposed to a darkened room).

–Digital Light Processing (DLP) Projector: This projector builds images on screen by digitally
controlling the reflected angle of incident light, converging it with a prism, and passing the image
through a lens on to the screen. It has clear, sharp images and high contrast text as well as rich
colour in projected images

PRINTERS
– Hard Copy: The paper output from a printer.
– Nonimpact Printing: A printing process in which no physical contact occurs between the paper
and the print device; the characters are produced on the paper through a heat, chemical, or spraying
process.
Laser Printer: A nonimpact printer that uses laser beams to print an entire page at once.

Ink-jet Printer: A printer that sprays tiny steams of ink from holes in the print mechanism onto the
paper in a dot pattern that represents the character or image to be printed.

Thermal Printer: A printer that heats a wax-based coloured ink contained in the printer ribbon and
transfers it to a special paper.

– Impact Printing: A printing process in which the paper and the character being printed come into
contact with each other.

Line Printer: Prints a full line at one time on continuous-form paper. Because of their high speed,
which ranges up to several thousand lines per minute, line printers have been used in computer
centres that routinely print large volumes of documents or very long reports.

Dot Matrix Printing: Characters and images are formed by wire rods pushed against a ribbon and
paper to create characters that are actually a collection of small dots.

Characters Printer: A printer that prints one character at a time. Its speed is rated according to
the number of characters printed per second.

AUDIO RESPONSE UNIT

Audio Response Unit/Speech Synthesizer: An output device that transforms data or

information into sound.

– Speakers: - Speakers are connected to computers through Sound cards, so as to listen to

voice outputs.
PLOTTER
Plotter: An output device that draws image information (such as charts, graphs, and blueprints)
stroke by stroke. Computer device for drawing graphs: a computer output device that draws graphs
and other pictorial images on paper, sometimes using attached pens. Large plotters are used in
computer-aided design applications to produce more rapidly the engineering drawings and

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architectural plans once prepared by skilled drafts people. Types of plotters include; pen, ink jet,
Electrostatic and Direct imaging plotters.
FILM RECORDER

Film Recorder: A Film Recorder is a graphical output device for transforming digital images on a
computer screen into a photographic film.

CONCLUSION
Output Device is a device that makes the results of processing available outside of the computer to
be used in business decision making. It brings out the information after the data has been
processed.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

Briefly define an output device.
Discuss the use of a data projector and list its types.
What does RGB stands for in a monitor?
Define the following: film recorder, speaker and laser printer.

STORAGE DEVICES AND MEMORY

Storage in computer is the process of retaining information for future use. A computer can function
with only processing, input and output devices. To be really useful however, a computer also needs
a place to keep program files and related data when they are not in use.

STORAGE
The purpose of storage is to hold data.
Secondary Storage/Auxiliary Storage: A storage medium that is external to the computer, but that
can be read by the computer; a way of storing data and information outside of the computer itself.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STORAGE
– Reliable: storage retains its data when the power is turned off.
– Economical: storage is cheaper than memory.
– Compact: large volumes of data can be stored at high density.
– Convenient: storage is easy to use and can transfer data rapidly, though not as fast as memory.

TYPES OF STORAGE
By Read/Write Capability

– Read/Write: A computer application can use storage for both writing and reading data.

By Access Capability

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– Sequential Storage: Elements of data are read one right after the other.
– Sequential Access: The contents are accessed in sequence.
– Random Access Storage: The process of retrieving a particular record of information from
any track directly.

– Random Access Device: The self-contained unit that holds and processes the disk.

STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES

Magnetic Storage
– Magnetic Tape: A magnetic storage medium in which data are stored on large reels of tape.

– Read/Write Head: A device that records data by magnetically aligning metallic particles on
the medium. The write head records data and the read head retrieves them.

– Disk Cartridge: The cartridge, a hard disk sealed in a protective package, is inserted into the
disk drive for reading and writing data.

Extended Disk Storage Alternatives

– Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID): A set of small disk drives that work
together as a single unit.

Fault Tolerance: The capability for a computer application to continue processing even if a disk
drive fails.

Disk Mirroring: The most frequently used form of RAID; it uses pairs of drives within the array
and duplicates the entire contents of a disk on a second disk.

Optical Storage
– Optical Storage Device: A device that uses a beam of light produced by a laser to read and write
data and information.

– Flexible Disk/Diskette/Floppy Disk: A type of magnetic disk made of flexible plastic.

Hard Disk
A type of secondary storage that uses nonflexible, non removable magnetic disks mounted inside
the computer to store data or information.

– Hard Drive/Disk Drive: The device that holds and processes the disk.
– Record: A grouping of data items that consists of a set of data or information that describes an
entity’s specific occurrence.

Disk Storage Areas

– Track: The area in which data and information are stored on magnetic tape or disk.

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– Sector: A subdivision of a track on a magnetic disk; used to improve access to data or
information.

– Cylinder: A storage concept that refers to the same track location on each of the platters.

– Head Crash: The situation that occurs when the read/write heads that normally float close to a
magnetic disk’s surface actually touch the surface.
– Disk Pack: A stack of disks, enclosed in a protective plastic cover that can be lifted onto or off a
disk drive.

– Random Access Storage/Direct Access Storage: The process of retrieving a particular

record of information from any track directly.

Disk Controller Interfaces

– Hard Disk Controller: A hardware interface that may be built into the hard drive itself, in the
form of an expansion board, or a connection on the system board.

– Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE): A standard electronic interface used between the bus or
data path on a computer system board and the computer’s disk storage devices.

– Small Computer System Interface (SCSI): A device created to speed the transfer of data
between hard disks and other peripherals.

– Universal Service Bus (USB): A recent addition to PCs that can connect up to 128 devices,
ranging from computer disk storage to a variety of multimedia devices.

– Fire Wire: One of the fastest peripheral interface standards ever developed.
– Disk Cache: Disk caching allows the system to store information that is frequently read from a
disk in RAM.

STORAGE AREA NETWORK

SAN is a high-speed network or system that allows different kinds of storage devices, such as
tape drives and disk arrays, to be shared by all users through network servers.

OTHER MAGNETIC DISK STORAGE SYSTEMS

USB Drives: Consisting of flash memory and a USB connection, it can read and write data
when connected to the computer’s USB port.

Zip Drive: A removable storage device that uses hard-shelled removable Zip disks, which can
store up to 750 MB of information.

SuperDisk: A storage alternative developed by Imation (originally part of 3M Corp.) that has
a capability of 120 MB.

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 OPTICAL STORAGE
CD-ROM Disk: Short for “compact disk-read only memory,” an optical storage medium that
permits storage of large amounts of information. CD-ROM disks can only be written to and
cannot be erased.– Standard CD and– Mini-CD

CD-ROMs have two formats

– CD-R disks: A disk that allows users to write information to a disk only once but to read it many
times (sometimes known as worm optical storage).

– CD-RW disks: A disk that combines the eraseability and editing options of magnetic storage
devices with the permanence, capacity, and reliability of optical storage.

– CD Recorder: Also known as a CD writer or CD burner, this equipment is attached to a PC

to create CDs.

Digital Video Disk (DVD): The newest generation of optical storage. It appears to operate the
same way and has the same dimensions as a CD-ROM but has a much larger capacity.

– DVD-RAM: A rewritable DVD form that can be used in PCs.

MEMORY
Primary Storage/Primary Memory/Main Memory/Internal Memory: Storage within the
computer itself. Primary memory holds data only temporarily, as the computer executes
instructions.

PRIMARY (MAIN) MEMORY

Primary or main memory is always connected to the processor. In a computer it is usually in
the same box as the processor. When you type instructions on the keyboard of your computer,
they are put into the main memory. There are two parts of the main memory:

– Read Only Memory (ROM) and– Random Access Memory (RAM).

MEMORY (RAM AND ROM)
Random-access Memory (RAM): Memory that permits data or information to be written into
or read from memory only as long as the computer is turned on. Other forms of RAM include
SRAM (Static RAM), DRAM (Dynamic RAM), SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM) &
DDR2. It is the memory used to store instructions and data needed by the Central Processing
unit (CPU).
Read-only Memory (ROM): A type of storage that offers random access to memory and can
hold data and information after the electric current to the computer has been turned off.
MEMORY SIZE
Byte: A storage location in memory; the amount of memory required to store one digit, letter,
or character.
Kilobyte/K-byte/KB/K: One thousand bytes.
Megabyte/M-byte/MB/Meg: One million bytes.
Gigabyte/G-byte/GB/Gig: One billion bytes.

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Terabyte/T-byte/TB: One trillion bytes.
Address: An identifiable location in memory where data are kept.

Figure 6.8 Types of Memory Chips

Source: (Senn, 2004).

MEMORY (BOOTING)
Boot: To turn on the computer system and let the built-in self-test run.
Cold Boot: The system is turned on and started from an off state. The CPU invokes the ROM
BIOS boot program, which in turn, runs the power-up, self-tests and loads the operating
system from disk storage.

Warm Boot: In a restart, the BIOS know the system is already running, data is written in a specific
memory location checked by the BIOS and skips the power-on test.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STORAGE AND MEMORY

Although the functions of storage and memory are similar, they work in different ways.
There is more room in storage than in memory, just as there is more space in a file cabinet than on
a table top.

Contents are retained in storage when the computer is turned of, whereas the program or data you
put into memory disappear when you shut down the computer

Storage is very slow compared to memory, but it is much cheaper than m

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

What does SAN stands for in storage?
What are the other magnetic disk storage systems?
Is memory and storage the same? Explain.
What does the following means in memory?

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– Byte,– Kilobyte/K-byte/KB/K.,– Megabyte/M-byte/MB/Meg,– Gigabyte/G-byte/GB/Gig–
Terabyte/T-byte/TB and – Address

Computer files
 A file can be defined as a collection of related records that give a complete set of
information about a certain item or entity. A file can be stored manually in a file cabinet or
electronically in computer storage devices.
 Computerized storage offers a much better way of holding information than the manual
filing system which heavily relies on the concept of the file cabinet.

Some of the advantages of computerized filing system include:

1. information takes up much less space than the manual filing

2. it is much easier to update or modify information
3. it offers faster access and retrieval of data
4. It enhances data integrity and reduces duplication
5. It enhances security of data if proper care is taken to secure it.

Elements of computer file

A computer file is made up of three elements: characters, fields and records.
Characters

A character is the smallest element in a computer file and refers to letter, number or symbol that
can be entered, stored and output by a computer. A character is made up of seven or eight bits
depending on the character coding scheme used.

Field

A field is a single character or collection of characters that represents a single piece of data. For
example, the student’s admission number is an example of a field.

Records

A record is a collection of related fields that Represents a single entities, e.g. in a class score sheet,
detail of each student in a row such as admission number, name, total marks and position make up
a record.

Types of Computer Files

There are numerous types of files used for storing data needed for processing, reference or back
up. The main common types of processing files include:

Master file

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A master consists of data field which are permanent in nature. The values of the fields these must
continually be brought up-to-date so that the file will always contain the most recent transaction or
affairs in the organization. For instance, an employee file is made of records whose fields may
include; Employee Number, Name, Date of birth, Qualification, Salary grade etc.These fields are
permanent, although, Qualification and Salary grade might need be updated at a future time/date

Transaction (movement) file

Transaction file is related to the activities within an organization. This file contains operational
data extracted from the transaction of the organization. For example if a new staff is employed or
an old one is promoted, the data is transaction data and when such records are collected, a
transaction file is obtained. A transaction file is often used to update the master file. Once it has
played this role, it is no longer needed. It may however be retained or archived for security control
purposes. Examples of transaction file include; invoices, hour worked, new qualifications,
promotion, electricity meter reading etc..

Reference file

A reference file is a file which contains records that may be used in the future or for reference
purposes. Reference file id also called standing file whose records are responsibly permanent.

Report file

Used to store relatively permanent records extracted from the master file or generated after
processing. For example you may obtain a stock levels report generated from an inventory system
while a copy of the report will be stored in the report file.

Work file
The work file is derived from either the master or transaction files. They are often temporal in
nature as they may not be needed/required if they serve the purpose. For example, a personal file
may be interrogated to display the records of employees who meet certain criteria, and when the
records are extracted from the master file, they are kept in a temporary work file before they are
printed. In most cases, work files are created to hold the sorted records.

Archive file
This file is also referred to as historical file as it contains old files/records which are currently not
useful or no longer useful. For instance, the files containing particulars of former clients, records
of graduated students in an institution, etc.
Data file
A file containing data/value, such as a file created within an application program. Data files are
normally organized as a set of records with one or more associated access methods. For example, it
may be a word processing document, a spread sheet, a database file or a chart file.

DATA PROCESSING

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Data processing is the analysis and organization of data by the repeated use of one or more
computer programs. Data processing is used extensively in business, engineering and science and
to increasing extent in nearly all areas in which computers are used. Business use data processing
for such tasks as payroll preparation, accounting, record keeping, inventory control sales analysis,
and the processing of bank and credit card account statements. Engineers and scientists use data
processing for a wide variety of applications, including the processing of seismic data for oil and
mineral exploration, the analysis of new products design, the processing of satellite imagery, and
the analysis of data from scientific experiments.

Data processing is divided into two kinds of processing: database processing and transaction
processing. A database is a collection of common records that can be searched, accessed, and
modified, such as bank accounts record , school transcript , and income tax data.

Transaction processing is an information processing system for business transaction involving the
collection of modification and retrieval of all transaction data. It includes performance and
consistency.

However, the processing of data largely depends on the following –

 The volume of data that need to be processed

 The complexity of data processing operations
 Capacity and inbuilt technology of respective computer system
 Technical skills
 Time constraints

Data processing methods

Data can be processed manually, mechanically and electronically.

Manual data processing

In manual data processing, most tasks are done manually with a pen and a paper. For example in a
busy office, incoming tasks (input) are stacked in the “tray” (output). The processing of each task
involves a person using the brain in order to respond to queries. The processed information from
the out tray is then distributed to the people who need it or stored in a file cabinet.

Mechanical data processing

Manual is cumbersome and boring especially repetitive tasks. Mechanical devices were developed
to help in automation of manual tasks. Examples of mechanical devices include the typewriter,
printing press, and weaving looms. Initially, these devices did not have electronic intelligence.

Electronic data processing

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For a long time, scientists have researched on how to develop machine or devices that would
stimulate some form of human intelligence during data and information processing. This was made
possible to some extent with the development of electronic programmable devices such as
computers.

The advent of microprocessor technology has greatly enhanced data processing efficiency and
capability. Some of the micro processor controlled devices include computers, cellular (mobile)
phones, calculators, fuel pumps, modern television sets, washing machines etc

Data processing cycle

It refers to the sequence of activities involved in data transformation from its raw form to
information. it is often referred to as cycle because the output obtained can be stored after
processing and may be used in future as input.
The four main stages of data processing cycle are:
 Data collection
 Data input
 Data processing
 Data output

Data collection

Also referred to as data gathering or fact finding ,it involves looking for crucial facts needed for
processing.

Methods of data collection

 Include interviews; use of questionnaires, observation, etc.in most cases the data is
collected after sampling.
 Sampling is the process of selecting representative elements (e.g. people, organizations)
from an entire group (population) of interest. Some of the tools that help in the data
collection include source documents such as forms, data capture devices such as digital
camera etc.

Stages of data collection

The process of data collection may involve a number of stages depending on the method used.
These include:

 Data creation: this is the process of identification and putting together facts in an
organized format. This may be in the form of manually prepared document or captured
from the source using a data capture device such as a barcode reader and be inputted easily
in a computer.
 Data preparation: this is the transcription (conversion) of data from source document to
machine readable form. This may not be the case for all input devices. Data collected using
devices that directly capture data in digital form do not require transcription.
 Data transmission: this will depend on whether data need to be transmitted via
communication media to the central office.

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Data input:

Refers to the process where the collected data is converted from human readable from to machine
readable form (binary form). The conversion takes place in the input device.

 Media conversion: data may need to be transmitted from one medium to another e.g. from
a floppy disk to a computer’s hard disk for faster input.
 Input validation: data entered into the computer is subjected to validity checks by a
computer program before being processed to reduce errors as the input.
 Sorting: in case the data needs to be arranged in a predefined order, it is first sorted before
processing.

Processing

This is the transformation of the input data by the CPU to a more meaningful output
(information).Some of the operations performed on the data include calculations, comparing values
and sorting.

Output

The final activity in the data processing cycle is producing the desired output also referred to as
information. This information can be distributed to the target group or stored for future
use. Distribution is making information available to those who need it and is sometimes
called information dissemination. This process of dissemination may involve electronic
presentation over the radio or television, distribution of hard copies, broadcasting messages over
the internet or mobile phones etc.

Electronic data processing methods

There are several ways in which a computer, under the influences of an operating system is
designed to process data.
Examples of processing modes are:1.online processing 2.real time processing 3.distributed
processing 3.Time sharing 4.Batch processing 5.multiprocessing 6.multitasking

On-line Processing
This technique facilitates the entry and execution of data directly; so, it does not store or
accumulate first and then process. The technique is developed in such a way that reduces the data
entry errors, as it validates data at various points and also ensures that only corrected data is
entered. This technique is widely used for online applications. The computer is connected directly
to the data input unit via a communication link. The data input may be a network terminal or
online input devices attached to the computer.

Real-time processing

Computer processes the incoming data as soon as it occurs, updates the transaction file and gives
an immediate response that would affect the events as they happen. This is different from online
in that for the latter an immediate response may not be required. The main purpose of a real-time
processing is to provide accurate, up-to-date information hence better services based on a true
(real) situation. An example of a real time processing is making a reservation for airline seats. A

35
customer may request for an airline booking information through a remote terminal and the
requested information will be given out within no time by the reservation system. If a booking is
made, the system immediately updates the reservation file to avoid double booking and sends the
response back to the customer immediately. The main features of real time are:
1. Accessibility; which includes the ability to access the computer as at when required, with the
programs and data files within the system
2. Multi-programming; the ability of the computer t allow more than one program to be active in
the CPU at the same time.

Distributed data processing

Multiprogramming, also referred to as multitasking refers to a type of processing where more than
one program are executed apparently at the same time by a single central processing unit.
Distributed data processing refers to dividing (distributing) processing tasks to two or more
computer that are located on physically separate sites but connected by data transmission media.

Multiprogramming For example, a distributed database will have different tables of the same
database residing on separate computers and processed there as need arises.

This distribution of processing power increases efficiency and speed of processing. An example is
in the banking industry where customers’ accounts are operated on servers in the branches but all
the branch accounts can be administered centrally from the main server as if they resided on it. In
this case, we say that the distributed database is transparent to the user because the distribution is
hidden from the user’s point of view.

Time sharing

In a time sharing processing, many terminals connected to a central computer are given access to
the central processing unit apparently at the same time. However in actual sense, each user is
allocated a time slice of the CPU in sequence. The amount of time allocated to each user is
controlled by a multi-user operating system. If a user’s task is not completed during the allocated
time slice, he/she is allocated another time slice later in a round robin

Following are some of the major advantages of time-sharing processing −

 Several users can be served simultaneously

 All the users have almost equal amount of processing time
 There is possibility of interaction with the running programs

Batch processing

Data is accumulated as a group (batch) over a specified period of time e.g. daily, weekly or
monthly. The batch is then processed at once. For example in payroll processing system,
employees details concerning the number of hours worked, rate of pay, and other details are
collected for a period of time say, one month. These details are then used to process the payment
for the duration worked. Most printing systems use the batch processing to print documents.

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Batch processing will be favored where:

(i)There is no need of every minute accuracy or immediate update of records as they occur

(ii)Data accumulated over a period will be required to be processed at a future date and the volume
of data makes this type of processing worthwhile

The main advantage of batch processing is that it helps to enforce controls on computer-bound data
thereby reducing processing errors. While the demerits are; Since transaction are not processed as
they arise, when an error is discovered processing continuous without the record in error.
Sometimes a batch could be so large that the effect of one or two missing records is not noticed.

Multiprocessing

Refers to the processing of more than one task at the same time on different processors of the same
computer. This is possible in computers such as mainframes and network servers. In such systems
a computer may contain more than one independent central processing unit which works together
in a coordinated way.

At a given time, the processors may execute instructions from two or more different programs or
from different parts of one program simultaneously. This coordination is made possible by a multi-
processing operating system that enables different processors to operate together and share the
same memory. The users of the distributed database will be completely unaware of the distribution
and will interact with the database as if all of it was in their computer..

Programming Languages
The computer system is simply a machine and hence it cannot perform any work; therefore, in
order to make it functional different languages are developed, which are known as programming
languages or simply computer languages.
Over the last two decades, dozens of computer languages have been developed. Each of these
languages comes with its own set of vocabulary and rules, better known as syntax. Furthermore,
while writing the computer language, syntax has to be followed literally, as even a small mistake
will result in an error and not generate the required output.
Following are the major categories of Programming Languages −

 Machine Language
 Assembly Language
 High Level Language
 System Language
 Scripting Language
Let us discuss the programming languages in brief.
Machine Language or Code
This is the language that is written for the computer hardware. Such language is effected directly
by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer system.

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Assembler
It is a language of an encoding of machine code that makes simpler and readable.
Assembler is a system software that converts assembly level programs to machine level code.

These are the advantages provided by assembly level programming −

 Increases efficiency of the programmer as remembering mnemonics is easier

 Productivity increases as number of errors decreases and hence debugging time
 Programmer has access to hardware resources and hence has flexibility in writing programs
customized to the specific computer

Interpreter
The major advantage of assembly level language was its ability to optimize memory usage and
hardware utilization. However, with technological advancements computers had more memory
and better hardware components. So ease of writing programs became more important than
optimizing memory and other hardware resources.
In addition, a need was felt to take programming out of a handful of trained scientists and
computer programmers, so that computers could be used in more areas. This led to development
of high level languages that were easy to understand due to resemblance of commands to English
language.
The system software used to translate high level language source code into machine level
language object code line by line is called an interpreter. An interpreter takes each line of code
and converts it into machine code and stores it into the object file.
The advantage of using an interpreter is that they are very easy to write and they do not require a
large memory space. However, there is a major disadvantage in using interpreters, i.e., interpreted
programs take a long time in executing. To overcome this disadvantage, especially for large
programs, compilers were developed.
Compiler
System software that store the complete program, scan it, translate the complete program into
object code and then creates an executable code is called a compiler. On the face of it compilers
compare unfavorably with interpreters because they −

 are more complex than interpreters

 need more memory space
 take more time in compiling source code

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However, compiled programs execute very fast on computers.

High Level Language

The high level language is simple and easy to understand and it is similar to English language.
For example, COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C+, Python, etc.
High-level languages are very important, as they help in developing complex software and they
have the following advantages −
 Unlike assembly language or machine language, users do not need to learn the high-level
language in order to work with it.
 High-level languages are similar to natural languages, therefore, easy to learn and
understand.
 High-level language is designed in such a way that it detects the errors immediately.
 High-level language is easy to maintain and it can be easily modified.
 High-level language makes development faster.
 High-level language is comparatively cheaper to develop.
 High-level language is easier to document.

Number System
The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number system. Decimal number
system is the most common number system. Other popular number systems include:binary
number system,octal number system, hexadecimal number system, etc.

Decimal Number System

Decimal number system is a base 10 number system having 10 digits from 0 to 9. This means that
any numerical quantity can be represented using these 10 digits. Decimal number system is also
a positional value system. This means that the value of digits will depend on its position. Let us
take an example to understand this.
Say we have three numbers – 734, 971 and 207. The value of 7 in all three numbers is different−

 In 734, value of 7 is 7 hundreds or 700 or 7 × 100 or 7 × 102

 In 971, value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7 × 10 or 7 × 101
 In 207, value 0f 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7 × 1 or 7 × 100
The weightage of each position can be represented as follows −

In digital systems, instructions are given through electric signals; variation is done by varying the
voltage of the signal. Having 10 different voltages to implement decimal number system in digital
equipment is difficult. So, many number systems that are easier to implement digitally have been
developed. Let’s look at them in detail.

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Binary Number System
The easiest way to vary instructions through electric signals is two-state system – on and off. On
is represented as 1 and off as 0, though 0 is not actually no signal but signal at a lower voltage.
The number system having just these two digits – 0 and 1 – is called binary number system.
Each binary digit is also called a bit. Binary number system is also positional value system, where
each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as displayed here.

In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least significant bit (LSB) and leftmost digit
is called most significant bit (MSB).

And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its positional value.
110102 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 0×20
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 2610
Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. Here is a chart for memory
capacity conversion.

 1 byte (B) = 8 bits

 1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes
 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
 1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB
 1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB

Octal Number System

Octal number system has eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Octal number system is also a
positional value system with where each digit has its value expressed in powers of 8, as shown
here −

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Decimal equivalent of any octal number is sum of product of each digit with its positional value.
7268 = 7×82 + 2×81 + 6×80
= 448 + 16 + 6
= 47010

Hexadecimal Number System

Octal number system has 16 symbols – 0 to 9 and A to F where A is equal to 10, B is equal to
11 and so on till F. Hexadecimal number system is also a positional value system with where each
digit has its value expressed in powers of 16, as shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each digit with its positional
value.
27FB16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160
= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10
= 1023410

ASCII
Besides numerical data, computer must be able to handle alphabets, punctuation marks,
mathematical operators, special symbols, etc. that form the complete character set of English
language. The complete set of characters or symbols are called alphanumeric codes. The complete
alphanumeric code typically includes −

 26 upper case letters

 26 lower case letters
 10 digits
 7 punctuation marks
 20 to 40 special characters
Now a computer understands only numeric values, whatever the number system used. So all
characters must have a numeric equivalent called the alphanumeric code. The most widely used
alphanumeric code is American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). ASCII is a
7-bit code that has 128 (27) possible codes.

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Unicode
Unicode is an international coding system designed to be used with different language scripts.
Each character or symbol is assigned a unique numeric value, largely within the framework of
ASCII. Earlier, each script had its own encoding system, which could conflict with each other.
In contrast, this is what Unicode officially aims to do − Unicode provides a unique number for
every character, no matter what the platform, no matter what the program, no matter what the
language.

Number System Conversion

As you know decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems are positional value number
systems. To convert binary, octal and hexadecimal to decimal number, we just need to add the
product of each digit with its positional value. Here we are going to learn other conversion among
these number systems.

Decimal to Binary
Decimal numbers can be converted to binary by repeated division of the number by 2 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

The remainders are to be read from bottom to top to obtain the binary equivalent.
4310 = 1010112

Decimal to Octal
Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 8 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

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Reading the remainders from bottom to top,
47310 = 7318

Decimal to Hexadecimal
Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 16 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

Reading the remainders from bottom to top we get,

42310 = 1A716

Binary to Octal and Vice Versa

To convert a binary number to octal number, these steps are followed −
 Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of three bits.
 If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after the most
significant bit
 Convert each group into its equivalent octal number
Let’s take an example to understand this.

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101100101012 = 26258
To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit binary equivalent
according to this table.

Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary Equivalent 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

546738 = 1011001101110112

Binary to Hexadecimal
To convert a binary number to hexadecimal number, these steps are followed −
 Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of four bits.
 If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after the most
significant bit.
 Convert each group into its equivalent octal number.
Let’s take an example to understand this.

101101101012 = DB516
To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit binary equivalent.

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 Computer Security
Advancement of computer technology has radically changed the world; resultantly, most of the
works whether it is matter of nation’s security system or buying a shoe online everything depends
on computer.
Such increased dependency also raises the issue of security, as most of the data is now stored in
the computer system.
Your computer systems store various sorts of data and hence if it is not secured, then you might
be in for a big trouble.

Why Do We Need Computer Security?

Let us now see why do we need Computer security. It is required for the following major reasons
−
 To prevent damage of the hardware.
 To prevent theft or damage of the installed software.
 To prevent theft or damage of stored data and information.
 To prevent the disruption of service.
 Likewise, security system keeps the computer system safe by protecting the installed software and the
stored data (information).

Protection of Data and Information

Following are the important steps to protect data −

 Make backup of all your important files.

 Keep your system virus by using anti-virus software.
 Keep updating your computer system.
 Run disk defragmenter and disk cleanup on certain interval of time.
 Use a firewall.
 Use anti-spyware software.
Further, if you use internet, then you need to take greater precaution. Consider the following
points to understand the precautions that need to be taken −
(i)Do not click on any link that you don’t know (as it may be dangerous for your computer - virus attack).
(ii)Do not open unauthorized an unlawful website (it may damage your computer system).
(iii)Do not download unsolicited data from unknown website.

Computer Threat
Threat in a computer system is a possible danger that might put your data security on stake. The
damage is at times irreparable.

Definition
As defined by the National Information Assurance Glossary −

45
  “Any circumstance or event with the potential to adversely impact an IS through unauthorized access,
destruction, disclosure, modification of data, and/or denial of service.”
 A computer threat can be "intentional" such as hacking or "accidental" such as malfunctioning of or
physical damage.

Types of Threat
Following are the most common types of computer threats −
 Physical damage − It includes fire, water, pollution, etc.
 Natural events − It includes climatic, earthquake, volcanic activity, etc.
 Loss of services − It includes electrical power, air conditioning, telecommunication, etc.
 Technical failures − It includes problems in equipment, software, capacity saturation, etc.
 Deliberate type − It includes spying, illegal processing of data, etc.
Some other threats include error in use, abuse of rights, denial of actions, eavesdropping, theft of
media, retrieval of discarded materials, etc.

Sources of Threat
The possible sources of a computer threat may be −
 Internal − It includes employees, partners, contractors (and vendors).
 External − It includes cyber-criminals (professional hackers), spies, non-professional hackers, activists,
malware (virus/worm/etc.), etc.

Common Terms
Following are the common terms frequently used to define computer threat –
Virus Threats
A computer virus is a program designed to disrupt the normal functioning of the computer
without the permission of the user.
Spyware Threats
Spyware is a computer program that monitors user’s online activities or installs programs without
user’s consent for profit or theft of personal information.
Hackers
Hackers are programmers who put others on threats for their personal gain by breaking into
computer systems with the purpose to steal, change or destroy information.
Phishing Threats
It is an illegal activity through which phishers attempt to steal sensitive financial or personal data
by means of fraudulent email or instant messages.

How to Secure Your Computer System from Threats?

46
Following are the significant tips through which you can protect your system from different types
of threat −

 Install, use, and keep updated Anti-Virus in your system.

 Install, use, and keep updated a Firewall Program.
 Always take backups of your important Files and Folders.
 Use Strong and Typical Passwords.
 Take precaution especially when Downloading and Installing Programs.
 Install, use, and keep updated a File Encryption Program.
 Take precaution especially when Reading Email with Attachments.
 Keep your Children aware of Internet threats and safe browsing.

Computer Virus
A virus is a computer code or program, which is capable of affecting your computer data badly by
corrupting or destroying them.
Computer virus has the tendency to make its duplicate copies at a swift pace, and also spread it
across every folder and damage the data of your computer system.
A computer virus is actually a malicious software program or "malware" that, when infecting
your system, replicates itself by modifying other computer programs and inserting its own code.
Infected computer programs may include data files, or even the "boot" sector of the hard drive.

Types of Virus
Following are the major types of computer virus –
Worms
This is a computer program that replicates itself at a swift pace. Unlike a computer virus, it is self-
contained and hence does not need to be part of another program to propagate itself.
Trojan Horse
A Trojan Horse is also a sort of destructive program that remains disguised in a normal software
program. It is not exactly a virus, as it cannot replicate itself. However, there is possibility that
virus program may remain concealed in the Trojan Horse.
Bombs
It is similar to Trojan Horse, but Logic bombs have some specialty; these include a timing device
and hence it will go off only at a particular date and time.

How Does Virus Affect?

Let us discuss in what ways a virus can affect your computer system. The ways are mentioned
below −

 By downloading files from the Internet.

 During the removable of media or drives.
 Through pen drive.

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  Through e-mail attachments.
 Through unpatched software & services.
 Through unprotected or poor administrator passwords.

Impact of Virus
Let us now see the impact of virus on your computer system −

 Disrupts the normal functionality of respective computer system.

 Disrupts system network use.
 Modifies configuration setting of the system.
 Destructs data.
 Disrupts computer network resources.
 Destructs of confidential data.

Virus Detection
The most fundamental method of detection of virus is to check the functionality of your computer
system; a virus affected computer does not take command properly.
However, if there is antivirus software in your computer system, then it can easily check
programs and files on a system for virus signatures.

Virus Preventive Measures

Let us now see the different virus preventive measures. A computer system can be protected from
virus through the following −

 Installation of an effective antivirus software.

 Patching up the operating system.
 Patching up the client software.
 Putting highly secured Passwords.
 Use of Firewalls.

Most Effective Antivirus

Following are the most popular and effective antivirus from which you can choose one for your
personal computer –
McAfee Antivirus Plus,Symantec Norton Antivirus,Avast Pro Antivirus,Bitdefender Antivirus Plus,Kaspersky
Anti-Virus,Avira Antivirus,Webroot Secure Anywhere Antivirus,Emsisoft Anti-Malware,Quick Heal Antivirus
and ESET NOD32 Antivirus etc

Information System
Information System is a system in which data and information flow from one person or department
to another.

Enterprise Information System/Business Information System: Used to refer to the family of

IT applications that underlies the activities of running and managing a business.

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Transaction-Processing System (TPS): A shared business information system that uses a
combination of information communication technology and manual procedures to process data
and information and to manage transactions.

THE TRANSACTION-PROCESSING SEQUENCE AND TPS OUTPUT AND

REPORTS

Action Document: A document designed to trigger a specific action or to signify that a transaction
has taken place.

Detail Report/Transaction Log: A report describing each processed transaction.

Summary Report: A report that shows the overall results of processing for a period of time or for a
batch of transactions and includes a grand total for all listed transactions and the average
transaction amount.
Exception Report: A report that lists unusual, erroneous, or unacceptable transactions or results.
Updated Master Data: An adjustment of all records in a system in response to a processed
transaction.
Characteristics of TPS
– Processes high volume of similar business transactions
– Supports multiple users in routine, everyday transactions
– Use relatively simple procedures to control processing and to ensure accuracy
– Produces documents and reports
– Updates files and databases
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)
Management Report System/Management Information System (MIS) a business information
system designed to produce the information needed for successful management of a structured
problem, process, department, or business.

Characteristics (MIS)
–Uses data captured and stored as a result of transaction processing
–Reports data and information rather than details of transaction processing
–Assist managers in situations, evaluating conditions, and determining what actions need to be
taken.

–Supports recurring decisions

–Provides information pre-specified reports formats, either in print or on-screen.

Uses of Computer Applications

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In this section, we will discuss the different computer applications and their uses.

 On-line Application
 Real Time Application

Online Applications
Today, most of the applications are being accepted online, whether it is for opening a bank
account, filling admission form, filling job application, etc.
Following are the important forms of online applications –
Banking
Most of the banks are interlinked through computer networking and offer core banking facilities.
Computer networking helps maintain accounts online, offers net banking facility, makes available
online transactions facility, and offers digital signature facility, the biggest advantage being that
ATM machines can dispense money anytime, etc.
Ticket Booking
Ticket booking has become easier with computer networking. Flight ticket, railway ticket, and
even bus ticket can be booked online with simple and easy steps.
Passport Application
If you want to apply for a new passport, you can do it by yourself online. Besides, you can also
apply for other essential documents online such as PAN card, Aadhaar Card, etc.
Job Application
Today, most of the applications (private as well as government) are being filled online. Many of
the organizations also conduct competitive exams leading to employment online.
Admission Application
Most of the schools and universities have made their admission applications available online; they
also accept fees online.

Real-time Application
Real-time application is a computer based application program that functions in a given period of
time. Or in other words, in a given period of time, a user has to perform certain functions before
the time lapses.
For example, if you are making online transactions, then you have to provide the required
information in a given time framework or else you will miss the chance.
Following are significant examples of real-time application –
Videoconferencing
With this technology, people can connect with each other visually from different places.
VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol)
This technology helps to make telephone calls over digital computer networks.

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E-commerce transactions
This technology helps in buying and selling products over the digital computer network.
Online banking
Online banking is virtual banking from any place with the help of computer networks.
Instant messaging
This is where messages can be exchanged over the Internet instantly.
Online gaming
This enables playing of games partially or completely over the Internet.

Networking
A computer networking is a process of connecting two more than two computers with the purpose
to share data, provide technical support, and to communicate (especially for the business purpose.
Internet is the technology that is used to connect different computer systems (located in different
geographic location). Networking technology has revolutionized the world and created a new
arena for the overall development of every nation.

Advantages of Networking
Let us now discuss the advantages of networking. The advantages are described below
Facility of Technical Support
Because of having computer networking, a person sitting in the United States of America
provides technical support to a person sitting in a remote part of India.
Easy Sharing of Data
With the help of networking, it is very simple to share all formats of digital data from one
computer system to another (irrespective of their geographic location).
Easy Sharing of Hardware Resource
With the help of networking, it has now become very simple to share the expensive resources
including storage space, processor, fax, etc.
Easy Sharing Software
Through the networking system, it is easy to share and install the software from one computer
system to another computer system.
Easy to Decentralize Data Processing
Through the networking system, it is very simple to decentralize the data processing system. It
ultimately helps to control, secure, and manage the important data.
Easy to Communicate
With the help of networking, the communication system has now become highly efficient, frugal,
and fast. The different modes of communication are text chatting, video chatting, emails, etc.

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Types of Network
In this section, we will discuss the different types of network. The types are described below −

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network

Local Area Network or simply LAN is the technique of interconnecting a few computers located
in a given premise. It is normally used for a single business office or a residential apartment.
The major purpose of such interconnectivity is to establish a communication system in order to
make the work easier.
However, in such connectivity, some other devices can also be attached such as laser printers, fax
machine, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network or simply MAN is a system of network that normally covers a large
metropolitan area (city part).
It provides high speed Internet services throughout the area covered within the network.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Network or simply WAN is a system of network that covers a large geographical area
across the world.
The services of WAN are provided by public (government) agencies as well as private agencies.
The network also provides the facility to access databases located remotely.
The WAN system is highly beneficial for MNCs and other big corporate companies (offering
online services).
NETWORK TOPOLOGY

A network topology is the geometric arrangement or layout of computers in a network. The following
types of layouts are common:

Point-To-Point Network Topology, Bus Network Topology, Star Network Topology,Ring

Network Topology, and Tree Network Topology.

What is Electronic Commerce?

Electronic commerce or simply ecommerce is normally a process that involves facilitating the
availability of products and services online. The users can search, choose, sell, buy from a wide
range of options through Internet.
The major activities of ecommerce are as follows −

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  Selling products and services online (through internet)
 Buying products and services online
 Paying and accepting payment online
 Transaction of businesses and other services online

Features of E-Commerce
Following are the important features of ecommerce −

 It efficiently increases the business capability.

 It substantially reduces the cost.
 It perceptively increases the delivery services.
 It unbreakable solution of quick business transactions and office automation.
 It potentially increases the intra-business functionality.
 It competently increases the business communication.

Types of E-Commerce
Following are the major types of e-commerce businesses –
Business-to-Business (B2B)
It is conducted between two business firms.
Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
It is conducted between the business firm and the consumer.
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Consumer-to-consumer business deals happen between two consumers; there are certain websites
that facilitate a common platform to both the consumers - one who wants to buy and one who
wants to sell.

Benefits of E-Commerce
Let us now discuss the benefits of e-commerce −
 It facilitates free market.
 It is available 24×7.
 Its presence is global (there is no constrain of political boundary as such).
 Set up cost is substantially low.
 It provides user-friendly technology.
 It offers multiple opportunity parallel and simultaneously.
 It provides frugal facilities to promote and market businesses.
 It has features to offer market research facility.
 It makes customer relations management easier.
 It facilitates the provision of 24×7 customer care services.

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  It provides fund transfer facility domestically as well as internationally with simple steps.

Software Programming
In order to make a computer functional, a set of instructions need to be programmed, as these
programmed languages are carriers to the performance of a task.
Likewise, a computer accepts users’ instructions in the form of computer programming and then
carries out the given task.

Features of Software Programming

A computer program, which actually is a set of instructions and helps computer to
perform a specific task, has the following basic features −
 It ensures the given instructions are performed successfully.
 It ensures the given instructions are performed in sequential order.
 Explains the input (data) given is correct or insufficient and accordingly gives the result.
 It is written with high level language.

Steps to Development of Program

Development of programming language is entirely dependent on the kind of problem and
requirement. However, development of a programming language normally (not essentially, but)
includes the following steps –
Defining the Problem
This the first step, wherein the problem has to be defined.
Analysis of Task and Methods
Once the problem is defined, the developer analyzes and develops various solutions in order to
solve the problem and finally, the best feasible solution is developed.
Development of Algorithm
Algorithm is a proper technique that illustrates the right solution in logical and feasible steps.
Algorithm is normally done in the form of flowcharts and pseudo codes.
Verification of Algorithm
Once the algorithm is developed, it cannot be applied directly rather primarily it needs to be tested
specially for the accuracy. If there is any error, it is rectified and solved in the beginning itself.
The verification process saves time, money, and energy.
Coding
Once the basic processes and steps are completed successfully, then the actual coding of a
program starts in the given programming language.
Testing of Program
Testing of the development of program code is another essential feature, as it is bound with errors;
hence, testing makes it error free. The developer keeps testing and correcting the coding until

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he/she develops it finally.
Documentation
Once the coding and programming is done successfully, it is the job of the developer to document
all these features and steps. The documented program instructs users on how to run and operate
the respective program.
Implementation
Once the above steps are executed successfully, the developed codes (programming language) are
installed in the computer system for the end users. The users are also manuals - explaining how to
run the respective programs.

Algorithm Flowchart
A flowchart is a blueprint that pictorially represents the algorithm and its steps. The steps of a
flowchart do not have a specific size and shape rather it is designed in different shapes and sizes

Benefits of Flowchart
Let us now discuss the benefits of a flowchart.
Simplify the Logic
As it provides the pictorial representation of the steps; therefore, it simplifies the logic and
subsequent steps.
Makes Communication Better
Because of having easily understandable pictorial logic and steps, it is a better and simple way of
representation.
Effective Analysis
Once the flow-chart is prepared, it becomes very simple to analyze the problem in an effective
way.
Useful in Coding
The flow-chart also helps in coding process efficiently, as it gives directions on what to do, when
to do, and where to do. It makes the work easier.
Proper Testing
Further, flowchart also helps in finding the error (if any) in program
Applicable Documentation
Last but not the least, a flowchart also helps in preparing the proper document (once the codes are
written).
ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the study of human factors related to things people use, including computers.
Physical health problems and their solutions include:

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Eyestrain and headache – take frequent breaks; avoid glare on the monitor.
Back and neck pain – use adjustable chairs, tables, monitor stands, keyboards, and footrests.
Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI), also known as repetitive motion industry, includes carpal
tunnel syndrome – take frequent breaks, use good posture; adopt healthy lifestyle; use
ergonomic keyboards.

THE ENVIRONMENT
Microcomputers are the greatest users of electricity in the work place. The Energy Protection
Agency EPA has established the Energy Star Program ESP to promote energy efficient computer
use to reduce or eliminate hazards. The computer industry has responded with the concept of the
GREEN PC.
The Green PC
The basic elements of the green PC include:
System units with energy-saving processors, sleep-mode capability, efficient adapters, and no
cooling fans.
Display units that replace CRT displays with flat panels, use special power-down monitors, and
use screen savers software.
Manufacturing that eliminates or reduces the use of harmful chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), nickel, and other heavy metals.
Personal Responsibility
As a responsible computer user, you can help protect the environment by:
Conserving energy by turning off computer systems at night and using screen-savers.
Educating yourself and others about ecological dangers and using ecologically sound products.
Recycling paper, computer boxes, packaging materials, printer cartridges, and floppy disks.

REASONS FOR USING DATABASE

The following are reasons for using a database:

Enterprise Database: Large multiuser database systems developed and maintained by IT professionals.
Personal Database (PC Database): Typically reside on personal computers and are designed to
support a particular function.
Storing Data-Retrieving Data
– Query/Querying: A question to be answered by accessing the data in a database.
Editing: Adding, deleting, or changing the data about companies.
Organizing Data
Distributing Data and Information

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