MODULE – 1 CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

INTRODUCTION TO CELLS
A cell is the smallest, basic unit of life responsible for all life processes.

CELL STRUCTURE (EUKARYOTIC CELL)

Cell/Plasma Membrane: The cell membrane is a barrier that surrounds the cell, controlling
the movement of substances in and out. It is selectively permeable, allowing only certain
molecules to pass through.
Cell Wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer outside the cell membrane, providing structural support
and protection, especially in plant cells.
Nucleus: The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material and controls cell activities by
regulating gene expression.
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is a gel-like substance where organelles are suspended and where
many chemical reactions take place.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, producing energy (ATP) through
cellular respiration.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The ER is a network of membranes involved in protein and lipid
synthesis, including the rough ER with ribosomes attached and the smooth ER for lipid
metabolism.
Golgi Apparatus: The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport
within or outside the cell.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, where amino acids are assembled
into proteins according to mRNA instructions.

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Lysosomes: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes for breaking down waste materials and
cellular debris.
Vacuoles: Vacuoles are storage sacs for water, nutrients, or waste products, providing
structural support and maintaining turgor pressure in plant cells.
Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that maintain cell shape,
provide mechanical support, and assist in cell movement and organelle transport.
Cilia: Cilia are hair-like structures that extend from the cell surface and are involved in
movement and sensory functions, such as in the respiratory tract to move mucus.

CELL FUNCTIONS
1. Energy Production (Metabolism) – Cells generate energy through cellular respiration,
mainly in the mitochondria. They break down glucose in the presence of oxygen to
produce ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), which powers cellular activities. Cells divide
and differentiate to form tissues, organs, and organisms.
2. Protein Synthesis – Cells create proteins through transcription (in the nucleus) and
translation (at ribosomes). These proteins serve structural, enzymatic, and regulatory
roles essential for cell function. Some cells, like muscle cells, have the ability to
contract and produce movement.
3. Transport of Materials – The cell membrane regulates the movement of substances
using passive (diffusion, osmosis) and active (endocytosis, exocytosis) transport to
maintain homeostasis and communication with the environment.
4. Growth and Reproduction – Cells grow by increasing in size and divide through mitosis
(for growth and repair) or meiosis (for sexual reproduction), ensuring the continuity of
life.
5. Response to Stimuli (Cell Signalling) – Cells detect and respond to signals from their
environment using receptors and signalling pathways, allowing them to adapt,
communicate, and coordinate functions within a multicellular organism.

STEM CELLS

“Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different types of cells,
from muscle cells to brain cells.”

• Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells.

• These cells have strong healing power. They can evolve into any type of cell.

APPLICATIONS OF STEM CELLS

1. Regenerative Medicine & Tissue Repair – Stem cells are used to repair or replace
damaged tissues and organs, such as regenerating heart tissue after a heart attack or
treating spinal cord injuries.
2. Treatment of Blood Disorders – Stem cell therapy is widely used in treating leukaemia,
lymphoma, through bone marrow stem cell transplants.

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 3. Drug Testing & Development – Stem cells help in testing new drugs for safety and
effectiveness by creating human-like tissues in the lab, reducing the need for animal
testing.
4. Understanding Genetic Diseases – Scientists use stem cells to study the development
of genetic disorders like Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and diabetes for better treatment
strategies.
5. Cosmetic & Anti-Aging Therapies – Stem cell-based treatments are being explored in
skincare, hair regeneration, and anti-aging therapies to rejuvenate damaged or aging
tissues.

INTRODUCTION TO BIOMOLECULES
• Biomolecules are essential organic molecules involved in the maintenance and
metabolic processes of living organisms.
• They range from small molecules like primary and secondary metabolites and
hormones to large macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and
lipids.
• Biomolecules play a crucial role in the sustenance of life, serving various functions in
living organisms.

CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are defined chemically as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or
compounds that produce them on hydrolysis.
• In simpler terms, carbohydrates are sugars or substances that taste sweet.
• Carbohydrates are collectively called saccharides.
PROPERTIES
1. Energy-Rich Molecules – Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy, with glucose
being the most important fuel for cells.
2. Water Solubility – Simple carbohydrates (like glucose) dissolve in water, making them
easy to transport in the bloodstream.
3. Structural Role – Complex carbohydrates, like cellulose in plants and chitin in insects,
provide structural support.
4. Chemical Reactivity – Carbohydrates can easily undergo chemical reactions like
oxidation to release energy.
5. Sweetness – Simple sugars like fructose and glucose give a sweet taste, making them
essential in food.
FUNCTIONS
1. Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy, providing fuel for the brain,
muscles, and other tissues.
2. Excess carbohydrates are stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscles for
later use.
3. Carbohydrates, such as cellulose, provide structural support to plants, forming the cell
walls.

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 4. Consuming complex carbohydrates, such as whole grains and vegetables, can help with
weight management by providing a feeling of fullness and reducing the risk of
overeating.
5. Dietary fibre, a type of carbohydrate, aids in digestion by promoting regular bowel
movements and maintaining gut health.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the repeating unit) is
known as the nucleotides and hence sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as
polynucleotides.
PROPERTIES
1. Store Genetic Information – DNA and RNA carry genetic instructions for building and
maintaining life. DNA stores long-term information, while RNA helps in protein
synthesis.
2. Made of Nucleotides – Nucleic acids are composed of repeating units called
nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (A,
T, C, G in DNA; A, U, C, G in RNA).
3. Complementary Base Pairing – In DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and
cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G), ensuring accurate replication and information
transfer.
4. Can Replicate – DNA has the ability to make exact copies of itself, ensuring genetic
continuity across generations.
5. Involved in Protein Synthesis – RNA helps convert genetic information into proteins.
mRNA carries the code, tRNA brings amino acids, and rRNA helps form ribosomes.
FUNCTIONS
1. Information storage: Nucleic acids, particularly DNA, store genetic information in the
form of nucleotide sequences. This genetic information contains the instructions for
the synthesis of proteins and regulates various cellular processes.
2. Help in Cell Division & Replication – DNA copies itself (replication) before cell division
to ensure that new cells get the same genetic information.
3. Energy Transfer – ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), a modified nucleotide, acts as the
energy currency of the cell, providing energy for various cellular functions.
4. Protein synthesis: Nucleic acids, specifically RNA, play a central role in protein
synthesis through the process of translation.
5. Immune response: Nucleic acids can trigger immune responses when recognized as
foreign by the immune system.
Eg- viral RNA or double-stranded RNA, can stimulate the production of antiviral
proteins as part of the host defence against infections.

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PROTEINS
• Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of amino acids.
• They are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's cells,
tissues, and organs.
PROPERTIES
1. Colour and Taste: Proteins are usually colourless and tasteless, homogeneous and
crystalline. The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide
chain.
2. Shape and Size: They range in shape from simple crystalloid spherical structures to
long fibrillar structures.
3. Colloidal nature: Due to their giant sizes, proteins exhibit many colloidal properties,
lightscattering in solution, resulting in visible turbidity (Tyndall effect)
4. Denaturation: This is a process that involves the disruption of the secondary and
tertiary structures of the protein, leading to the loss of biological activity.
5. Amphoteric nature: Just like amino acids, proteins are amphoteric in nature, i.e. they
act as both acids and alkalis.
FUNCTIONS
1. Enzymatic activity: Many proteins act as enzymes, which are biological catalysts
that facilitate biochemical reactions. Examples include digestive enzymes like
amylase and protease.
2. Transportation: Certain proteins function as carriers or transporters, facilitating
the movement of molecules across cell membranes or throughout the body. For
instance, haemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from
the lungs to tissues and organs.
3. Hormonal regulation: Proteins serve as hormones. Eg: Hormones such as insulin,
growth hormone, and adrenaline are protein-based and play essential roles in
controlling metabolism, growth, and stress responses.
4. Immune response: Proteins are integral to the immune system, where they act as
antibodies to recognize and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and
toxins.
5. Structural role: Proteins provide structural support to cells and tissues. For
example, collagen is a fibrous protein that forms the structural framework of
connective tissues like skin, tendons, and bones.

LIPIDS
• Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in
nonpolar solvents.
• They include fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.
PROPERTIES
1. Insoluble in Water – Lipids do not dissolve in water but are soluble in organic solvents
like alcohol and ether.
2. Energy-Rich Molecules – Lipids store more energy per gram than carbohydrates and
proteins.

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 3. Hydrophobic & Amphipathic Nature – Some lipids (like phospholipids) have both
water-loving (hydrophilic) and water-repelling (hydrophobic) parts, essential for cell
membrane formation.
4. Varied Structures – Lipids include fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes, each
with different roles in the body.
5. Thermal Insulation – Fat stored in the body helps maintain body temperature by
reducing heat loss.
FUNCTIONS
1. Hydrophobicity: The hydrophobic nature allows lipids to form membranes and act as
barriers between aqueous compartments within cells of organisms.
2. Energy storage: One of the primary functions of lipids is energy storage. Lipids such as
triglycerides store energy in the form of long-term fuel reserves. When broken down
through metabolism, lipids yield more energy per gram than carbohydrates or
proteins, making them efficient energy storage molecules.
3. Insulation and protection: Lipids, particularly adipose tissue, serve as insulation to
help maintain body temperature by reducing heat loss. Adipose tissue also acts as a
cushion to protect organs from physical shock or injury.
4. Hormone synthesis: Lipids are precursors for the synthesis of various hormones and
signaling molecules. Estrogen and testosterone, are derived from cholesterol. These
hormones regulate diverse physiological processes including metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and stress responses.
5. Transport of fat-soluble vitamins: Lipids facilitate the absorption and transport of
fatsoluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) in the bloodstream to various tissues where they
are needed for biological functions.

ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological molecules that act as catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions
in living organisms without being consumed in the process.
PROPERTIES
1. Specificity: Enzymes exhibit high specificity for their substrates, meaning they catalyze
specific reactions involving particular molecules (substrates).
2. Catalytic Activity: Enzymes increase the rate of reactions without being consumed in
the process. They facilitate reactions by providing an alternative pathway with lower
activation energy.
3. Efficiency: Enzymes can accelerate reactions by factors of up to millions or even
billions. This efficiency allows cells to carry out essential processes rapidly at
physiological conditions.
4. Reusability: Enzymes can catalyze multiple reactions without being altered or
consumed in the process. They can repeatedly bind to substrates and facilitate the
conversion of substrates to products.
5. Optimal Conditions: Enzymes have specific optimal conditions for activity, including
pH, temperature, and substrate concentration. Deviations from these optimal
conditions can affect enzyme activity.

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FUNCTIONS

1. Biotechnology: Enzymes are widely used in biotechnological applications, including

food processing, pharmaceutical production, environmental remediation, and DNA
technology.
2. Immune Response: Enzymes such as proteases, nucleases, and lipases are involved in
the immune response by degrading foreign pathogens (e.g., viruses, bacteria) and
cellular debris, facilitating their clearance from the body.
3. Digestion: Digestive enzymes facilitate the breakdown of complex nutrients (e.g.,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) in food into simpler molecules that can be absorbed
and utilized by the body.
4. Detoxification: Enzymes such as cytochrome P450 oxidases catalyze the detoxification
and elimination of drugs, pollutants, and toxins, from the body.
5. Metabolism: Enzymes play a central role in metabolism, the collective set of
biochemical reactions that sustain life. They catalyze the breakdown and synthesis of
molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal physiological function but are
not produced in sufficient amounts by the body and must therefore be obtained from the diet.
PROPERTIES
1. Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal growth, development,
and metabolism.
2. Vitamins are micronutrients, which means they are required by the body in small
amounts but are essential for maintaining health.
3. Vitamins are considered essential nutrients because they cannot be synthesized in
sufficient amounts by the body and must be obtained from the diet.
4. Vitamins are classified into two groups based on their solubility: fat-soluble vitamins
(A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins (B-complex vitamins and vitamin C).
5. Deficiency of vitamins can lead to various health problems, while excessive intake can
lead to toxicity. The body has specific mechanisms to regulate vitamin levels.
FUNCTIONS
1. Some vitamins, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene (a precursor to vitamin
A), act as antioxidants, helping to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals.
2. Vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption and bone mineralization, playing a crucial
role in maintaining healthy bones and teeth.
3. Vitamins A, C, D, and E are important for supporting the immune system and helping
the body fight off infections and diseases.
4. Vitamin A is essential for vision, particularly for the health of the retina and the ability
to see in low light conditions.
5. Vitamin K is essential for the synthesis of proteins involved in blood clotting, helping
to prevent excessive bleeding.
6. Vitamins B1, B6, and B12 are important for nerve function and the synthesis of
neurotransmitters, which are essential for communication between nerve cells.

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HORMONES
• Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that regulate
various physiological processes in the body.
• They are released into the bloodstream and travel to target tissues, where they exert
their effects.
PROPERTIES
1. Chemical Messengers – Hormones are specialized molecules that transmit signals
from glands to target cells, regulating body functions.
2. Produced by Endocrine Glands – They are secreted by endocrine glands (e.g., thyroid,
pancreas, adrenal glands) directly into the bloodstream.
3. Target-Specific Action – Each hormone affects only specific cells that have matching
receptors (e.g., insulin acts on liver and muscle cells to regulate blood sugar).
4. Work in Small Quantities – Hormones are highly potent and effective even in very low
concentrations.
5. Regulated by Feedback Mechanisms – The body controls hormone levels using
feedback loops (e.g., negative feedback controls insulin and thyroid hormone levels to
maintain balance).

FUNCTIONS
1. Hormones like insulin and glucagon regulate glucose metabolism and energy balance.
2. Growth hormone and thyroid hormones are essential for growth and development
during childhood and adolescence.
3. Sex hormones like Estrogen and Testosterone regulate reproductive function and
secondary sexual characteristics.
4. Hormones like cortisol and adrenaline help the body respond to stress and regulate
the fight-or-flight response.
5. Hormones help maintain internal balance (homeostasis) by regulating processes like
blood pressure, electrolyte balance, and body temperature.

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Compare Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in
μm in diameter diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically simple in
complex in nature nature
Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present
a nucleoid region in the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in size and
spherical in shape linear in shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are present
absent
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

Question bank:
1. Explain the structure of eukaryotic cell with a labelled diagram.
2. Describe the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
3. Explain what stem cells are and applications.
4. Explain functions of carbohydrates.
5. Summarize properties and functions of proteins.
6. Explain the functions of lipids.
7. Explain what nucleic acids are and functions.
8. Explain properties of enzymes.
9. Describe functions of vitamins.
10. Explain properties of hormones.
11. Explain what enzymes are and functions of enzymes.