MSU 071401 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

NATURE OF RESEARCH METHODS

ITEMS TO BE COVERED:
 What is Research?
 Why do we do Research?
 Types of Research
 Research Process
 Ethics in Research
NATURE OF RESEARCH METHODS
“The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge
but imagination?”

Albert Einstein
 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
 In a general terms, research is a process of acquiring
knowledge:
 Knowledge is acquired through:
 1.Through reasoning/rationalism – Acquiring knowledge through
reasoning. In this way, existing information is carefully stated
and logical rules are followed to arrive at conclusion.

Reasoning is a process of inferring conclusion from statements.

Error in reasoning is called a fallacy.

Reasoning Process:

 Deductive - a conclusion or an inference drawn as a

consequence of certain reasoned facts.

 All well-executed projects have very cohesive well-

integrated teams. (Reason 1)
 The ABC project has many shortfalls. (Reason 2)
 The ABC project team is not a very cohesive and
integrated team. (Inference).

 Create more other arguments:

Reasoning process cont.
 Inductive thought/reasoning - Here there is no strong
and absolute cause and effect between the reasons
stated and the inference drawn.
 It is the thinking that moves from observation of few
cases to making generalized conclusions.
 It states degree of likelihood.
 2. Empiricism – knowing something through observation or
generally through use of senses.

 3. Through intuition – A direct acquisition of knowledge

without intellectual effort or sensory processing, eg
mysticism, spiritualism, and feeling related knowledge.
Rapid assessment based on experiences, attitudes and
feelings.

 4. Authority – knowledge gained from those viewed as

authority, e.g parents, political figures, experts
WHAT IS RESEARCH...CONT
 Research…
 5. Through RESEARCH, in which appropriate scientific
methods are used. Science combines empiricism and
rationalism.

 Research is the application of the scientific method which

include systematic process of collecting and logically
analyzing information (data)
WHAT IS RESEARCH...CONT
 Research is …
organized, systematic, data-based, critical, scientific
inquiry or investigation into a specific problem,
undertaken with the objective of finding answers or
solutions to it.

 Research is …
organized, systematic, data-based critical scientific inquiry
or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with
the objective of finding answers or solutions to it.
Scientific Method
WHAT IS RESEARCH...CONT….

 Some Key Questions

 1. What are the common methods of acquiring
knowledge?
What is research… cont.
 At minimum, scientific research involves the
following:
 1. Posing a question

 2. Developing procedures to answer the question

 3. Making empirical observation.

 4. Rationally interpreting the empirical observation.
 5. Using those interpretations to predict other events.
 6. Communicating the research findings
 (Graziano & Raulin, 2014)
WHAT IS RESEARCH...CONT

 Research ……
 1.a. The systematic investigation into and study of
materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions.

 1.b. an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc.

by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical
investigation. [Oxford Concise Dictionary]
 The hallmark of Scientific Research
 1. Purposiveness – the researcher has to start with a
definite purpose (Sekaran, 2003). Objectives are
clearly set. Above all, in R&D one has to say predict the
usefulness of the research.
 2. Rigor – research work has to be based on a sound
theoretical base, and sound methodological design.
Rigor connotes to carefulness, scrupulousness, and
degree of exactness.
 3. Testability - Involves setting and testing
hypothesis. Eg. Perceived greater participation in
decision making would increase the level of employees
commitment.
What is Research?: The hallmark of Scientific Research.. Cont.
 4. Replicability – the findings of a research should be
replicable, i.e if other similar subjects/participants are
involved, using the same methods there must be similar
results.
 5. Objectivity – the conclusions drawn from the
interpretation of results should be objective. The results of
the data analysis should be derived from the actual data. If
the results do not support the hypothesis, say it. The more
objective, the more scientific ….
 6. Precision and Confidence – precision refers to
closeness of the findings to “reality” based on the sample.
Confidence to the probability that our estimations are
correct.
 What is Research?: The hallmark of Scientific Research..
Cont.

 7. Generalizability – Refers to scope of applicability.

 Research sampling design has to be logically developed,
and other logical methods of data collection need to be
followed to ensure applicability.

 8. Parsimony – Economy.
 Eg. see the two options below:
 a) Change 3 variables to get 45% increase in employees
efficiency
 b) Change 10 variables to increase worker efficiency by 48%.
Why do we do Research?
 To monitor a situation, to assess a situation, to evaluate
the impact of something.

 To develop a model that predicts the likely cause of events

given particular intervening variables or circumstances.

 To create or test a theory.

 To change/modify and formulate a policy

 To change/modify and formulate a law

Types of Research
 According to its Purpose/Use

 Applied research
 Basic research

 According to your Depth of Scope

 Exploratory research
 Explanatory research
 Descriptive research

 According to the Type of Data Used

 Quantitative research
 Qualitative research

 According to the Sources of Information

 Primary and Secondary Research

Types of research cont.

 Other types Based of Procedure/methods used or Area of study:

 Experimental Research
 Action Research
 Participatory action research
 Longitudinal Research
 Case studies
Descriptive Research

 Research that describes what is, describing, recording, analyzing, and

interpreting conditions that exist .

 Involves some type of contrast and attempts to discover relationships

between non-manipulated variables .

 Research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a

particular individual, situation, or group.

 Used as a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exits,

determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing
information.

 The systematic investigation of relationships among two or more variables,

without determining or interpreting cause and effect.
Experimental Research
 describes what will be when certain variables are
carefully controlled or manipulated *

 objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the

purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and
examining probability and causality among selected
variables **

* Best & Kahn (1986); ** Miller-Keane & O’Toole (2005)

Historical Research

 Involves investigating, recording, analyzing, and

interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of
discovering generalizations that are helpful in
understanding the past and the present, and, to a
limited extent, in anticipating the future *

 Research involving analysis of events that occurred in

the remote or recent past **

* Best & Kahn (1986); ** Miller-Keane & O’Toole (2005

Basic vs Applied Research
 Basic – to determine or establish fundamental facts
and relationships within a discipline or field of study.
Develop theories … (examples in economics?)
 Applied – undertaken specifically for the purpose of
obtaining information to help resolve a particular
problem
 The distinction between them is in the application
– Basic has little application to real world policy and
management but could be done to guide applied
research
 Action Research

 Is the application of fact finding to practical problem

solving in social situation.

 The aim is to improve the quality of action/practice in

that social setting.

 It involves collaboration of researchers, practitioners

and laymen (Sarantakos, 2005).

 Very common in classroom settings.

 Participatory Action Research

 Characterized by strong involvement and degree of

participation of the members of the public in the
research process.
Research Process
Research Idea
Analyze and
Communicate
Problem Definition
Findings

Process Data (coding, , Review concepts, theories,

cleaning) and previous research
findings theories,

Collect Data Design the Research

(observation) (Sample, questionnaire)
 Ethics in Research

 Ethics here included “dos” and “don'ts” of the research work.

 Research projects are supposed to be checked to ensure that

they abide to ethics.

 Countries and institutions may establish boards for research

ethics, e.g. NIMR – National Institute for Me

 Institutions sending their members to do research have to

require that they abide to certain established “Code of Ethics.”

 Research Ethics, apart from protecting participants, ensures

credibility of the findings.
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH
 Ethical Aspects in Research research cont.

 Ethical standards in research focus on the following

issues:
 Physical and mental harm to the respondents
 Anonymity and confidentiality
 Deception
 Coercion
 Plagiarism
 Fabrication or concealment of findings
In more general terms, the researcher has to ethically
relate to actors and other aspects of research context as
elaborated below:
 Ethics and Relationships among Actors in
Research

 Researcher- professional standards

 Maintain objectivity.
 Uphold professional integrity.
 Demonstrate competence.
 Use relevant research methodology.
 Choose appropriate interpretation of data.
 Avoid fabrication of data
 Avoid falsification of data
 Ethics in research cont.

 The researcher-respondent relationship

 Avoiding harm to respondents (physical, mental or legal
harm)
 Free, voluntary and fully informed participation
(Informed consent)
 Verbal or signed consent
 Privacy, anonymity and confidentiality
 Privacy – abstain from respondents’ private affairs
 Anonymity – no names in your data
 Confidentiality – researcher may keep the names linked to the data, but
include that in the report.
Ethics in research cont.

 Researcher-researcher relationship
 Misleading ascription of authorship – to ascribe
authorship to people who did not participate or to fail to
attribute work contributed by some people, eg. students
 Misuse of authority or role – eg criticizing work of
others on the basis of personal bias.

 Plagiarism – using other people’s work without

acknowledging.
 Ethics in research cont.
 Researcher- animal relationship

 Animals should be kept under acceptable conditions –

get their basic needs

 There should be reasons for subjecting animals to

research.

 Animals should not ne tortured, injured or put under

stress
Thank you
very much!