21CSC302J- Computer Networks

Dr. R.Mohandas
CINTEL
SRM IST
Unit1- Introduction to Networks
 Computer Networks
What is a computer network?
A computer network is a connection between
two or more network devices, like computers,
routers, and switches, to share network
resources.

The establishment of a computer network

depends on the requirements of the
communication channel, i.e., the network can be
wired or wireless.
 Types of Networks

According to the communication requirements,

multiple types of network connections are
available. The most basic type of network
classification depends on the network's
geographical coverage.
Different types of Networks
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
 Local Area Network (LAN)

The Local Area Network (LAN) is designed

to connect multiple network devices and
systems within a limited geographical
distance. The devices are connected using
multiple protocols for properly and
efficiently exchanging data and services.
It can cover an area of 2 km to 10 km.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network

type that covers the network connection of an entire
city or connection of a small area.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each
other through a telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-
232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It can cover an area of 5 km to 50 km.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

• The Wide Area Network (WAN) is designed to

connect devices over large distances like states or
between countries. The connection is wireless in
most cases and uses radio towers for
communication.
• The WAN network can be made up of multiple
LAN and MAN networks.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single
location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or
satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the
world.
• It covers from 100 to several 1000 km.
 Personal Area Network (PAN)

• The Personal Area Network (PAN) Personal Area

Network is a network arranged within an
individual person, typically within a range of 10
meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop
the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.
• It covers the range between 10 to 15 meters
 Network Topology

• Network topology refers to the way that nodes and

connections are physically and logically arranged
in a network.

• Networks consist of a series of links and nodes.

Nodes include devices like routers, switchers,
repeaters, and computers. A network topology
describes how these components are arranged in
relation to each other and how data moves through
the network.
• Network topology affects many aspects of network
functionality including data transfer speeds,
network efficiency, and network security.
 Bus Topology

• In a bus topology, each node is connected to a

single cable, like bus stops branching off from a
bus route. The data transmission all flows through
that one central connection. Because everything is
connected in a straight line off one central cable,
it’s a cost-effective topology, and simple to set up
and add new nodes.
• However, a shared central link does have
drawbacks. In a system that has one central link
with many dependencies, a failure of that central
link causes all dependencies to fail. Bus networks
are also not as secure as some other types due to
this shared central link. Additionally, the more
nodes that share a central cable, the slower a
network is.
 Ring Topology

• In a ring network, the nodes and links are arranged

in a ring. Each node has exactly two neighbors. In
such a network, repeaters are used to ensure that
data can reach the nodes that are farthest away
from each other in the ring. Data usually flows
unidirectionally in a ring network.
• These kinds of networks are cheap to install and
expand, and data flows quickly within the network.
But a failure of a single node can bring down the
whole network. Dual-ring networks are used to
protect against this type of failure.
 Star Topology

• In a star network, all the nodes are connected to a

central hub. The nodes are positioned around that
central hub in a shape that roughly resembles a
star.

• This topology type makes it easier to troubleshoot

issues with a particular node. If a single node fails,
the rest of the network is unaffected. That said, if
the central hub goes down, then the entire network
goes down with it. In a star network, the
performance of the entire network depends on the
central hub and the connections to it.
 Mesh Topology
• In a mesh network, each device is connected to at
least one other node in the network. In a full mesh
network, each node is connected to every other
node.
• Since nodes can communicate directly with each
other, rather than through a central hub,
communication on a mesh network is often very
fast.
• Mesh networks also offer greater security—if a
node is attacked or compromised it can be
replaced.
• However, mesh networks are often expensive to
set up, requiring many cables to establish the
connections and lead to maintenance costs that are
higher than in other types of topologies.
 Hybrid Topology
• A hybrid network topology is any type of network
that uses a combination of topologies. A tree
network that combines a star network and a bus
network is a type of hybrid topology.

• Hybrid networks offer flexibility and help

organizations design a topology that specifically
meets its needs. However, creating a customized
network architecture can be challenging and can
require more cabling and network devices, raising
maintenance costs.
 Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is a type of network configuration in which a physical

path is obtained and dedicated to a single connection between two
endpoints in the network for the duration of a dedicated connection.
Ordinary voice phone service uses circuit switching. This reserved
circuit is used for the duration of a call. As long as the call lasts, the
circuit cannot be used for anything else.
 Circuit Switching used for
Continuous connections: Circuit switching is used for connections that must be continuous
for long periods of time, such as long-distance communication. Traditional telephone
systems -- i.e., landlines -- are an example of a technology that uses circuit switching.
Dial-up network connections: When computers connect to the internet via a dial-up
service, it uses the public switched network. With dial-up, Internet Protocol (IP) data
packets are carried over a circuit-switched telephone network.
Optical circuit switching: Data center networks also use circuit switching. Optical circuit
switching is used to scale traditional data centers and meet growing bandwidth
requirements.
 Phases of Circuit Switching
Connection establishment. Also called call setup, this phase establishes a dedicated circuit
between two communicating endpoints. The parties send a message back and forth
acknowledging the established connection. There are usually intermediate links or switches
between the two parties.
Data transfer. Data -- usually voice -- is transmitted from the source to the destination. The
connection remains intact for the length of the interaction.
Connection relinquishment. This is also called the teardown phase. At the end of the
interaction, one of the two endpoints sends a message initiating a disconnection. The
communication path, including the intermediate links, is terminated.
How Circuit Switching Works
 Packet Switching

Packet Switching transmits data across digital networks by breaking it

down into blocks or packets for more efficient transfer using various
network devices. Each time one device sends a file to another, it breaks
the file down into packets so that it can determine the most efficient
route for sending the data across the network at that time. The
network devices can then route the packets to the destination where
the receiving device reassembles them for use.
 Packet Switching

Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across various

networks. These data chunks or “packets” allow for faster, more efficient
data transfer. Often, when a user sends a file across a network, it gets
transferred in smaller data packets, not in one piece.
For example, a 3MB file will be divided into packets, each with a packet
header that includes the origin IP address, the destination IP address, the
number of packets in the entire data file, and the sequence number.
How Packet Switching Works
The OSI Reference Model

OSI
The OSI Model
• OSI “ Open Systems Interconnection".
• OSI model was first introduced in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO).
• Outlines WHAT needs to be done to send data from one computer to another.
• Not HOW it should be done.
• Protocols stacks handle how data is prepared for transmittal (to be transmitted)
• In the OSI model, The specification needed
• are contained in 7 different layers that interact with each other.
What is “THE MODEL?”

• Commonly referred to as the OSI reference model.

• The OSI model

• is a theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how data gets from
one user’s computer to another.

• It is also a model that helps develop standards so that all of our

hardware and software talks nicely to each other.

• It aids standardization of networking technologies by providing an

organized structure for hardware and software developers to follow, to
insure there products are compatible with current and future
technologies.
 Evolution of the 7-Layers

• Single Layer Model - First Communication Between Computer Devices

• Dedicated copper wire or radio link
• Hardware & software inextricably intertwined
• Single specification for all aspects of communication

Hardware Hardware
& &
Software Software

1
DEVICE A DEVICE B
 Evolution of the 7-Layers (6)

Application Application
Presentation Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Network
Data-Link Data-Link
Physical Physical

• The Seven Layer OSI Model - Addition of Management and Security

1
– Standardizing notation or syntax for application messages (abstract syntax)
– Set of encoding rules (transfer syntax)
– Became the Presentation Layer
What Each Layer Does

2
• Gives end-user applications access to
network resources

• Where is it on my computer?
• Workstation or Server Service in MS
Windows

3
Presentation Layer

3
Session Layer

• Allows applications to maintain

an ongoing session

• Where is it on my computer?
• Workstation and Server
Service (MS)
• Windows Client for
NetWare (NetWare)

3
Transport Layer

• Provides reliable data delivery

• It’s the TCP in TCP/IP

• Receives info from upper layers

and segments it into packets

• Can provide error detection

and correction
3
Figure 2.9 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for

the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
 Network Layer

• Provides network-wide addressing and a

mechanism to move packets between
networks (routing)

• Responsibilities:
• Network addressing
• Routing

• Example:
• IP from TCP/IP 3
 Network layer

The network layer is responsible for

the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Data Link Layer

• Places data and retrieves it from

the physical layer and provides
error detection capabilities

3
 Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
 Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer

• MAC (Media Access Control)

• Gives data to the NIC
• Controls access to the media through:
• CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
• Token passing
• LLC (Logical Link Layer)
• Manages the data link interface (or Service Access Points (SAPs))
• Can detect some transmission errors using a Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC). If the packet is bad the LLC will request the sender to
resend that particular packet.
Physical Layer

• Determines the specs for all

physical components
• Cabling
• Interconnect methods (topology /
devices)
• Data encoding (bits to waves)
• Electrical properties
• Examples:
• Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
• Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) 3

• Wireless (IEEE 802.11b)

Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible

for the movement of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical Layer (cont’d)

• What are the Physical Layer components on my computer?

• NIC
• Network Interface Card
• Has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal number permanently
burned into it at the manufacturer.
• The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a computer
• Cabling
• Twister Pair
• Fiber Optic
• Coax Cable
 How Does It All Work Together

• Each layer contains a Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

• PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer contact between
corresponding layers.

• Data is handled by the top three layers, then

Segmented by the Transport layer.

• The Network layer places it into packets and the

Data Link frames the packets for transmission.

• Physical layer converts it to bits and sends it out

over the media.

• The receiving computer reverses the process using 2

the information contained in the PDU.
Remembering the 7 Layers

7 - Application All
6 - Presentation People
5 - Session Seem
4 - Transport To
3 - Network Need
2 - Data Link Data
1 - Physical Processing
 TCP/IP Model

What is TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a communications standard that
enables application programs and computing devices to exchange
messages over a network. It is designed to send packets across the
internet and ensure the successful delivery of data and messages over
networks.
 TCP/IP Model
What is TCP
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a communications standard that enables application
programs and computing devices to exchange messages over a network. It is designed to send
packets across the internet and ensure the successful delivery of data and messages over
networks. TCP organizes data so that it can be transmitted between a server and a client.

• It guarantees the integrity of the data being communicated over a network. Before it transmits
data, TCP establishes a connection between a source and its destination, which it ensures remains
live until communication begins. It then breaks large amounts of data into smaller packets, while
ensuring data integrity is in place throughout the process.
 TCP/IP Model
What is mean by protocol
• Protocols are sets of rules for message formats and procedures that
allow machines and application programs to exchange information.
• These rules must be followed by each machine involved in the
communication in order for the receiving host to be able to
understand the message. The TCP/IP suite of protocols can be
understood in terms of layers (or levels).
TCP/IP Suite of Protocol
 TCP/IP Model How works
• TCP/IP carefully defines how information moves from sender to receiver. First, application
programs send messages or streams of data to one of the Internet Transport Layer Protocols,
either the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). These
protocols receive the data from the application, divide it into smaller pieces called packets, add a
destination address, and then pass the packets along to the next protocol layer, the Internet
Network layer.

• The Internet Network layer encloses the packet in an Internet Protocol (IP) datagram, puts in the
datagram header and trailer, decides where to send the datagram (either directly to a destination
or else to a gateway), and passes the datagram on to the Network Interface layer.
 TCP/IP Suite of Protocol
Movement of information from sender application to receiver host
 TCP/IP Suite of Protocol
Movement of information from Host to Application
 TCP/IP Model
What is IP
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method for sending data from one device to another across the internet. Every
device has an IP address that uniquely identifies it and enables it to communicate with and exchange data with
other devices connected to the internet. Today, it’s considered the standard for fast and secure
communication directly between mobile devices.

IP is responsible for defining how applications and devices exchange packets of data with each other. It is the
principal communications protocol responsible for the formats and rules for exchanging data and messages
between computers on a single network or several internet-connected networks. It does this through the
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) a group of communications protocols that are split into four abstraction layers.
 TCP vs IP: What is the difference?
• TCP and IP are separate protocols that work together to ensure data is delivered to its intended
destination within a network. IP obtains and defines the address—the IP address—of the application or
device the data must be sent to. TCP is then responsible for transporting and routing data through the
network architecture and ensuring it gets delivered to the destination application or device that IP has
defined. Both technologies working together allow communication between devices over long
distances, making it possible to transfer data where it needs to go in the most efficient way possible.
• In other words, the IP address is akin to a phone number assigned to a smartphone. TCP is the
computer networking version of the technology used to make the smartphone ring and enable its user
to talk to the person who called them.
 TCP/ IP questions
• What is TCP used for?
• Difference between TCP and IP
 Physical layer Overview
• The physical layer in the OSI model controls
how the data is transferred over the physical
medium in a network channel.
• It is also responsible for converting the data
frames received from the Data-link layer into
data bits of 1’s and 0’s for transmission over
the network.
• It is also responsible for maintaining the data
quality by applying the necessary protocols
and maintaining the data bit rate.
 Characteristics of Physical layer
1. Signals: When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first
converted into electromagnetic signals. Data itself can be analog such as
human voice, or digital such as file on the disk. Both analog and digital data
can be represented in digital or analog signals.
2. Transmission medium:
Wired Medium: The connection is made through cables for data transfer.
E.g., Fiber optic cable, Coaxial cable, etc.
Wireless Medium: The connection established is performed using the wireless
communication network models.
E.g., Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc.
 Functions of the Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for sending computer bits from one device to
another along the network.
Defining bits: Determines how bits are converted from zeros and ones to a
signal.
Data rate: Determines how fast the data flows in bits per second.
Synchronization: Ensures that sending and receiving devices are synchronized.
Transmission mode: Determines the direction of data transmissions and
whether those are simplex (one signal is transmitted in one direction), half-
duplex (data goes in both directions but not at the same time) or full-duplex
(data is transmitted in both directions simultaneously).
 Functions of the Physical layer
Interface: Determines how devices are connected to a transmission medium,
such as Ethernet or radio waves.
Configuration: Provides point-to-point configurations and multipoint
configurations.
Modulation: Converts data into radio waves.
Switching mechanism: Sends data packets from one port to another.
Signal equalization: Helps create more reliable connections and makes
multiplexing easier.
 Latency
Latency is a measurement of delay in a system. Network latency is the amount
of time it takes for data to travel from one point to another across a network.
A network with high latency will have slower response times, while a low-
latency network will have faster response times.
 How Latency is measured
Network latency is measured in milliseconds
by calculating the time interval between the
initiation of a send operation from a source
system and the completion of the matching
receive operation by the target system.2

One simple way to measure latency is by

running a “ping” command, which is a
network diagnostic tool used to test the
connection between two devices or servers.
During these speed tests, latency is often
referred to as a ping rate.
 Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is a measurement of the volume of data that can pass through a
network at any given time. It is measured in data units per second, such as
megabits per second (mbps) or gigabits per second (gbps).
• Bandwidth is what you’re used to hearing about from your service provider when
choosing connection options for your home.
• This is a source of great confusion, as bandwidth is not a measure of speed but of
capacity. While high bandwidth can facilitate high internet speed, that capability is
reliant on factors like latency and throughput as well.
 Comparison of latency to Bandwidth
If you think of the network as a water pipe, bandwidth indicates the width of the
pipe, and latency is the speed at which water travels through the pipe. Although less
bandwidth increases latency during peak usage, more bandwidth does not
necessarily mean more data. In fact, latency can reduce the return on investment in
expensive, high-bandwidth infrastructure.
 Throughput
• Throughput is a measurement of the average amount of data that actually passes
through a network in a specific time frame, taking into account the impact of
latency. It reflects the number of data packets that arrive successfully and the
amount of data packet loss. It is usually measured in bits per second, or sometimes,
data per second.

• It indicates the number of data packets that arrive at their destination successfully
and the data packet loss.
 Comparison of latency to Throughput
Throughput measures the impact of latency on network bandwidth. It indicates the
available bandwidth after latency. For example, a network's bandwidth may be 100
Mbps, but due to latency, its throughput is only 50 Mbps during the day but increases
to 80 Mbps at night.
 Jitter
• Another factor in network performance is jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in
latency of packet flows across a network. A consistent latency is preferable to high
jitter, which can contribute to packet loss—data packets that are dropped during
transmission and never arrive at their destination.
• Jitter is the variation in time delay between data transmission and its receipt over a
network connection. A consistent delay is preferred over delay variations for better
user experience.
 Comparison of latency to Jitter
Jitter is the change in the latency of a network over time. Latency causes delays in
data packets traveling over a network, but jitter is experienced when these network
packets arrive in a different order than the user expects.
 Relationship between latency, bandwidth and throughput

A simplified, but helpful way to remember the relationship between latency,

bandwidth and throughput is that bandwidth is the amount of data that could travel
over a network, throughput is the measure of how much actually transfers per
second, and latency is the time it takes to do so.
 Delay
• Network delay is a design and performance characteristic of a telecommunications
network. It specifies the latency for a bit of data to travel across the network from
one communication endpoint to another.
• It is typically measured in multiples or fractions of a second. Delay may differ
slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints.
 Types of Delay

• Processing delay – time it takes a router to process the packet header

• Queuing delay – time the packet spends in routing queues
• Transmission delay – time it takes to push the packet's bits onto the link
• Propagation delay – time for a signal to propagate through the media
Transmission media
 Guided Media
Twisted paid cable
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated
copper wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern.
• Twisted pair (TP) maybe used to transmit
both analog and digital signal.
• For analog signals amplifiers are required
about every 5 to 6 kms. For digital
signals repeaters are required every 2 to 3kms.
 Guided Media
Twisted paid cable Applications
1. It is the most commonly used medium of
telephone n/w.
2. In the telephone system individual residential
telephone sets are connected to the local telephone
exchange or to end office by twisted pair wire.
3. Twisted pair also the most common medium used
for the digital signaling for connections to a digital
data switch.
4. It is also commonly used within a building for
LAN.
 Guided Media
Co-axial cable
The name coaxial is because it contains two
conductors that are parallel to each other and share
common axis.
• Inner conductor is made of copper which is
surrounded by PVC insulation.
• The outer conductor is metal foil, mesh or both.
• Outer metallic conductor is used as a shield
against noise.
• Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and
digital signal.
 Guided Media
Co-axial cable Applications
• TV distribution
• Long distance telephone transmission
• Short distance communication links
• LAN
 Guided Media
Fiber optics cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of
• light.
• A light pulse can be used to signal a one (1) bit.
• The absence of a pulse signals a zero(0).
• The bandwidth of an optical transmission system is potentially
enormous.
• An optical fiber has an cylindrical shape and consists of 3
concentric section –
• (i) Core
• (ii) Cladding
• (iii) Jacket
 Guided Media
Fiber optics cable Applications
• Telephones, including cellular wireless
• Internet
• LANs - local area networks
• CATV - for video, voice and Internet connections
• Utilities - management of power grid
• Security - closed-circuit TV and intrusion sensors
• Transportation – smart lights and highways
• Military and everywhere
 Unguided Media
Unguided media transmit electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This is also called as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through
free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them.
 Unguided Media
Radio wave Transmission
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequency between 3
kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves.
• Radio waves, are omnidirectional, i.e. they are
propagated in all directions.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by
any receiving antenna
• Radio waves, particularly of low and medium
frequencies, can penetrate walls.
• It is an advantage because, an AM radio can receive
signals inside a building.
 Unguided Media
Radio wave Transmission Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful formulticasting,
in which there is one sender but many receivers.
• AM and FM radio,
• Television,
• Maritime radio,
• Cordless phones and paging.
 Unguided Media
Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies
between 1GHz and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• When an antenna transmits microwave
waves, they can be narrowly focused.
• This means that the sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned.
 Unguided Media
Microwave Transmission Applications
Long-distance telecommunication service requires fewer amplifiers or repeaters than
coaxial cable
Example
• Telephone system
• TV distribution
• Short point-to-point links
• Data link between local area network
• Closed-Circuit TV
 Unguided Media
Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), Used for short-range
communication. Infrared communication is achieved using
transmitters/receivers (Transceivers)
• Transceiver must be in line of sight of each other either
directly or via reflection
• from light colored surface such as the sealing of the room.
• The remote controls used for televisions, VCRs, and
stereos all use infrared
• communication.
• They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build.
 Unguided Media
Infrared Applications
• TV Remote control
• Guidance in weapon system
• Wireless keyboards and mouse.