CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Silk is a natural, luxurious fabric that comes from silk producers. It is a material made from silk,
the silkworm's fibers, and it has the qualities of being soft, bright, and durable. The fabric started
off slowly but is now running with a feeling of lightness and the division of the air to provide
more comfortable temperatures. Also, it has a light touch on your skin. On top of this, it is light
in weight and has a transparent nature which makes it possible to breeze. The fact that it is one of
the most resistant synthetic fibers is even utilized. It is not only resistant but whether a lea light
falls on it it can give a natural luster. It also contains the characteristic of smelling spilled
material, which will be the way one can wear silk in whatever the climate is ( Chung-haur
Howard Lo et al., 2021).

The original array of silk is manyfold, which has some particular characteristics. Mulberry silk,
which is sourced by silkworms that eat leaves only from mulberry, is actually the most
commonly found and also the highest quality type. Tussar silk, on the other hand, is non-textured
with a slightly reduced luster and it is mostly manufactured in India. Eri silk, which also has a
quite different name "Ahimsa silk," is a soft, wool-like material and it is produced in non-
destructive ways. In India, Muga silk, a rare golden-yellow variety, is mainly brought into the
country from Assam. Dupioni silk with its textured, crisp finish is widely used in the production
of formal wear (Ahsan et al., 2020).

Silk is a well-known fabric in garment production for which it is used in the making of dresses,
saris, scarves, neckties, and lingerie garments. It is also much liked for draperies, upholstery,
pillowcases, and bed linens. Luxury handkerchiefs, ribbons as well as silk embroidered textiles
find their circulation in silk accessories.

There are some of the steps to take to care for a silk garment, such as washing and dry cleaning
are recommended, rather than the use of more potent detergents that might damage the fibers.
Silk has to be kept away from direct sunlight to avoid the harm that it has on the fabric. For silk
to be pressed well, ironing on a low-temperature setting or using a protective cloth to cover the
silk should be the best choice.
Due to stringent regulations aimed at minimizing the use of artificial or synthetic colors due to
their toxicity in the food and textile industries by global consumers, the use of natural dyes in
textile dyeing is currently rising significantly. Around 10,000 tons of natural dye are needed
worldwide, which accounts for 1% of the world's consumption of synthetic dyes (Park, 2007;
Satianarayanan et al., 2012). However, this ratio is sharply rising daily since, in contrast to
synthetic colors used in the textile business, natural dyes are biodegradable, environmentally
benign, and readily absorbed by the soil, water, air, and microorganisms. These natural colors
have a lower carbon footprint and are non-toxic, non-allergic, and readily available.

Nowadays, there are widespread and cheap synthetic dyes with the colored fastness ranging from
moderate to excellent and a wide range of colors. Unfortunately, the wastewater that these dyes
create is not degradable, which turns out to be very harmful to the environment.

The synthetic dyes that are producing toxic and dangerous effluent are endangering nature and its
biodiversity, as well as contaminating our air, water, soil, and human habitat. These are the
unwanted appearances and noxious aftereffects of synthetic or artificial dye application, which
can cause soil, sediment, and surface water contamination, making them the main global
pollutants (Naqvi et al., 2024). When synthetic dyes are used, workers may get severe health
problems such as cancer, bronchitis, asthma, and skin problems. Due to increased awareness of
the health risks and environmental contamination associated with the production, use, and
processing of synthetic dyes, natural dyes are receiving more attention globally. Due to the
harmful and health effects of synthetic dyes, several nations are attempting to reduce their usage
by enforcing strict regulations (Vankar, 2006).

An eco-friendly silk-dye technique is a process that has a slight impact on nature because it uses
natural, harmless, and biodegradable colorants. To realize sustainability, silk dyeing uses
materials that are plant-based or have a lower impact than synthetic dyes, which often contain
hazardous chemicals and require a lot of water.

As modern studies focus on sustainability and eco-friendly dyeing methods in the textile
coloration industry, Mangifera indica (mango tree) has emerged as a viable option (Akram et al.,
2024). Mangifera indica, also known as the mango tree, is a tropical fruit-bearing tree that is
native to South Asia but is grown extensively across the world's tropical and subtropical zones. It
is a member of the Anacardiaceae family and is prized for its hardwood, tasty fruit, and
therapeutic qualities.

The Mangifera indica tree has a wide, thick canopy and can reach a height of 30 to 40 meters
(98 to 131 ft). Its lanceolate, leathery, dark green leaves contrast with tiny, fragrant flowers that
bloom in huge panicles.

In the present work, an effort has been made to dye silk fabric with a natural dye extracted from
Mangifera indica leaves in an acidic solution and evaluate its dyeing behavior under different
parameters like time, pH, and mordant concentration. Dyeing is carried out at optimized
conditions, both with and without mordants, and the resultant color fastness of the dyed sample
to washing, rubbing, and water is evaluated. Additionally, the color strength (K/S value) and
dye characterization are assessed (Singhee et al., 2018).

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Exploring Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction and Eco-Friendly Dyeing of Organic Cotton Using

Mango Leaf Extracts

Akram et al. (2024) conducted a groundbreaking study on the ultrasonic-assisted extraction of

natural dyes from mango leaves (Mangifera indica) and their application in the eco-friendly
dyeing of organic cotton fabric. The study was motivated by the increasing demand for natural
dyes due to the adverse environmental and health impacts of synthetic dyes. The researchers
employed an ultrasonic extraction method, which is known for its efficiency in extracting
bioactive compounds from plant materials. Initially, 10 grams of mango leaf powder were
dissolved in 150 mL of purified water at a material-to-liquor (M:L ) ratio of 1:15. The extracted
dye solution was then used in the dyeing process, with M:L ratios of 1:16, 1:12, and 1:8 to
produce dark, medium, and light shades, respectively. Post-mordanting was performed using
natural lemon juice, which significantly improved the colorfastness properties of the dyed fabric.
The study utilized advanced analytical techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to confirm the successful
bonding of the dye molecules to the cotton fibers. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) revealed
that the dyed fabric exhibited higher thermal stability compared to the undyed fabric.
Additionally, the researchers evaluated the pH, formaldehyde levels, and the presence of
forbidden azo groups in the dyed samples, confirming that no harmful chemicals were present.
The results demonstrated excellent colorfastness properties, including washing, rubbing, and
light fastness, making mango leaf extract a viable alternative to synthetic dyes (Akram et al.,
2024).

Eco-Friendly Dyeing of Silk and Cotton Textiles Using Combination of Three Natural Colorants

Jose et al. (2016) explored the eco-friendly dyeing of silk and cotton textiles using a combination
of three natural colorants: Acacia catechu, Alkanna tinctoria, and Curcuma longa. The study
aimed to evaluate the dyeing performance, color strength, and fastness properties of these natural
dyes on both silk and cotton fabrics. The researchers employed an exhaustion dyeing method at
80°C without the use of mordants, which is a significant departure from traditional dyeing
practices that often rely on metallic mordants. The results indicated that silk fabrics exhibited
higher dye uptake (K/S values) compared to cotton, suggesting a stronger affinity of natural dyes
for protein-based fibers like silk. The study also assessed the biodegradability of the dye bath
effluent by measuring pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), and chemical oxygen demand (COD).
The findings revealed that the effluent from natural dyeing processes was less harmful to the
environment compared to synthetic dye effluents, aligning with the growing demand for
sustainable textile processing. One of the key contributions of this study is the demonstration of
how natural dyes can act as self-mordants, reducing the need for additional chemicals. The
researchers also highlighted the potential of combining multiple natural dyes to achieve a wide
range of colors, which is often a limitation when using single natural dyes. However, the study
acknowledged challenges such as lower color fastness to washing and light compared to
synthetic dyes, which could limit the commercial viability of natural dyes in certain applications
(Jose et al., 2016).
Sustainable Dyeing of Mulberry Silk Fabric Using Extracts of Green Tea (Camellia sinensis)

Borah et al. (2023) investigated the sustainable dyeing of mulberry silk fabric using extracts of
green tea (Camellia sinensis). The study focused on extracting functional components such as
polyphenols and flavonoids from green tea leaves using water and methanol/water solvent
systems. The researchers optimized the extraction process by studying the effect of pH on the
yield of total polyphenols and flavonoids. The extracted dye was then applied to mulberry silk
fabric using mordanting techniques, with a focus on achieving improved color strength (K/S
values), color coordinates, and fastness properties. The results showed that mordant dyeing at
80°C for 45 minutes significantly enhanced the color properties of the dyed silk fabric. The study
also evaluated the UV protection and antimicrobial activities of the dyed fabric, revealing that
green tea extracts provided excellent UV protection and antimicrobial properties. X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to demonstrate the bonding properties of tea
polyphenols on silk, confirming the strong interaction between the dye molecules and the silk
fibers. The researchers also conducted theoretical interaction energy calculations, which
indicated good stability of the mordanted dye on silk. This study highlights the potential of green
tea extracts as a natural dye for silk fabric, offering not only aesthetic benefits but also functional
properties such as UV protection and antimicrobial activity (Borah et al., 2023).

Eco-Friendly Application of Coconut Coir (Cocos nucifera) Extract for Silk Dyeing

Adeel et al. (2021) explored the eco-friendly application of coconut coir (Cocos nucifera) extract
for silk dyeing. The study focused on extracting tannin-based natural dyes from coconut coir
powder using ultrasonic-assisted extraction. The researchers optimized the dyeing conditions,
including dyeing time, dye bath pH, temperature, and the effect of salts, to achieve high color
strength and fastness properties. The results showed that the acid-solubilized extract, after
ultrasonic treatment for 45 minutes, yielded the highest color strength when applied to silk
fabric. The study also compared the performance of bio-mordants (e.g., turmeric) with chemical
mordants (e.g., iron), revealing that turmeric provided the highest color strength (K/S = 13.828),
while iron offered excellent results (K/S = 2.0856). Physiochemical analysis of the fabric before
and after ultrasonic treatment confirmed that there was no change in the chemical structure of the
fabric, indicating the safety and sustainability of the dyeing process. The researchers highlighted
the potential of ultrasonic waves in isolating colorants and the benefits of using herbal-based bio-
mordants for sustainable and clean dyeing processes (Adeel et al., 2021).

Natural Dyeing of Silk Fabric with Mango Leaf Extract: A Sustainable Approach

Bechtold et al. (2022) investigated the natural dyeing of silk fabric using mango leaf extract as a
sustainable alternative to synthetic dyes. The study focused on optimizing the extraction process
to maximize the yield of natural dyes from mango leaves. The researchers employed a water-
based extraction method and evaluated the dyeing performance on silk fabric under varying pH
and temperature conditions. The results showed that the extracted dye exhibited excellent affinity
for silk fibers, with high color strength (K/S values) and good fastness properties. The study also
highlighted the environmental benefits of using mango leaf extract, as it is biodegradable and
non-toxic. The researchers concluded that mango leaf extract is a promising natural dye for silk
fabric, offering both aesthetic and environmental advantages (Bechtold et al., 2022).

Degumming Silk by CO2 Supercritical Fluid and Their Dyeing Ability with Plant Indigo

Lo et al. (2021) explored the eco-friendly degumming of silk using CO2 supercritical fluid and
its subsequent dyeing with plant-based indigo. The study aimed to develop a sustainable
alternative to traditional degumming and dyeing processes, which often involve harmful
chemicals. The researchers used CO2 supercritical fluid for degumming, which is a non-toxic
and environmentally friendly method. The degummed silk was then dyed with plant-based
indigo, and the results showed excellent dye uptake and colorfastness properties. The study
demonstrated that CO2 supercritical fluid degumming is a viable alternative to conventional
methods, offering significant environmental benefits (Lo et al., 2021).
Natural Dyeing of Silk and Jute Fabric with the Aqueous Extract of Coconut Leaves

Hossain et al. (2023) investigated the natural dyeing of silk and jute fabric using the aqueous
extract of coconut leaves. The study focused on evaluating the dyeing properties of the extract,
both with and without metallic mordants. The results showed that the extract produced a yellow
shade when used alone, while the use of mordants resulted in a variety of shades. The dyed
fabrics exhibited good colorfastness properties, particularly for silk. The study highlighted the
potential of coconut leaf extract as a sustainable and eco-friendly dye for natural fibers (Hossain
et al., 2023).

Modern Eco-Friendly Approach for Extraction of Luteolin Natural Dye from Weld for Silk
Fabric and Wool Yarn Dyeing

Naqvi et al. (2024) explored the eco-friendly extraction of luteolin, a natural dye from weld, and
its application in dyeing silk fabric and wool yarn. The study employed microwave-assisted
extraction to enhance the yield of luteolin and optimized the dyeing conditions using a response
surface methodology. The results showed that the extracted dye exhibited excellent colorfastness
and brightness, particularly when used with iron and aluminum mordants. The study
demonstrated the potential of luteolin as a sustainable natural dye for textiles (Naqvi et al.,
2024).

Studies on Dyeing Process Variables for Application of Tesu (Butea monosperma) as Natural
Dye on Silk Fabric

Singhee et al. (2018) conducted a scientific study on the natural dyeing of silk using Tesu (Butea
monosperma) flower petals. The researchers standardized the extraction procedure, mordant
concentration, and dyeing conditions to achieve optimal color strength and fastness properties.
The results showed that the optimized conditions for dyeing silk with Tesu extract were 40% dye
concentration, a material-to-liquor ratio of 1:20, pH 4, and a dyeing time of 60 minutes at 60°C.
The study highlighted the potential of Tesu as a sustainable natural dye for silk fabric (Singhee et
al., 2018).

Enzymatic Natural Dyeing of Cotton and Silk Fabrics Without Metal Mordants

Vankar (2006) developed a two-step ultrasonic dyeing process for cotton and silk fabrics using
natural dyes such as Terminalia arjuna, Punica granatum, and Rheum emodi. The study
employed enzymatic pretreatment to enhance dye adsorption and colorfastness properties. The
results showed that the enzymatic treatment significantly improved the dyeing performance of
both cotton and silk fabrics, offering an environmentally benign alternative to metal mordants.
The study demonstrated the potential of enzymatic dyeing as a sustainable and eco-friendly
approach for textile coloration (Vankar, 2006).

Theoretical Background

Mango (Mangifera indica): An Overview

Mango (Mangifera indica), a member of the Anacardiaceae family, is one of the most widely
cultivated tropical fruits globally and a significant traditional crop. It is grown extensively in
countries such as India, China, Thailand, Indonesia, Pakistan, Mexico, Brazil, Bangladesh,
Nigeria, and the Philippines (FAO, 2023). While the fruit is the primary commercial product, the
tree also yields a substantial amount of by-products, including leaves, flowers, stems, and bark,
during pruning. These by-products often pose disposal challenges for farmers, as they are not
commercially utilized to their full potential (Kumar et al., 2021). This section explores the
theoretical background of mango leaves, focusing on their chemical components, biological
characteristics, ecological relevance, botanical description, and pharmacological properties.
Chemical Components of Mango Leaves

Mango leaves are rich in bioactive compounds, which contribute to their therapeutic and
industrial applications. The primary chemical components include:

 Polyphenols: Mangiferin, quercetin, and gallic acid are the major polyphenols found in
mango leaves. These compounds are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
properties (Ajila et al., 2010).

 Flavonoids: Flavonoids such as kaempferol and catechin are present in significant

amounts, contributing to the leaves' antimicrobial and anti-diabetic effects (Shah et al.,
2010).

 Tannins: Tannins in mango leaves have astringent properties and are used in traditional
medicine for wound healing and anti-inflammatory purposes (Kaur et al., 2019).

 Essential Oils: The leaves contain essential oils like limonene and α-pinene, which are
responsible for their aromatic properties and potential applications in the pharmaceutical
and cosmetic industries (Kumar et al., 2021).

Table 1: Major Chemical Components of Mango Leaves

Compound Properties Applications

Mangiferin Antioxidant, anti-diabetic Pharmaceuticals, natural dyes

Quercetin Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial Cosmetics, food additives

Gallic Acid Antioxidant, anti-cancer Pharmaceuticals, textiles

 Compound Properties Applications

Limonene Aromatic, antimicrobial Essential oils, fragrances

Biological Characteristics of Mango Leaves

Mango leaves exhibit several biological characteristics that make them valuable for various
applications. These include:

 Antioxidant Activity: Mango leaves are rich in antioxidants, which help neutralize free
radicals and reduce oxidative stress in biological systems (Ajila et al., 2010).

 Antimicrobial Properties: The leaves demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial

activity against bacteria and fungi, making them a potential natural alternative to
synthetic antimicrobial agents (Shah et al., 2010).

 Anti-inflammatory Effects: Bioactive compounds in mango leaves, such as mangiferin

and quercetin, reduce inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines (Kaur et
al., 2019).

 Anti-diabetic Properties: Mango leaf extracts have been shown to regulate blood sugar
levels by enhancing insulin sensitivity and inhibiting carbohydrate-digesting enzymes
(Kumar et al., 2021).
Table 2: Biological Characteristics of Mango Leaves

Property Mechanism Applications

Antioxidant Neutralizes free radicals Pharmaceuticals, food preservation

Antimicrobial Inhibits bacterial and fungal growth Natural preservatives, wound healing

Anti-
Reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics
inflammatory

Anti-diabetic Enhances insulin sensitivity Natural therapeutics, dietary supplements

Ecological Relevance of Mango Leaves

Mango leaves play a significant role in the ecosystem. Their ecological relevance includes:

 Soil Fertility: Decomposition of mango leaves enriches the soil with essential nutrients,
improving soil fertility (FAO, 2023).

 Carbon Sequestration: Mango trees, including their leaves, act as carbon sinks, helping
mitigate the effects of climate change (Kumar et al., 2021).

 Biodiversity Support: The leaves provide habitat and food for various insects and
microorganisms, supporting biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems (Shah et al., 2010).

Table 3: Ecological Benefits of Mango Leaves

Benefit Description Impact

Soil Fertility Nutrient recycling through leaf litter Improved crop yields

Carbon Sequestration Absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere Climate change mitigation

Biodiversity Support Habitat for insects and microorganisms Enhanced ecosystem health
Botanical Description of Mango Leaves

Mango leaves are simple, alternate, and lanceolate in shape, with a length ranging from 15 to 35
cm and a width of 2 to 6 cm. They have a leathery texture and a glossy, dark green upper surface,
while the lower surface is lighter in color (Kumar et al., 2021). The leaves are arranged spirally
on the branches and have a prominent midrib with pinnate venation. The petiole, or leaf stalk, is
typically 1 to 4 cm long and slightly swollen at the base. Mango leaves are aromatic, with a
distinct fragrance that is characteristic of the Anacardiaceae family (Ajila et al., 2010).

Pharmacological Properties of Mango Leaves

Mango leaves have been traditionally used in Ayurvedic and folk medicine for their therapeutic
properties. Modern research has validated many of these traditional uses, highlighting the leaves'
potential in treating various ailments. The primary pharmacological properties include:

 Antioxidant Activity: Mangiferin and other polyphenols in mango leaves exhibit strong
antioxidant activity, protecting cells from oxidative damage (Shah et al., 2010).

 Anti-diabetic Effects: Mango leaf extracts regulate blood sugar levels by enhancing
insulin sensitivity and inhibiting carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (Kaur et al., 2019).

 Anti-inflammatory Properties: The bioactive compounds in mango leaves reduce

inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines (Ajila et al., 2010).

 Antimicrobial Activity: Mango leaves exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity,

making them effective against bacterial and fungal infections (Shah et al., 2010).

Table 4: Pharmacological Properties of Mango Leaves

 Property Mechanism Applications

Antioxidant Neutralizes free radicals Pharmaceuticals, food preservation

Anti-diabetic Enhances insulin sensitivity Natural therapeutics, dietary supplements

Reduces pro-inflammatory
Anti-inflammatory Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics
cytokines

Antimicrobial Inhibits bacterial and fungal growth Natural preservatives, wound healing

Silk:

Silk is a natural protein fiber produced by certain insects, primarily the larvae of the silkworm
(Bombyx mori). It is renowned for its luxurious texture, luster, and strength, making it one of the
most sought-after fibers in the textile industry. Silk has been used for thousands of years in the
production of high-quality fabrics, garments, and accessories. This section explores the types of
silk, physical structure, chemical structure, physical properties, and chemical properties of
silk.

Types of Silk

Silk can be classified into several types based on the species of silkworm and the production
process. The most common types include:

 Mulberry Silk: Produced by the silkworm Bombyx mori, which feeds exclusively on
mulberry leaves. It is the most widely produced and highest-quality silk, known for its
smooth texture and uniform color (Singhee et al., 2018).
 Tussar Silk: Produced by silkworms of the genus Antheraea, which feed on oak and
juniper leaves. Tussar silk has a slightly coarse texture and a natural golden color (Ahsan
et al., 2020).

 Eri Silk: Also known as "Ahimsa silk," it is produced by the silkworm Samia ricini. Eri
silk is soft, warm, and wool-like, making it suitable for winter garments (Borah et al.,
2023).

 Muga Silk: Produced by the silkworm Antheraea assamensis, native to Assam, India.
Muga silk is known for its natural golden-yellow color and durability (Kumar et al.,
2021).

 Spider Silk: Produced by spiders, this type of silk is known for its exceptional strength
and elasticity. However, it is not commercially viable due to the difficulty in harvesting
(Vollrath & Knight, 2001).
Table 1: Types of Silk and Their Characteristics

Type of Silk Silkworm Species Characteristics Applications

Mulberry Smooth texture, uniform High-end garments, scarves,

Bombyx mori
Silk color lingerie

Coarse texture, golden Ethnic wear, sarees, home

Tussar Silk Antheraea spp.
color furnishings

Winter garments, shawls,

Eri Silk Samia ricini Soft, warm, wool-like
blankets

Antheraea Golden-yellow color, Traditional Assamese attire,

Muga Silk
assamensis durable sarees

Various spider Exceptional strength, Biomedical applications,

Spider Silk
species elasticity research

Physical Structure of Silk

Silk fibers are composed of two main proteins: fibroin (the core fiber) and sericin (the gum-like
coating). The physical structure of silk can be described as follows:

 Fibroin: The core fiber, which accounts for 75% of the silk's weight, is composed of
tightly packed polypeptide chains arranged in a crystalline structure. This gives silk its
strength and elasticity (Vollrath & Knight, 2001).

 Sericin: The outer coating, which accounts for 22.5% of the silk's weight, is a water-
soluble protein that protects the fibroin during the cocoon stage. It is removed during the
degumming process to produce smooth, lustrous silk fibers (Singhee et al., 2018).

Figure 1: Physical Structure of Silk Fiber

Chemical Structure of Silk

The chemical structure of silk is primarily composed of amino acids, with glycine, alanine, and
serine being the most abundant. The fibroin protein consists of repeating units of these amino
acids, forming a β-sheet structure that contributes to silk's strength and flexibility (Vollrath &
Knight, 2001).

Figure 2: Chemical Structure of Silk Fibroin

Chemical Composition of Silk

The chemical composition of silk is primarily made up of proteins, with the following
components:
  Fibroin (75%): The core protein responsible for silk's strength and elasticity. It is
composed of amino acids such as glycine, alanine, and serine (Vollrath & Knight, 2001).

 Sericin (22.5%): The gum-like protein that coats the fibroin fibers. It is removed during
the degumming process to produce smooth, lustrous silk (Singhee et al., 2018).

 Fat and Wax (1.5%): These components provide moisture resistance and flexibility to
the silk fibers (Ahsan et al., 2020).

 Mineral Salts (0.5%): Trace amounts of minerals such as calcium and potassium, which
contribute to the fiber's stability (Borah et al., 2023).

Chemical Composition of Silk

 Fibroin (75%): Core protein composed of glycine, alanine, and serine.

 Sericin (22.5%): Outer coating protein, removed during degumming.

 Fat and Wax (1.5%): Provides moisture resistance and flexibility.

 Mineral Salts (0.5%): Includes calcium and potassium for fiber stability.

Physical Properties of Silk

Silk exhibits several unique physical properties that make it a highly desirable fiber:

 Strength: Silk is one of the strongest natural fibers, with a tensile strength of 30–41 g/tex
(dry) and 23–32 g/tex (wet) (Singhee et al., 2018).

 Elasticity: Silk has moderate elasticity, with an elongation of 20–25% at break (Ahsan et
al., 2020).

 Luster: The triangular prism-like structure of silk fibers refracts light, giving silk its
characteristic shimmering appearance (Vollrath & Knight, 2001).
  Thermal Properties: Silk is highly heat-sensitive, with decomposition beginning at
170°C and ignition at 420°C (Borah et al., 2023).

Table 2: Physical Properties of Silk

Property Value Description

Tensile Strength 30–41 g/tex (dry), 23–32 g/tex (wet) High strength, suitable for fine fabrics

Elongation at
20–25% Moderate elasticity
Break

Luster High Shimmering appearance

Decomposes at 170°C, ignites at Heat-sensitive, requires careful

Thermal Stability
420°C handling

Chemical Properties of Silk

Silk exhibits several important chemical properties that influence its behavior during processing
and use:

 Effect of Acids: Concentrated mineral acids can dissolve silk, while organic acids have
little effect (Singhee et al., 2018).

 Effect of Alkalis: Silk is less sensitive to alkalis than wool but can be damaged by strong
alkaline solutions at high temperatures (Ahsan et al., 2020).

 Effect of Bleaching: Silk is sensitive to strong bleaches like sodium hypochlorite but can
be safely bleached with hydrogen peroxide or sodium perborate (Borah et al., 2023).

 Dye Affinity: Silk has a high affinity for dyes, readily absorbing acid, basic, and direct
dyes (Vollrath & Knight, 2001).

Table 3: Chemical Properties of Silk

 Property Effect Implications

Requires careful handling

Acid Sensitivity Dissolves in concentrated mineral acids
during dyeing

Mild detergents
Alkali Sensitivity Damaged by strong alkalis at high temps
recommended for washing

Use hydrogen peroxide for

Bleaching Sensitivity Sensitive to strong bleaches
safe bleaching

Excellent for vibrant, long-

Dye Affinity High affinity for acid, basic, direct dyes
lasting colors

Natural Dyes: An Overview

Natural dyes are colorants derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, and minerals.
Unlike synthetic dyes, which are chemically synthesized, natural dyes are biodegradable, non-
toxic, and environmentally friendly. They have been used for thousands of years in textile
dyeing, but their popularity declined with the advent of synthetic dyes in the 19th century.
However, due to growing environmental concerns and the demand for sustainable products,
natural dyes are experiencing a resurgence in the textile industry (Krizova, 2015).

What Are Natural Dyes?

Natural dyes are obtained from various natural sources, including:

 Plant Sources: Leaves, roots, bark, flowers, and fruits of plants such as indigo, turmeric,
madder, and mango leaves (Shahid et al., 2013).

 Animal Sources: Insects like cochineal and lac, which produce red and purple dyes
(Bechtold et al., 2007).
  Mineral Sources: Earth minerals such as ochre and iron oxide, which provide earthy
tones (Samanta & Agarwal, 2009).

Natural dyes are typically extracted through processes such as boiling, fermentation, or solvent
extraction. They are applied to textiles using mordants (e.g., alum, iron, or tannins) to improve
colorfastness and durability (Samanta & Agarwal, 2009).

Impact of Natural Dyes on the Textile Industry

The use of natural dyes has several significant impacts on the textile industry:

1. Environmental Benefits:
o Biodegradability: Natural dyes are biodegradable and do not contribute to
environmental pollution (Krizova, 2015).

o Reduced Carbon Footprint: The production and application of natural dyes

require less energy and generate fewer greenhouse gases compared to synthetic
dyes (Shahid et al., 2013).

o Non-Toxicity: Natural dyes are free from harmful chemicals, making them safer
for workers and consumers (Bechtold et al., 2007).

2. Health Benefits:
o Hypoallergenic Properties: Natural dyes are less likely to cause skin irritation or
allergies, making them suitable for sensitive skin (Samanta & Agarwal, 2009).

o Antimicrobial Properties: Some natural dyes, such as those derived from

turmeric and neem, exhibit antimicrobial properties, adding functional value to
textiles (Shahid et al., 2013).

3. Economic and Social Benefits:

 o Support for Local Communities: The production of natural dyes often involves
traditional knowledge and skills, providing livelihoods for rural communities
(Krizova, 2015).

o Market Demand: The growing demand for eco-friendly and sustainable products
has created a niche market for textiles dyed with natural dyes (Bechtold et al.,
2007).

Influence of Natural Dyes on Textile Design and Innovation

Natural dyes have influenced textile design and innovation in several ways:

 Aesthetic Appeal: Natural dyes produce unique, earthy tones that cannot be replicated
by synthetic dyes. This has led to the creation of distinctive and high-value textiles
(Samanta & Agarwal, 2009).

 Sustainability Trends: The use of natural dyes aligns with the global trend toward
sustainable and ethical fashion, encouraging brands to adopt eco-friendly practices
(Krizova, 2015).

 Innovative Applications: Researchers are exploring the use of natural dyes in advanced
applications, such as smart textiles and UV-protective fabrics (Shahid et al., 2013).

Table 1: Comparison of Natural and Synthetic Dyes

Aspect Natural Dyes Synthetic Dyes

Source Plants, animals, minerals Petrochemicals

Environmental Impact Biodegradable, non-toxic Non-biodegradable, toxic

Hypoallergenic, safe for sensitive May cause allergies and skin

Health Impact
skin irritation
Aspect Natural Dyes Synthetic Dyes

Market Demand Growing niche market Dominates the global market

Color Range Limited, earthy tones Wide range of vibrant colors

Degumming Process

Definition of Degumming

Degumming is the process of removing sericin, the gum-like protein coating

the fibroin fibers in raw silk. This process is essential to produce smooth,
lustrous, and soft silk fibers that are suitable for dyeing and further textile
applications (Lo et al., 2021).

Types of Degumming Processes

1. Alkaline Degumming:
o Process: Silk is treated with alkaline solutions (e.g., sodium
carbonate or sodium hydroxide) at elevated temperatures to
dissolve the sericin.

o Purpose: To remove sericin efficiently and prepare silk for

dyeing.

o Advantages: Fast and effective.

o Disadvantages: Can damage the fibroin if not carefully

controlled (Lo et al., 2021).

2. Enzymatic Degumming:
o Process: Enzymes such as proteases are used to break down
the sericin without damaging the fibroin.

o Purpose: To achieve eco-friendly and gentle degumming.

o Advantages: Environmentally friendly and preserves the fiber's

natural properties.

o Disadvantages: More expensive and slower than alkaline

degumming (Vankar, 2006).
 3. Supercritical CO2 Degumming:
o Process: Silk is treated with supercritical carbon dioxide, which
dissolves the sericin without the need for water or chemicals.

o Purpose: To provide an environmentally friendly degumming

method.

o Advantages: No water or chemicals are used, and the process

preserves the fiber's natural properties.

o Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment (Lo et al.,

2021).

Table 1: Types of Degumming Processes

Type Process Purpose Advantages Disadvantages

Treatment with Can damage

Alkaline Remove sericin
alkaline Fast and effective fibroin if not
Degumming efficiently
solutions controlled

Use of
Eco-friendly and Environmentally
Enzymatic proteases to Expensive and
gentle friendly, gentle on
Degumming break down slower
degumming fibers
sericin

No water or
Use of Environmentally Requires
Supercritical chemicals,
supercritical friendly specialized
CO2 preserves fiber
carbon dioxide degumming equipment
properties

Purpose of Degumming
 Improves Texture and Luster: Degumming removes the sericin,
resulting in smooth, shiny silk fibers (Lo et al., 2021).

 Enhances Dyeability: Degummed silk has better dye uptake and

colorfastness compared to raw silk (Vankar, 2006).

 Increases Softness: The removal of sericin makes the silk softer and
more comfortable to wear (Borah et al., 2023).

Mordants as Cross-Linking Agents

Definition of Mordants

Mordants are substances used in dyeing to fix the dye onto the fabric,
improving colorfastness and durability. They act as cross-linking agents,
forming a bridge between the dye molecules and the fabric fibers (Shahid et
al., 2013).

Types of Mordants
1. Natural Mordants:
o Examples: Alum, tannins, lemon juice, and iron salts.

o Purpose: To provide eco-friendly and non-toxic dye fixation.

o Advantages: Environmentally friendly and safe for sensitive

skin.

o Disadvantages: May produce less vibrant colors compared to

synthetic mordants (Samanta & Agarwal, 2009).

2. Synthetic Mordants:
o Examples: Potassium dichromate, copper sulfate, and tin
chloride.

o Purpose: To produce vibrant and consistent colors.

o Advantages: High colorfastness and vibrant shades.

o Disadvantages: Can be toxic and harmful to the environment

(Shahid et al., 2013).

Table 2: Types of Mordants

Type Examples Purpose Advantages Disadvantages

Alum, tannins, Eco-friendly Environmentally

Natural Less vibrant
lemon juice, iron and non-toxic friendly, safe for
Mordants colors
salts dye fixation sensitive skin

Potassium Produce
Toxic and harmful
Synthetic dichromate, vibrant and High colorfastness,
to the
Mordants copper sulfate, tin consistent vibrant shades
environment
chloride colors
Purpose of Mordants
 Improve Colorfastness: Mordants help bind the dye to the fabric,
preventing fading during washing or exposure to light (Shahid et al.,
2013).

 Enhance Color Vibrancy: Mordants can intensify or modify the color

of the dye, producing a wider range of shades (Samanta & Agarwal,
2009).

 Increase Durability: Mordants strengthen the bond between the dye

and the fabric, improving the longevity of the dyed material (Vankar,
2006).

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