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HL IB Biology Your notes

Tool 3: Mathematics
Contents
Applying General Mathematics in Biology
Using Units, Symbols & Numerical Values in Biology
Processing Uncertainties in Biology
Graphing in Biology

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Applying General Mathematics in Biology

Your notes
Applying General Mathematics in Biology
Biology often requires the use of calculations, which can include
Decimals
Most biological calculations use decimals, e.g. calculating the size of a bacterial cell
Fractions
Most scientific calculators will initially give answers as fractions
Make sure you know where the S⇔D button is so that you convert the fraction into a
decimal
Percentages
There are many percentage calculations, including percentage change and percentage
difference
Ratios
The most common ratio requiring understanding is that of surface area to volume ratio
Proportions
Proportionality can be used to understand quantity and scale and is important in biology in
topics such as cell biology when creating biological drawings of cells and tissues from a
microscope image or micrograph
Frequencies
This is most commonly used in understanding change in allele frequency
Densities
We often look at and examine population density in ecology or stomatal density in plant
biology
Approximations
This is used to obtain an approximate value for example when using the magnification formula
Reciprocals
We frequently used reciprocals (1/n) when dealing with concentration versus rate graphs,
using 1/T where T is time

Measures of central tendency

Measures of central tendency involve calculations of mean, median and mode which you should be
able to apply to a range of scenarios and contexts
Mean
The mean is an average of a group of numbers calculated by totaling all values and dividing by
the number of values
Mean is used to summarise a dataset with a single number which represents the data's typical
value
Median
This is the middle number which can be found by ordering all values and picking out the one in
the middle

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It helps us to understand that 50% of values have are smaller or equal to the median and 50%
of values are higher or equal to the median
Mode Your notes
This is the most frequent value in a dataset
It can be useful to understand the most common value in categorical data when the mean and
median can't be used

Measures of dispersion
Measures of dispersion involve applying calculations of standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE)
and interquartile range (IQR) to a range of contexts
These ideas are also considered here with reference to the use of error bars on graph
Standard Deviation
The mean is a more informative statistic when it is provided alongside standard deviation
Standard deviation measures the spread of data around the mean value
It is very useful when comparing consistency between different data sets
The mean must be calculated before working out the standard deviation
Standard Error
Standard error of the mean measures how far the mean of the data is likely to be from the
true mean
It measures the accuracy with which a sample represents a population
The SE is always smaller than the SD
Interquartile Range
This is another method of analysing dispersion of data
It is the difference between the 75th and 25th percentiles of the data
Quartiles are the values that divide the whole series into four equal parts

Scientific notation
Scientific notation is also known as standard form
It is a system of writing and working with very large or very small numbers
Numbers in scientific notation are written as:
a × 10n
They follow these rules:
a is a number above 1 and below 10
For large numbers, n is an integer that is greater than 0
i.e It shows how many times a is multiplied by 10
For small numbers, n is an integer that is less than 0
i.e It shows how many times a is divided by 10
n < 0 for small numbers i.e how many times a is divided by 10

Approximation and estimation

Approximation and estimation are both methods used to obtain values that are close to the true or
accurate values

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While they share some similarities, they have distinct characteristics and are used in different
contexts
Approximation Your notes
Approximation involves finding a value that is close to the actual value of a quantity
It may not necessarily be very precise or accurate
It is often used when an exact calculation is challenging or time-consuming and a reasonably close
value is sufficient
Estimation
Estimation involves making an educated guess or assessment based on available information or data
It is used when the true value of a quantity is unknown or cannot be directly measured
For example biologists estimate dates of the first living cells and the last universal common
ancestor or the method of estimating times by use of the “molecular clock”

Scales of magnification
Magnification is an important skill used widely in biology and frequently assessed in examinations
For more information and worked examples see our revision note on microscope skills

Rates of change
The rate of change tells us how something changes over time
For example oxygen consumption in germinating seeds over a period of days
To determine rates of change from tabulated data, you can use the average rate of change or gradient,
if the data has been plotted as a graph
The average rate of change between two points on a graph or in a table is:
Change in the dependent variable
Rate of change =
Change in the independent variable
Proportionality and correlations
There are a number of terms that are commonly applied to trends, particularly in graphs
Direct and inverse proportionality
Direct proportionality applies to a trend that has a clearly linear relationship which means the
relationship can be described as "when one variable increases, the other increases" or "if x
doubles, then y doubles"
Inverse proportionality means that the relationship can be described as "when one variable
increases, the other decreases" or "if x doubles, then y halves"
Positive and negative correlations
Positive correlations show when the gradient of the graph is positive / slopes or curves
upwards and describes a relationship where as x increases, y also increases
Negative correlations is when the gradient of the graph is negative / slopes or curves
downwards; this describes a relationship where as x increases, y decreases

Percentage change and percentage difference

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Percentage change and percentage difference are commonly used to express the relative change
between two values
They are useful for comparing experimental results, determining reaction yields and analysing Your notes
other chemical data
Percentage change
Percentage change is used to express the relative change between an initial value and a final value
It is calculated using the following formula:
Final value − Intial value
Percentage Change = x100
Initial value
Percentage difference
Percentage difference is used to compare two values to determine how much they differ from each
other as a percentage
In this calculation, the formula you use will depend on which number you use as the devisor.
If you are calculating the difference as a percentage of number A, you should use the following
formula:
( Number A− Number B )
Percentage Difference = x100
Number A
Continuous and discrete data
Discrete data is quantitative
It consists of separate, distinct and countable values
For example:
Number of an organism in a sample
Continuous data is also quantitative
It is based on measurements and can include decimal numbers or fractions
This allows for an infinite number of values
For example:
The temperature of an enzyme reaction as time progresses
The volume of oxygen gas produced during a photosynthesis reaction

Statistical tests
Statistical tests can be used to analyse a range of different data sets
The type of test used will depend on a number of factors such as
The size of the sample
They type of data, i.e. is it discrete or continuous
The nature of the question being investigated
Simpson's reciprocal index
The Simpson’s reciprocal index can be used to measure the relative biodiversity of a given
community
It accounts for both the number of species present (richness) and the number of individuals per
species (evenness)
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A higher index value is indicative of a greater degree of biodiversity within the community
The Lincoln index.
Your notes
This calculation allows an estimate of population sizes of individual animal species
You can read more about the Lincoln Index here
Chi-squared test
A chi-square test is a statistical test that is used to compare observed and expected results
Our revision notes here cover this in detail
The t-test
The t-test can be used to compare the means of two sets of data and determine whether they
are significantly different or not
The sets of data must follow a rough normal distribution, be continuous and the standard
deviations should be approximately equal

Examiner Tip
You will be provided with the formulae for these statistical tests in the exam, your job is to apply them
to a range of contexts and data.

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Using Units, Symbols & Numerical Values in Biology

Your notes
Using Appropriate Units
The International System of Units (SI) is also called the metric system
This is the international standard for measurement
There are several SI base units that are used in science
SI Base Units Table

Quantity SI base unit Symbol

length metre m

mass kilogram kg

time second s

temperature Kelvin K

amount of substance mole mol

current Ampere A

luminous intensity candela cd

Measurements of physical quantities can require very large and very small values, for example:
The diameter of an atom is about 10–10 m or 0.0000000001 m
One mole of a substance contains 6.02 × 1023 or 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 particles
Powers of ten are numbers that can be achieved by multiplying 10 times itself
These come under two categories of units:
Multiples e.g. 102, 103
Sub-multiples e.g. 10-1, 10-2
Each power of ten is defined by a prefix, the most common ones used in biology are listed in the table
below
Table of common prefixes in biology

Prefix Abbreviation Power of ten

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kilo- k 103
Your notes
centi- c 10–2

milli- m 10–3

micro- μ 10–6

nano- n 10–9

It essential that the correct scientific measurements are used when discussing biological experiments
Ensure that the correct symbols are used in conjunction with the unit of measurement
E.g. m3 for cubic metres
Units of Measurement Table

Measurement Base unit Symbol Units used

1000 m = 1 km
0.01 m = 1 cm
Length Metre m
0.001 m = 1 mm
0.000001 m = 1 µm
109 m3 = 1 km3
0.000001 m3 = 1 cm3
Volume Cubic metre m3
10-9 m3 = 1 mm3
10-18 m3 = 1 µm3

Volume Cubic decimetre dm3 0.001 dm3 = 1 cm3

10 000 m2 = 1 ha
Area Square metre m2
0.0001 m2 = 1 cm2
1000 kg = 1 tonne
0.001 kg = 1 g
Mass Kilogram kg
0.000001 kg = 1 mg
10-9 kg = 1 µg
60 s = 1 min
Time Second s
60 min = 1 hour

Pressure pascal Pa 1000 Pa = 1 kPa

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Energy joule J 1000 J = 1 kJ

Your notes
Temperature degree Celcius °C

Amount of substance mole mol 0.001 mol = 1 millimole

cm3 is the same as millilitre (ml)

dm3 is the same as litre (l)

Examiner Tip
Be careful when using the word "amount" in your answers. "Amount" has a very specific meaning in
science - "mole". Instead refer to the mass, volume or concentration of a substance!

Significant figures
Significant figures must be used when dealing with quantitative data
Significant figures are the digits in a number that are reliable and absolutely necessary to indicate the
quantity of that number
There are some important rules to remember for significant figures
All non-zero digits are significant
Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
4107 (4.s.f.)
29.009 (5.s.f)
Zeros that come before all non-zero digits are not significant
0.00079 (2.s.f.)
0.48 (2.s.f.)
Zeros after non-zero digits within a number without decimals are not significant
57,000 (2.s.f)
640 (2.s.f)
Zeros after non-zero digits within a number with decimals are significant
689.0023 (7.s.f)
When rounding to a certain number of significant figures:
Identify the significant figures within the number using the rules above
Count from the first significant figure to the specified number
Use the next number as the ‘rounder decider’
If the decider is 5 or greater, increase the previous value by 1

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Worked example
Your notes
Write 1.0478 to 3 significant figures.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify the significant figures
They are all significant figures
Step 2: Count to the specified number (3rd s.f.)
1.0478
Step 3: Round up or down
1.05

Examiner Tip
An exam question may sometimes specify how many significant figures the answer should be, make
sure you keep an eye out for this!

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Processing Uncertainties in Biology

Your notes
Processing Uncertainties in Biology
What is uncertainty?
Scientific measurements are not perfect; there is always an associated level of uncertainty
Uncertainty is a quantitative indication of the quality of numerical results; it can be defined as:
The range of values around a measurement within which the true value is expected to lie
Uncertainties in measurements are recorded as a range (±) to an appropriate level of precision, e.g.
If a balance that measures mass shows scale graduations of 10 g, then mass is measured to the
nearest 10 g (this is known as the margin of error)
The true value could be 5 g higher or lower than the measured value, so the uncertainty would
be ±5 g
If a pipette shows scale graduations every 0.1 cm3, then volume is measured to the nearest 0.1 cm3
The true value could be 0.05 cm3 more or less than this, so the uncertainty would be ±0.05
cm3
Note that uncertainty is not the same as error
Error is the difference between a measured value and the true value for a measurement
Errors arise from equipment or practical techniques that cause a reading to be different from the
true value

Error bars
The uncertainty in a measurement can be shown on a graph as an error bar
This bar is drawn above and below the point (or from side to side) and shows the uncertainty in that
measurement
Usually, error bars will be in the vertical direction, for y-values, but can also be plotted horizontally,
for x-values
Range, degree of precision, standard error and standard deviation can be expressed on a graph
using error bars
Range = the difference between the lowest and highest value
Degree of precision = how close a set of data points are to each other
Standard error = an estimate of the reliability of the mean
Standard deviation = the spread of data around the mean
Note that it is important that you know what is represented by error bars on a graph, e.g. whether they
represent standard deviation or standard error; in an exam this information would be provided in the
question
Error bars that represent standard deviation can be used to assess whether or not two data sets
are significantly different to each other
Overlapping error bars indicate that two sets of data are not significantly different
Error bars are used in the specification when measuring osmotic concentration

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Your notes

Error bars on a graph can be used to show uncertainty

Level of precision
Measurements and processed uncertainties must be expressed to an appropriate level of precision
E.g. number of decimal places
This may depend on the sensitivity of the apparatus used to collect data; the level of precision used to
express the data should not exceed the level of precision at which the data is initially measured
Values in a raw data set should all be expressed to the same level of precision

The coefficient of determination, R2

The coefficient of determination is a measure of fit that can be applied to lines and curves on graphs
The coefficient of determination is written as R2
It is used to evaluate the fit of a trend line / curve with its data set:
R2 = 0
The dependent variable cannot be predicted from the independent variable.
R² is usually greater than or equal to zero
R2 between 0 and 1
The dependent variable can be predicted from the independent variable, although the degree
of success depends on the value of R2
The closer to 1, the better the fit of the trend line / curve
R =1
2
The dependent variable can be predicted from the independent variable
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The trend line / curve is a perfect fit

Note: This does not guarantee that the trend line / curve is a good model for the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables Your notes
Coefficient of determination is used in the specification when comparing the speed of nerve impulse
transmission

Correlation
Correlation is an association, or relationship, between variables
Note that there is a clear distinction between correlation and causation: correlation does not
necessarily indicate a causal relationship
Causation occurs when one variable has an influence or is influenced by another
Correlation can be positive or negative
Positive correlation: as variable A increases, variable B increases
Negative correlation: as variable A increases, variable B decreases
The correlation coefficient (r) can be calculated to determine whether a linear relationship exists
between variables and how strong that relationship is
Perfect correlation occurs when all of the data points lie on a straight line; this will give a correlation
coefficient of 1 or -1
+1 = a completely positive correlation
-1 = a completely negative correlation
A less-than perfect correlation will give a correlation coefficient between 1 and 0, or between 0
and -1
The closer to +1, or -1, the coefficient is, the stronger the correlation
If there is no correlation between variables the correlation coefficient will be 0
Correlation coefficients are used in the specification when evaluating data on coronary heart disease

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Your notes

A strong correlation will have a correlation coefficient close to 1, a weak correlation will have a
correlation coefficient close to 0, while a lack of any correlation will give a correlation coefficient of 0
Statistical tests
Statistical tests are used to assess whether or not a data set supports a particular hypothesis. e.g.
A null hypothesis will state that there is no significant difference, or association, between two
variables
An alternative hypothesis will state that there is a significant difference, or association, between
two variables
Statistical analysis allows researchers to accept or reject the null hypothesis
If a statistical test shows that there is no significant difference, or association, between variables, then
it is said that any visible difference is due to chance alone
Different statistical tests are used for different types of data set, e.g.
A t-test determines whether the means of two data sets differ significantly
A correlation test determines the presence and strength of a correlation
A chi-squared test determines whether the difference between observed and expected values is
significant
You should be able to select and apply the correct statistical test
The chi-squared test is used in the specification as follows:
To test for difference between observed and expected outcomes of a genetic cross
To test for association between species

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Graphing in Biology
Your notes
Graphing in Biology
Sketch graphs
Sketch graphs are a way to represent qualitative trends where the variables shown are often
proportional or inversely proportional
A simple sketch graph

A sketch graph of the relationship between time and volume of gas given off, these two variables show a
proportional relationship trend

General guidance on drawing graphs

The types of graphs that students are expected to be able to draw include:
Bar charts
Histograms
Scatter graphs
Line / curve graphs
Logarithmic graphs
Pie charts
Box-and-whisker plots
Tips for plotting data
Whatever type of graph you use, remember the following:
The data should be plotted with the independent variable on the x-axis and the dependent
variable on the y-axis
Plot data points accurately
Use appropriate linear scales on axes
Choose scales that enable all data points to be plotted within the graph area

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Label axes, with units included

Make graphs that fill the space the exam paper gives you
Draw a line of best fit. This may be straight or curved depending on the trend shown by the data. If Your notes
the line of best fit is a curve make sure it is drawn smoothly. A line of best-fit should have a balance
of data points above and below the line
In some cases, the line or curve of best fit should be drawn through the origin (but only if the data
and trend allow it)
Continuous data represented in a line graph

Discontinuous data represented in a bar chart

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Your notes

The line graph has been used to display continuous data over time while the bar chart has been used to
display grouped data
Remember: The independent variable is the one you control or manipulate and the dependent variable
is the one that changes as a result of your manipulation
Always draw data points in pencil as it makes it easier to make corrections and adjustments

Best fit lines

Students often confuse the term lines of best fit with straight lines
Lines of best fit can be straight lines or curves and:
They show the trend of the data
It does not have to go through all the points, but shows the general trend
They must go through the majority of the points
Where the data is scattered the points should be evenly distributed on either side of the best fit
line
Graph to show use of a best fit line

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Your notes

Other features of graphs

Using a tangent to find the initial rate of a reaction
For linear graphs (i.e. graphs with a straight-line), the gradient is the same
throughout
This makes it easy to calculate the rate of change (rate of change = change ÷ time)
However, many enzyme rate experiments produce non-linear graphs (i.e. graphs with a curved line),
meaning they have an ever-changing gradient
They are shaped this way because the reaction rate is changing over time
In these cases, a tangent can be used to find the reaction rate at any one point on the graph:
A tangent is a straight line that is drawn so it just touches the curve at a single point
The slope of this tangent matches the slope of the curve at just that point
You then simply find the gradient of the straight line (tangent) you have drawn
The initial rate of reaction is the rate of reaction at the start of the reaction (i.e. where time = 0)

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Worked example
Your notes
The graph below shows the results of an enzyme rate reaction. Using this graph, calculate the initial rate
of reaction.

Step 1: Estimate the extrapolated curve of the graph

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Your notes

Step 2: Find the tangent to the curve at 0 seconds (the start of the reaction)

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Your notes

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The tangent drawn in the graph above shows that 72 cm3 of product was produced in the first 20 seconds.
Step 3: Calculate the gradient of the tangent (this will give you the initial rate of reaction): Your notes
Gradient = change in y-axis ÷ change in x-axis
Initial rate of reaction = 72 cm3 ÷ 20 s
Initial rate of reaction = 3.6 cm3 s-1

Examiner Tip
When drawing tangents: always use a ruler and a pencil; make sure the line you draw is perfectly
straight; choose the point where the tangent is to be taken and slowly line the ruler up to that point; try
to place your ruler so that none of the line of the curve is covered by the ruler (it is much easier if the
curve is entirely visible whilst the tangent is drawn).There is a handy phrase to help you remember how
to calculate the gradient of a tangent or line. Rise over run means that any increase/decrease vertically
should be divided by any increase/decrease horizontally.

Changes in gradient
Graphs with curves of best fit have changing gradients
This means that multiple gradients can be calculated to show:
The progressing rate of a reaction
The effects of factors, such as concentration, on the rate of reaction

Intercepts
Intercepts are the points where a line / curve of best fit crosses an axis on a graph

Maxima and minima

The maxima and minima are the high and low points on a graph
Maxima are:
high points, or peaks, on a graph
points at which the gradient of the line passes from positive, though 0, to negative
Minima are:
low points, or troughs, on a graph
points at which the gradient of the line passes from negative, through 0, to positive

Uncertainty bars
The uncertainty in a measurement can be shown on a graph as an uncertainty bar
Uncertainty bars are plotted on graphs to show the absolute uncertainty of values plotted
Usually, these bars will be in the vertical direction for y-values, but they can be plotted
horizontally for x-values
The size of the uncertainty bar can be used as an indication of the amount of uncertainty in the
measurement
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Graph with uncertainty bars

Your notes

Uncertainty bars show the uncertainty in a specific measurement

Extrapolation and interpolation
Extrapolation is extending a line of best fit to estimate values that lie beyond the data points of a
graph
Interpolation is using a line of best fit to estimate values that lie between data points of a graph
Extrapolation and interpolation on a graph

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Your notes

Interpolation uses the line of best fit between the plotted points and extrapolation extends the best fit
line beyond the plotted points

Examiner Tip
You will have to decide if the origin, point (0,0) should be included as a data point
If it does, it will be a good place to anchor the graph as it will be the most accurate data point

Some additional graph skills

In addition to plotting standard graphs like the examples above, there are some biology-specific
examples that you need to have an understanding of
These are as follows:
Designing dichotomous keys
Representing energy flow in the form of food chains, food webs and pyramids of energy
Representing familial genetic relationships using pedigree charts

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