Computer Science (paper 1):

1. Data representation
a. Number systems
b. Text, sound, and images
c. Data storage and file compression
2. Data transmission
a. Types and methods of data transmission
b. Methods of error detection
c. Symmetric and asymmetric encryption
3. Hardware
a. Computer architecture
b. Input and output devices
c. Data storage
d. Network hardware
4. Software
a. Types of software and interrupts
b. Types of programming language, translators, and integrated development
environments (IDEs)
5. The internet and its uses
a. The internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)
b. Digital currency
c. Cyber security
6. Automated and emerging technologies
a. Automated systems
b. Robotics
c. Artificial intelligence

Data representation
 1. Data representation

How and why computers use binary to represent all forms of data
- Any form of data needs to be converted to binary to be processed by a computer.
- Binary: numbering system that uses only 0s and 1s
o 0s and 1s: bits: smallest unit of data a computer can use
- Resulting binary code can then be processed using logic gates and stored in
registers

Understand the denary, binary, and hexadecimal numbering systems

- Denary: base 10 numbering system
- Binary: base 2 numbering system
- Hexadecimal: base 16 numbering system

Conversion between
(i) Positive denary and positive binary
(ii) Positive denary and positive hexadecimal
(iii) Positive hexadecimal and positive binary

Understand how and why hexadecimal is used as a beneficial method of data

representation
- Easier and quicker to read and write
- Easier and quicker to debug
- Less likely to make mistakes
- Shorter representation of the binary

Add two positive 8-bit binary integers

Understand the concept of overflow and why it occurs in binary addition

- The result of the calculation is greater than 255 // the value generated is larger
than can be stored in the register
- The result of the calculation would require more than 8 bits to be represented

Perform a logical binary shift on a positive 8-bit binary integer and understand the
effect this has on the positive binary integer
- Bits shifted from the end of the register are lost and zeros are shifted in at the
opposite end of the register
- Multiplied or divided (nth power of 2)
e.g. three places  2 to the power of 3  8
o right (division), left (multiplication)
- The most significant bit(s) or least significant bit(s) are lost

Use two’s complement to represent positive and negative 8-bit binary integers
- Denary into binary  flip 0 to 1, 1 to 0  add 1
Understand how and why a computer represents text and the use of character sets,
including ASCII code and Unicode
- Text is converted to binary to be processed by a computer
- Unicode allows for a greater range of characters and symbols than ASCII,
including different languages and emojis
- Unicode requires more bits per character than ASCII

Past paper: describe how the text is converted to binary to be processed by the
computer
- A character set is used, such as Unicode/ ASCII code
- Each character is given a unique binary value

Understand how and why a computer represents sound, including the effects of the
sample rate and sample resolution
- A sound wave is sampled for sound to be converted to binary, which is processed
by a computer (sound wave  signal)
- Sample rate: number of samples taken in a second
- Sample resolution: number of bits per sample
- Accuracy of the recording and the file size increases as the sample rate and
resolution rate increase

Understand how and why a computer represents an image, including the effects of the
resolution and colour depth
- An image is a series of pixels that are converted to binary, which is processed by a
computer
- Resolution: number of pixels in the image
- Colour depth: number of bits used to represent each colour
- File size and quality of the image increases as the resolution and colour depth
increase

Past paper: define each term about images

(a) Pixel: one square of one colour; smallest component of the image
(b) Resolution: number of pixels per area; number of pixels in an image

Understand how data storage is measured

 1 byte = 2 nibbles
 1 byte = 8 bits
 1 nibble = 4 bits
Calculate the file size of an image file and a sound file, using information given
- File size of an image = resolution X colour depth
- File size of a sound file = sample rate X bit resolution X time

Understand the purpose of and need for data compression

- Compression exists b/c:
o Reduce the file size
 Increase the transmission speed
 Reduce storage space
 Less bandwidth

Understand how files are compressed using lossy and lossless compression methods
- Lossless compression reduces the file size without permanent loss of data (RLE)
o Compression algorithm is used, such as RLE
o Repeating words/ characters are identified and indexed with number of
times repeated and their position
o No data is permanently deleted
o Original data is stored
- Lossy compression reduces the file size by permanently removing data
o Reducing resolution or colour depth, reducing sample rate or resolution
 2. Data transmission

Understand that data is broken into packets to be transmitted

Describe the structure of a packet

- A packet of data contains:
o Packet header
o Payload
o Trailor
- A packet header includes:
o Destination (IP) address
o Packet number
o Originator’s address

Describe the process of packet switching

- Data is broken down into packets
- Each packet could take a different route
- A router controls the route a packet takes (optimal/ fastest route)
- Packets may arrive out of order
- Once the last packet has arrived, packets are reordered

Describe how data is transmitted from one device to another using different methods of
data transmission
- Serial: one bit is sent at a time across a single wire
- Parallel: multiple bits are sent at a time across several wires
- Simplex: unidirectional and travel in only one direction
- Half-duplex: bidirectional (both directions), but not simultaneously
- Full duplex: bidirectional, both directions at the same time

Explain the suitability of each method of data transmission, for a given scenario
- Serial:
o Advantages:
 Data arrive in order it is sent
 Less likely to have errors
 Cheap over short and long distances
o Disadvantages:
 Slow, especially over long distances as only small quantities of data
can be transmitted at a time
 Expensive over very long distances
- Parallel:
o Advantage:
 Fast, as large quantities of data can be transmitted at any one time
o Disadvantages:
 Expensive over short distances (b/c multiple wires needed)
 Delays can be caused if data arrives asynchronously
 Buffers may be used to store data temporarily
- Simplex:
o Advantage:
  Cheap, as only one wire is used
o Disadvantages:
 Slow, as data still travels one bit at a time, unidirectionally
 Requires two sets of wires for bidirectional (may become
expensive)
- Half-duplex:
o Advantage:
 Cheaper than simplex for bidirectional transmission (b/c fewer
wires)
o Disadvantage:
 Slow, data travels one bit at a time, bidirectionally
- Full duplex:
o Advantage:
 Faster, as data can travel bidirectionally, simultaneously
o Disadvantage:
 Expensive (b/c wire technology difficult to implement)

Understand the universal serial bus (USB) interface and explain how it is used to
transmit data
- Asynchronous and serial method of transmitting data between devices
o Advantages:
 Automatically detected and drivers are automatically loaded
 It cannot be inserted incorrectly
 Standardised
 Different data transmission rates are supported
 Newer USB standards are backwards compatible
o Disadvantages:
 Maximum cable length is roughly 5 metres, limiting its use
 Older versions have limited transmission rates
 Very old USB standards may not be supported

Understand the need to check for errors after data transmission and how these errors
occur
- Errors can occur during data transmission due to interference, e.g. data loss, data
gain, and data change

Describe the processes involved in each of the following error detection methods for
detecting errors in data after transmission: parity check (odd and even), checksum, and
echo check / including parity byte and parity block check
- Parity check
o Every byte transmitted has one of its bits allocated as a parity bit
o The sender and receiver must agree before transmission whether they are
using odd or even parity
 Odd parity: odd number of 1’s in the byte, including the parity bit
 Even parity: even number of 1’s in the byte, including the parity bit
 If the number of 1’s does not match the agreed parity, an
error has occurred
 o Parity checks only check that an error has occurred, they do not reveal
where the error(s) occurred

- Checksum: determine if data has been corrupted but do not reveal where
o Data is sent in blocks and an additional checksum value is added at the
end of the block
o Checksums are custom user-created algorithms that perform
mathematical calculations on data
 Checksum byte is defined as a value between 1 and 255 which is
stored in 8 bits
 Before the data is transmitted, a checksum value is
calculated
 The checksum value is transmitted with the data
 The receiver calculates the checksum value using the
received data
 The calculated checksum is compared to the transmitted
checksum
 If they are the same, then there is no error, otherwise, an
error has occurred
- Echo check
o Transmitting the received data back to the sender.
o The sender then checks the data to see if any errors occurred during
transmission
o This method isn’t reliable as an error could have occurred when the
sender transmits the data or when the receiver transmits the data
o If an error does occur, the sender will retransmit the data

Past paper: explain how a parity block check might detect an error in transmission that
would not be detected by a parity byte check
- Interchange of bits will not be detected in parity check
- In parity block check, all changes will be detected, will identify the horizontal and
vertical position of all changes

Describe how a check digit is used to detect error in data entry and identify examples of
when a check digit is used, including international standard book numbers (ISBN) and
bar codes
- Check digits
o Data is sent in blocks and an additional check digit value is added at the
end of the block
o Custom user-created algorithms that perform mathematical calculations
on data
  ISBN

 Barcodes

Describe how an automatic repeat query (ARQ) can be used to establish that data is
received without error
- ARQ is a protocol that notifies the sender that an error has occurred, and that the
data received is incorrect
o If an error is detected, receiver sends a negative acknowledgement
transmission
o If no error is detected, receiver sends a positive acknowledgement
transmission
o If the receiver does not send any acknowledgement transmission, then the
sender waits for a certain time period known as a time-out before
automatically resending the data
o This process is repeated until all data has been received and
acknowledged

Understand the need for and purpose of encryption when transmitting data
- Encryption: encoding data into a form that is meaningless using an algorithm
- Encryption doesn’t prevent hackers from hacking, but makes the data hard if not
impossible to understand unless they have a matching decryption tool

Understand how data is encrypted using symmetric and asymmetric encryption

- Plaintext: data before it is encrypted
- Ciphertext: data after it is encrypted
- Key: binary string of a certain length that apply an algorithm to encrypt the
plaintext and decrypt the ciphertext
- Symmetric encryption
o Both parties are given an identical secret key which can be used to
encrypt or decrypt information
- Asymmetric encryption
o Public key: a key known to everyone
o Private key: a key known only to the receiver
 Both keys are needed to encrypt and decrypt information
 Person A uses a public key to encrypt their message
 Person A sends their message over the network or internet
 Person B decrypts the message using their secret private
key
o Asymmetric encryption works such that only one private key can be used
to decrypt the message and it is not sent over the internet like a
symmetric key
 3. Hardware

Understand the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer

- The CPU processes instructions and data that are input into the computer so that
the result can be output

Understand what is meant by a microprocessor

- A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip

Understand the purpose of the components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von
Neumann architecture
- Units:
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): allows the required arithmetic or logic
operations to be carried out while the program is being run
o Control Unit (CU): reads an instruction from memory; ensures
synchronisation of data flow and program instructions throughout the
computer
- Registers:
o Program Counter (PC): stores the address where the next instruction to be
read can be found (instruction is sent from the control unit)
o Memory Address Register (MAR): stores the address of the memory
location currently being read from or written to
o Memory Data Register (MDR): stored data which has just been read from
the memory or data which is about to be written to memory
o Current Instruction Register (CIR): stores the current instruction being
decoded and executed
o Accumulator (ACC): used when carrying out ALU calculations; it stores
data temporarily(일시적으로) during the calculations
- Buses:
o Address bus:
 Transfers addresses from the CPU to memory
 Unidirectional which mean addresses only go from CPU to memory
o Data bus:
 Transmits data from the CPU to memory or input/ output
controller
 Bidirectional which means data can travel in both directions
o Control bus:
  Transfers control signals from the control unit to other component
in the computer system such as memory or input/ output
controllers
 Signals are generated along the control bus to tell other
components what to do
 Bidirectional

Describe the process of the fetch-decode-execute (FDE) cycle including the role of each
component in the process
- Fetch
o The Program Counter (PC) holds address/ location of the next instruction
to be fetched
o The address held in PC is sent to the Memory Address Register (MAR)
o The memory address is sent using address bus
o The Program Counter is incremented
o The instruction is sent from the address in memory to the Memory Data
Register (MDR)
o The instruction is transferred using the data bus
o The instruction is sent to the Current Instruction Register (CIR)
- Decode
o The instruction in the Current Instruction Register is decoded, by the
Control Unit, into an opcode and an operand
- Execute
o The instruction is executed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit and the opcode is
performed upon the operand
o The result is stored in the accumulator or written to a memory location
within the memory

Understand what is meant by a core, cache, and clock in a CPU and explain how they can
affect the performance of a CPU
- Core: runs separate fetch, decode, execute cycles, independently from one
another and at the same time (simultaneously), meaning parallel processing can
take place
- Cache: small amount of memory situated within or close to the CPU with very
fast read/ write speeds (데이터 값을 복사해두는 임시 저장소)
- System clock: used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure the
vital synchronisation takes place
- Effect on the performance of a CPU:
o Increasing the width of the address bus and data bus  increases the
performance and speed of a computer system
o Increasing the clock speed will potentially increase the speed of a
computer
o Overclocking  unsynchronised operations, overheating
o Increasing the amount of cache  more data can be stored there and
accessed faster than if it was in RAM  improves the performance of the
CPU
 o Different number of cores (dual, multicores) can improve computer
performance  alleviates the need to continually increase the clock
speeds

Understand the purpose and use of an instruction set for a CPU

- An instruction set is a list of all the commands (binary values) that can be
processed by a CPU and the commands are machine code
o Mnemonic
- Instruction lists are machine-specific

Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system and identify devices in
which they are commonly used
- An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function, e.g. domestic
appliances, cars, security systems, lighting systems, or vending machines
o Microcontrollers, microprocessor
o Control the device and allow a user to interact with it
o Runs on firmware and does not have additional peripherals
- This is different to a general-purpose computer that is used to perform many
different functions, e.g. a personal computer (PC) or a laptop

Understand what is meant by an input device and why it is required

- Input devices converts inputs into digital data which can be processed
o Barcode scanner
 Barcodes: series of black and white bars which represent a code
 Barcode reader shines a red laser at the barcode to read the data it
represents
 The light from the white lines is reflected back
 The black lines absorb the light so less is reflected
 The different levels of reflection are converted into binary value
which can be processed by a microprocessor
 Faster checkouts, automated stock control, less chance of error,
detailed tracking information
o Digital camera
 Works by capturing light and converting into a digital image
 Light enters the camera through the lens, it reaches an image
sensor where it is split into millions of pixels
 Each pixel measures light intensity which is converted into
binary and represents a colour
 Show a preview of the image, instantly create an image, easily
duplicated, and transmitted via Bluetooth or WIFI
o Keyboard
 Text-based data input
 Connected either by a USB cable or wirelessly to the computer
system
 Each key on a keyboard has a peg underneath it, which contacts a
conducting membrane. This is then converted into an electrical
signal to transmit a unique character code.
o Microphone
  Works by converting sound waves into electrical signals that can be
processed by the computer
 The microphone has a diaphragm that vibrates in response to
sound waves. These vibrations are then converted into electrical
signals by a coil of wire attached. Changes in signal are recorded by
a microprocessor using an analogue to digital converter
o Optical mouse
 Use a laser to detect and track movement, this is then processed by
a microprocessor which interprets the movement and replicates it
when moving a virtual cursor on-screen
o QR code scanner
 QR codes: visual representation of data using black and white
squares
 QR codes are scanned by a camera
 A piece of software converts the squares into binary data

o Touch screen
 Resistive, capacitive, and infra-red
 Resistive
o Consists of two conductive layers
o Top layer is flexible
o When the screen is touched, the two layers connect,
completing a circuit
 Capacitive screens
o Made up of a protective layer, a transparent,
conductive layer, and a glass substrate
o Touching the screen changes the electrostatic field of
the conductive layer
o A microprocessor identifies the coordinates of the
touch
 Infra-red screens
o LEDs shine infra-red light across a screen forming a
matrix
o When the screen is touched, the beams are
interrupted
o Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) scanners
 Two-dimensional (2D) scanners
 Shine a strip of light over a document
 Reflected light is measure for each pixel, this data is
converted into binary data so that the document can be
digitally created
 Three-dimensional (3D) scanners
 Shine a light over an object
 The geometry and dimensions are recorded so the object
can be recreated digitally
 Can be modifies using a specialist software

Understand what is meant by an output device and why it is required

 - Output device shows the results of the processing in a way human can
understand
o Actuator:
 Used in conjunction with a motor to translate energy (electrical,
air, hydraulic) into real-world movement of a physical object
 E.g.: turning a wheel, opening, and closing a door,
controlling a conveyer belt, moving robotic arms, operating
machinery, vibrating a machine, starting, or stopping a
pump, opening, or closing a valve
o Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector:
 Use millions of micro-mirrors arranged in a grid on a
microprocessor within the projector.
 Light is shone through colour filters and the mirrors.
 The position of the mirrors can be altered to change the intensity
of the light

o Inkjet printer:
 Spray liquid ink droplets
 Produce high quality hard copies of digital images or documents
o Laser printer:
 Very fast when making multiple copies of a document
 Low running cost per page
o Light Emitting Diode (LED) screen:
 Made up of tiny LEDs
 Do not need backlighting
o Liquid Crystal display (LCD) projector:
 Use three mirror filters to separate an image into red, green, and
blue wavelengths.
 The three images are then combined to produce the full colour
image which is passed through the lens on the wall/ screen
o Liquid Crystal display (LCD) screen:
 Made up of millions of tiny liquid crystals
 Display made of pixels arranged in matrix
 Requires backlighting
o Speaker:
 Used to take digital sounds or recordings and output them as
sound waves which can be heard by humans
 Digital data is changed into an electric current using a digital to
analogue converter
o 3D printer:
 Create 3D models of a digital model by depositing layers of
material, such as plastic or resin
 Rapid prototypes

Understand what is meant by a sensor and the purpose of sensors

- Sensors: input devices
o Measure a physical property of their environment
 o Monitoring system and control systems

Identify the type of data captured by each sensor and understand when each sensor
would be used, including selecting the most suitable sensor for a given context
- Acoustic
o Sound levels
- Accelerometer
o Acceleration rate, tilt, vibration
- Flow
o Rate of gas, liquid, or powder flow
- Gas
o Presence of gas e.g., carbon dioxide
- Humidity
o Levels of water vapour
- Infra-red
o Detecting motion or a heat source
- Level
o Liquid levels
- Light
o Light levels
- Magnetic field
o Presence and strength
- Moisture
o Presence and levels of moisture
- pH
o acidity or alkaline
- Pressure
o Gas, liquid, or physical pressure
- Proximity
o Distance
- Temperature
o Temperature in C, F, K

Understand what is meant by primary storage

- Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU
o Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Purpose: store data, instructions, and software (including parts of
the OS) currently in use
 Main memory
 Faster read/ write speeds than secondary storage
 Volatile, which means it is temporary memory and all data will be
lost when the computer is switched off
o Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Purpose: store the set of instructions the computer executes when
computer is initially switched on
 Run a series of checks to ensure all of the system hardware is
working
 Load the OS which will move from secondary storage to RAM
  Non-volatile, which means data will be stored when the computer
is switched off
 Read-only, which means data cannot be written to ROM
- Differences:
o RAM
 Volatile
 Can read and write data
o ROM
 Non-volatile
 Read-only
Past paper: give three examples of data that is commonly stored in RAM
- Currently running data
- Currently running software
- Currently running instructions
Past paper: describe the purpose of secondary storage
- For non-volatile, permanent storage of data
- To store data that is not currently required by the CPU

Understand what is meant by secondary storage

- Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU and is necessary for more
permanent storage of data

Describe the operation of magnetic, optical, and solid-state (flash memory) storage and
give examples of each
- Magnetic storage uses platters, which are divided into tracks and sectors.
o Data is read and written using electromagnets
- Optical storage shines lasers at the disk and process the reflection
o Laser is also used to read and write the data from the pits and lands
o When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land and
vice versa, the light scatters and is not reflected back as well. This is
captured by a sensor and can be interpreted as a change in the binary
value.
- Solid-state (flash memory) uses NAND or NOR technology to persistently control
the flow of electrons. Stores data permanently inside an integrated circuit.
o Transistors are used as control gates and floating gates

Past paper: describe how a magnetic storage device stores data

- Storage device has platters
- Platters/disk divided into tracks
- Storage platter/disk is spun
- Has a read/ write arm that moves across storage media
- Read/ writes data using electromagnets
- Uses magnetic fields to control magnetic dots of data
- Magnetic field determines binary value

Describe what is meant by virtual memory, how it is created and used and why it is
necessary
- Virtual memory: part of secondary storage which acts as RAM when RAM is full
 o Prevents computer system crashing when RAM is full
- Pages of data are transferred between RAM and virtual memory when needed
- Steps:
o The memory manager software built into the operating system checks to
see if there is sufficient space in RAM to move the new program’s
instructions into RAM, so that they can be directly accessed by the CPU
o If RAM is full, the memory manager will move out the most inactive pages
of data and put them in virtual memory until needed
o The new program instructions are moved into RAM

Past paper: Sandy is playing an open world role playing computer game set in a large 3D
environment. This requires the use of virtual memory. Explain why
- To extend the RAM capacity
- To stop the computer game from crashing when the physical RAM is full
- To allow the computer to process the large amount of data required

Understand what is meant by cloud storage

- Cloud storage is collection of servers that stores data in a remote(멀리 떨어진) location
that are normally accessed using an internet connection
o Cloud storage can be accessed remotely in comparison to storing data
locally
o Physical servers and storage are needed to store data in cloud storage

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of storing data on the cloud in comparison to
storing it locally
- Advantages:
o Accessibility
 Data can be accessed from anywhere
 Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant permissions,
making it quick to share files and collaborate with others
 Data can be accessed on any device with an internet connection
o Scalability
 Allow customers to increase or decrease their storage capacity as
needed
o Reliability
 Allow backups of data, reducing the risk of data loss due to
hardware failure
o Security
 Offer advanced security features
- Disadvantages
o Problems accessing files in unreliable internet connection
o May be less secure
o May loss access to them if internet connection is lost
o Could incur extra cost
Understand that a computer needs a network interface card (NIC) to access a network
- NIC: internal physical component which enables computers and other devices to
connect to a network; network adapters
o Function: send and receive data packets between the computer or device
and the network
o NIC converts data to be sent into signals that can be sent across the
transmission medium

Understand what is meant by and the purpose of a media access control (MAC) address,
including its structure
- NIC is given a MAC address at the point of manufacture
o MAC is used to identify a device on a network
 MAC is a unique code which consists of six pairs of hexadecimal
codes separated by a colon
 MAC is static
 First part identifies the manufacturer ID
 Second part identify the device/ serial ID
o MAC addresses are created using the manufacturer code and serial code

Past paper: describe what is meant by a MAC address

- Used to identify a device
- It is a unique address
- It is static address; does not change
- It is set by the manufacturer
- The first part is the manufacturer ID
- The second part is the serial number of the device

Understand what is meant by and the purpose of internet protocol (IP) address
- An IP address is allocated by the network, and they can be static or dynamic
- IP: unique numerical identifier assigned to devices connected to the internet
o Used to identify and locate devices on the internet
o Allows data to be sent and received between devices

Understand that there are different types of IP address

- IPv4: 4 groups of digits, 8 bits per each group, separated by a full stop
o Range between 0-255
- IPv6: 8 groups of digits, 16 bits per each group, separated by a colon

Past paper: give two characteristics of an IP address

- A unique address
- Can be public or private
- Can be static or dynamic
- IPv4 has four groups of digits
o Each number is between 0-255
o And separated by a full stop
- IPv6 has eight groups of digits

Past paper: explain the different between a private and a public IP address
 - A private IP address is not accessible from the internet
o And is used to identify a device within a local area network
- A public IP address is used to identify a device on the internet
o Are assigned by an internet service provider (ISP)
- Public IP addresses are unique
- Public IP addresses can be accessed from anywhere on the internet
- Public IP addresses allow devices to communicate with each other across
different networks

Describe the role of a router in a network

- A router sends data to specific destination on a network
o Analyse data packet and direct them on to their destination
- A router can assign IP addresses
- A router can connect local network to the internet
- A router connects one network to another network
- Steps:
o A router receives incoming data packets from one network and analyses
the packet header to determine the destination IP address
o It then looks up the IP address in a routing table to determine the next
network where the packet should be sent
o The router then forwards the packet to the appropriate network or device

4. Software

Describe the difference between system software and application software and provide
examples of each
- System software provides the services that the computer requires
o E.g. operating system and utility software
- Application software provides the services that the user requires
o E.g. word processing software, spreadsheet software, presentation
software, multimedia software, web browsers

Describe the role and basic functions of an operating system

- Operating system:
o Designed to run other programs on a computer
o Manage both software and hardware resources
 Responsible for:
 Managing files
 Handling interrupts
 Providing an interface (communication of user and comp.)
 Managing peripherals and drivers
 Managing memory
 Managing multitasking
 Providing a platform for running applications
 Providing system security
 Managing user accounts
Understand how hardware, firmware, and an operating system are required to run
applications software
 - Applications are run on the operating system
- Operating system is run on the firmware(basic input output system)
- The firmware(basic input output system) is run on the hardware

Describe the role and operation of interrupts

- Interrupts will need to ensure that the CPU can stop executing its current
program to run code for the overall interruption
o Signal the CPU to tell it to stop temporarily (interrupt) so that it can do the
dedicated specific task
- Interrupts need to be added to an area called the interrupt service routine
o The interrupt service routine is simply added to a particular area where a
certain set of instructions are sent will need to be fetched, decoded, and
executed to complete the commands on the interrupt
- As a result, it’s clear that the current registers will need to be changed at this
point to accommodate the interrupt
o The interrupt will be executed instead of the original instructions
 When the interrupt is received, the current values that were held in
the registers are copied back to the RAM in an area known as a
stack
 These values are pushed onto the stack and are added to the top of
the stack frame, which will save them for later retrieval when the
interrupt is complete
 Interrupt can be interrupted  division by zero  current
interrupt will be moved to the bottom of the stack frame to
complete the main interrupt initially
 - Software interrupts include division by zero and two processes trying to access
the same memory location
- Hardware interrupts include pressing a key on the keyboard and moving the
mouse

Explain what is meant by a high-level language and a low-level language, including the
advantages and disadvantages of each
- High-level languages: programming languages which use English-like statements
o E.g. Python, C++, Java
 Advantages
 Easier for the programmer to read and write
o Less likely to make mistakes
 Easier to debug
o Finding errors and correcting is easier and faster
 Easier to find errors
 Machine independent
 Disadvantages:
 The user is not able to directly manipulate the hardware
 Needs to be translated to machine code before running
 The program may be less efficient

- Low-level languages: languages that sit close to a computer’s instruction set

o E.g. assembly language (written using mnemonics), machine code
(binary)
 Advantages:
 More memory
o RAM efficient
 Allows direct manipulation of memory
 Allows for more efficient control/ response time
 Allows for use of specialised hardware
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult to write and understand
 Machine dependent and cannot be added to different
specification machines
 More prone to errors
 Knowledge to computer architecture is key to program
effectively

Understand that assembly language is a form of low-level language that uses

mnemonics, and that an assembler is needed to translate an assembly language program
into machine code
- Programmers use assembly language for the following reasons:
o Need to make use of specific hardware or parts of the hardware
o Complete specific machine dependent instructions
o Ensure that too much space is not taken up in RAM
o Ensure code can be completed much faster
- Use mnemonics
 o Mnemonic is received by the computer, and it is looked up within a
specific table
- Assembler is needed here to check the words so that it can be converted into
machine code

Describe the operation of a compiler and an interpreter, including how high-level

language is translated by each and how errors are reported
- Compiler
o Translates the whole codes before executing any code
o Produces error reports with all errors found for the whole code
o Produces executable file
- Interpreter
o Translates one line of the code and executes it before moving on to the
next line
o Stops when an error is found
o When the error is corrected, the program can be run from the same
position

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a compiler and an interpreter

- Compiler
o Advantages:
 Run quickly as the program as the source code has been stored to
be translated
 Compilers optimise the code; this code will run quicker and take
up less memory space
 Original source will not be seen, which is ideal for programmers to
stop work being copied
o Disadvantages
 Due to all code being compiled at the same time, there must be
enough memory space to handle this, if not, virtual memory is
used, which can be much slower
 If there are errors in the code, the compiler will not identify
directly where the error is, making it difficult to debug
 It is designed solely for one specific processor
 If the program is changed, it must be recompiled
- Interpreter
o Advantages:
 Program will always run; it will just stop when it finds a specific
syntax error in the code
 It is easier to debug and understand where particular code has
gone wrong
 Interpreters do not store instructions and are not stored for later
use; this means they require less RAM to process the code
o Disadvantages:
  Each line of code has to be interpreted separately by the CPU,
which can lead to slower execution
 Every time the program is run, it has to be translated, due to no
instructions being stored
 They cannot optimise code (코드 최적화, improving the efficiency of a
computer program), it is translated and executed as it is

Explain the role of an IDE in writing program code and the common functions IDEs
provide
- IDE: software that consolidates (합병하다) basic tools required to write and test
software to make a programmer’s journey effective and useful
o Ensure they have key features to improve programming code
o Ensure it does as instruct
- Functions:
o Code editors
 Code formatting
 Commenting code
o Run-time environment (run code and shows the corresponding output)
o Translators (compiler and interpreter)
o Error diagnostics
 Debugger (identify and remedy errors within the source code)
o Auto-completion
o Auto-correction
o Pretty print

5. The internet and its uses

Understand the difference between the internet and the world wide web (WWW)
- The internet is the infrastructure (fundamental/ basic structure), allows us to
send and receive information
- The World Wide Web is the collection of websites and web pages accessed using
the internet (web browsers, which communicates with web servers)

Understand what is meant by uniform resource locator (URL)

- A URL is a text-based address for a web page; it can contain the protocol, the
domain name, and the web page/ file name

Describe the purpose and operation of hypertext protocol (HTTP) and hypertext
transfer protocol secure (HTTPS)
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
o Used for transferring data between a client and a server on the internet
o Does not store any information about previous requests or responses
o Operates on port 80 by default and sends data in plain text format, making
it vulnerable to interception and manipulation
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
o Secure version of HTTP that uses encryption to protect data transferred
between client and a server
 o Operates on port 443 by default and uses Transport Layer Security (TLS)
or Secure Socket Layer (SSL) to encrypt data
o Ensures that data transferred between the client and server is secure,
making it harder for unauthorised users to intercept or manipulate data
 SSL
 Security protocol developed to provide secure
communication over the internet
 TSL
 Successor (developed after SSL) to SSL and is a security
protocol used to provide secure communication over the
internet
o Handshake layer
 Establish a secure connection between two
endpoints
o Record layer
 Transmits data securely between the client
and the server
 They both use a combination of symmetric and asymmetric
encryption to secure data and ensure data integrity
 The client/ browser requests secure connection to the
server  server provides a digital certificate  client/
browser validates the certificate  client/ browser sends a
signal back to the server to begin data transmission 
encryption method will be agreed, and a session key is
generated

Explain the purpose and functions of a web browser

- Main purpose of a web browser is to render (세우다/ 내다) hypertext markup language
(HTML) and display web pages
- Functions include:
o Storing bookmarks/ favourites
o Recording user history
o Allowing use of multiple tabs
o Storing cookies
o Providing navigation tools
o Providing an address bar
o Manages HTTP and HTTPS protocol

Describe how web pages are located, retrieved, and displayed on a device when a user
enters a URL
- When you type in a URL/ click on a link the browser sends the URL to the DNS
using HTTP
- The DNS finds the matching IP addresses for the URL and sends the IP addresses
to the web browser
o DNS: domain name server, translates the URL into an IP address, which is
used to locate the web server
- The web browser sends a request to the web server for web pages
 - The web pages are sent from the web server to the browser
- The browser renders HTML to display web pages
- Any security certificates are exchanged
- SSL/ HTTPS is used to secure the data which will encrypt any data that is sent
Past paper: describe how the web pages for the websites are requested and displayed on
a user’s computer
- The browser sends the URL to the DNS
- The DNS returns the IP address to the browser
- The browser sends a request to the web server
- The browser interprets and renders the HTML to display web pages

Explain what is meant by cookies and how they are used, including session cookies and
persistent cookies
- Cookies: small files that are stored on a user’s device by a website
- Cookies are used for functions including:
o Saving personal details
 saving account details
o Tracking user preferences
o Holding items in an online shopping cart
 Storing recent purchases
o Storing login details
o Storing the pages visited
- Session cookies
o Stored in RAM
o When the browser is closed, session cookies are lost
o Used to maintain user’s state or activity during a single session
- Persistent cookies
o Stored on the hard disk drive/ secondary storage
o When the browser is closed, persistent cookies are not lost until they are
deleted by the user or get expired
o Used to remember user preferences and settings
- Cookies enhance the user experience and make it more convenient for users to
interact with websites

Understand the concept of a digital currency and how digital currencies are used
- A digital currency is type of currency that only exists electronically
o Only exists electronically
o Decentralised
o Used for transactions (거래)
o Volatile
o E.g. bitcoin

Understand the process of blockchain and how it is used to track digital currency
transactions
- Blockchain, in its basic form, is a digital ledger (collection of financial accounts)
that is a time-stamped series of records that cannot be altered
o Decentralised; it is not controlled by a single entity or authority
 o Every participant in the network has a copy of the ledger and can verify
the transactions independently
o Each transaction in the blockchain must be verified by multiple
participants in the network
 This verification process ensures that the transaction is legitimate
(legal) and prevents any fraudulent (사기)activity

Describe the processes involved in, and the aim or carrying out, a range of cyber security
threats
- Brute-force attack
o Trial and error to guess a password
o Combinations are repeatedly entered until the correct password is found
o Can be carried out manually or automatically by software
o Aim: gain unauthorised access to a system or network
- Data interception
o Form of stealing data by tapping into a wired or wireless communication
link.
o Packet sniffer can be used for wired data
 Examines data packets being sent over a network, intercepted data
is sent to the hacker
o Wardriving can be used for wireless data
 Data is intercepted using a laptop or smartphone
o Aim: compromise privacy or to obtain confidential information

- Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack

 o Multiple computers are used as bots
o Flood a server with lots of requests at the same time which the server
can’t respond to; causing it to crash or become unavailable to users
o Aim: disrupt the normal functioning of a system or network by denying
user’s access
- Hacking
o Gaining unauthorised access to a system or network to steal or
manipulate data, disrupt services, or cause damage
o Aim: vary from personal gain to activism (campaigning to bring a political
or social change) or cyber espionage (attempting to access sensitive or
classified data or intellectual property for economic gain, competitive
advantage, or political reasons)
- Malware: software that is specifically designed to disrupt, damage, or gain
unauthorised access to a computer system
o Virus
 A piece of code that attaches itself to a legitimate program or file
and then replicate itself to spread to other programs or files on the
computer.
 It can cause damage to the system
 Deleting data
 Deleting hardware
o Worm
 Similar to a virus
 Standalone program that can spread and replicate itself over
computer networks
 It can take up storage space or bandwidth
o Trojan horse
 Program that disguises itself as a legitimate program or file, but
when installed, it can delete data or damage hardware
o Spyware
 Software that records all key presses and transmits these to a third
party
o Adware
 Software that displays unwanted advertisements on the computer
without the user’s consent. Some of these may contain spyware
and some may link to viruses when clicked
o Ransomware
 Malware that encrypts the user’s files and demands a ransom
payment to decrypt them.
 It can cause data loss, and financial damage and disrupt business
operations
- Pharming
o Involves malware being downloaded without the user’s knowledge
o This redirects the user to a fake website where they’re encouraged to
enter their personal details
o Aim: steal sensitive information for personal gain or to use it for further
cyber attacks
 - Phishing
o Involves the user being sent an email which looks legitimate
o This contains a link to a fake website where the user is encouraged to
enter their details
o Aim: steal sensitive information for personal gain or to use it for further
cyber attack
- Social engineering
o Involves manipulating individuals to gain access to confidential
information or to perform an action that benefits the attacker
 Posing as someone else to gain trust or access to sensitive
information
 Attackers might pretend to be a co-worker, IT support personnel…
 Baiting
 Involves enticing (attracting) a victim with a desirable item
or promise to extract sensitive information or gain access to
a system
 Attackers might leave a USB drive in a public place
 Once the drive is connected to the computer, the attacker
can access sensitive information or install malware
 Pretexting
 Creating a fake scenario to extract sensitive information
 Pose as a back representative and ask for personal information to
verify your account
 impersonation, baiting, pretexting
o Aim: exploit human behaviour and vulnerabilities to gain unauthorised
access to a system or network

Past paper: describe examples of malware

- Spyware
o monitors all key presses and transmits these to a third parity
- Virus
o Software/ code that replicates
o When the user runs it, it damages data
- Worm
o Software/ code that replicates itself on a network without user input/
without an active host
o It takes-up bandwidth, damages data
 o Used to deposit (put or set something in a specific place) other malware
on networked computers
- Trojan horse
o Software/ code that is hidden within other legitimate software
o When it is downloaded, the other malware is installed
- Adware
o Software/ code that generates/ displays unwanted adverts on a user’s
computer
o Some may contain spyware/ other malware
o Some may link to viruses when clicked
o Reduces device performance/ internet speed
o Redirects user to fake websites
- Ransomware
o Software/ code that stops a user accessing their data by encrypting the
data
o A fee (ransom) has to be paid to decrypt the data

Explain how a range of solutions are used to help keep data safe from security threats +
descriptions
- Access levels
- Anti-malware
o Anti-virus
o Anti-spyware
- Authentication
o Username and password
o Biometrics
 Difficult to fake a biometric password
 Cannot be guessed
 Cannot be recorded by spyware
o Two-step verification
 Requires users to provide two forms of authentication before
accessing data, such as password and a verification code
 Extra layer of security and reduces the risk of unauthorised access
- Automating software updates
- Checking the spelling and tone of communications
- Checking the URL attached to a link
- Firewalls
o Software or hardware based
o It monitors incoming and outgoing traffic between the computer and the
network and keeps a log of the traffic
o The user sets criteria for the traffic (whitelist/ blacklist) and the traffic
are compared with this
o The firewall will accept or reject the traffic based on this and alert can be
sent to the user
o Helps prevent hacking and malicious software that could be a threat to the
security of the data
- Proxy-servers
 o Used to hide a user’s IP address and location, making it more difficult for
hackers to track them
o Act as a firewall and can also be used to filter web traffic by setting criteria
for traffic
o Malicious content is blocked, and a warning message can be sent to the
user
o Useful security measure for protecting against external security threats as
it can direct traffic away from the server
- Privacy settings
- Secure socket layer (SSL) security protocol
o Used to encrypt data transmitted over internet
- Backup

Past paper: identify two similarities and one difference between proxy-servers and
firewalls
- Similarities
o Filter traffic
o Stores whitelist/ blacklist
o Block incoming/ outgoing signals
o Block unauthorised access
o Can be software or hardware
- Differences
o Proxy can hide user’s IP address, firewall does not hide the user’s IP
address
o Proxy protects a server, firewall protects the individual computer
o Proxy transmits website data to the user, but firewall does not
o Proxy allows faster access to a website using a cache, but firewall does not

6. Automated and emerging technologies

Describe how sensors, microprocessors and actuators can be used in collaboration to

create automated systems
- Automated system uses sensors, a microprocessor, and actuators
o Sensors
 Detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical
signals that can be processed by a microprocessor
o Microprocessors
 Analyse the signals from the sensors and make decisions based on
pre-programmed logic
o Actuators
 Receive signals from the microprocessor and perform actions such
as opening a valve, or turning on a motor

Past paper: explain how the sensor and the microprocessor are used to automate this
robot
 - Robots uses an infrared/ proximity sensor
- Sensor continuously sends the digitalised value to the microprocessor
- Microprocessor compares the signal to store the value of “
- If the signal is greater than the stored value “, the signals is sent to make the
robot ~.
- If the signal is less than or equal to the stored value “, a signal is sent to make the
robot ~.
- An actuator is used to make the robot move or turn around
- The whole process repeats continuously until turned off

Past paper: The system uses a sensor and a microprocessor

(a) Identify the most appropriate sensor for this system
(b) Describe how the sensor and the microprocessor are used to automatically refill
the water bowl
a. Sensor continuously sends digitised data to microprocessor
b. Microprocessor compares data to stored values
c. If value is outside the range/ matches, microprocessor sends signal to
release water to refill water bowl, then the bowl is filled by set amount
d. Actuator is used to fill the bowl, release water
e. Whole process repeats until turned off

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
scenario
- Industry
o Advantages
 Reduced labour costs
 Improved efficiency and accuracy
 Increase production rate
o Disadvantages
 High initial investment
 Limited flexibility to changes in production processes
 Maintenance costs can be high
- Transport
o Advantages
 Improved safety and reliability
 Reduced labour costs
 Improved fuel efficiency
o Disadvantages
 High initial investment
 May not be suitable for all types of transportation
 Maintenance costs can be high
- Agriculture
o Advantages
 Increased efficiency in planting and harvesting crops
 Improved crop yield and quality
 Reduced labour costs
o Disadvantages
 High initial investment
 May not be suitable for all types of crops or terrain
  Maintenance costs can be high
- Weather
o Advantages
 Improved accuracy in weather prediction
 Ability to issue warnings in a timely manner
 Ability to collect large amounts of data quickly
o Disadvantages
 May be affected by external factors like interference or equipment
failure
 May not be 100 percent accurate all the time
 May require continuous monitoring and calibration
- Gaming
o Advantages
 Improved speed and efficiency in game development
 Ability to create complex and interactive games
 Reduced labour costs
o Disadvantages
 May not be suitable for all types of games or game development
 May require significant programming expertise
 May be affected by technical glitches or bugs
- Lighting
o Advantages
 Improved energy efficiency
 Ability to program lighting to suit different needs
 Reduced labour costs
o Disadvantages
 High initial investment
 May not be suitable for all types of lighting needs
 Maintenance costs can be high

- Science
o Advantages
 Improved speed and accuracy in data collection and analysis
 Ability to carry out complex experiments
 Reduced labour costs
o Disadvantages
 High initial investment
 May not be suitable for all types of experiments
 May require significant technical expertise

Understand what is meant by robotics

- Robotics is a branch of computer science that incorporates the design,
construction, and operation of robots
o Design and construction
 Robots are designed using a combination of mechanical, electrical,
and computer engineering
  Can be customised to meet specific needs, such as factory
automation or household tasks
o Operation
 It needs to be programmed to carry out specific tasks
 Programming involves creating a set of instructions that tell the
robot what actions to perform in a specific sequence
 Robot’s sensors are used to detect and respond to changes in its
environment
 Can also be operated remotely
 Factory equipment
o Robots perform tasks such as welding, painting, and
assembling products
 Domestic robots
o These are robots designed to perform household
chores such as vacuuming or moving the lawn
 Drones
o Drones are unmanned aerial vehicles that can be
used for tasks such as aerial photography, delivery,
and surveillance

Describe the characteristics of a robot

- Mechanical structure or framework
o Gives them a physical body that can move and interact with the
environment
- Electrical components (sensors, microprocessors, and actuators)
o Allow robots to receive information from their surroundings and respond
to it
- Programmable
o They can be designed to follow a set of instructions or algorithms,
allowing them to complete a variety of tasks and respond to changing
situations

Understand the roles that robots can perform and describe the advantages and
disadvantages of their use
- Industry
o Robots can be used in manufacturing and assembly lines to increase
productivity and accuracy
- Transport
o Robots can be used in warehouses(창고) and logistics to move and transport
goods
- Agriculture
o Robots can be used for tasks such as planting, harvesting, and spraying
crops
- Medicine
o Robots can be used in surgical procedures to increase precision and
reduce risk of errors
- Domestic
 o Robots can be used for tasks such as vacuuming, lawn mowing, and
cleaning
- Entertainment
o Robots can be used as toys or in amusement parks to provide
entertainment

- Advantages of robots:
o Increased productivity
 Robots can work continuously without breaks or fatigue
(tiredness)
o Consistency and accuracy
 Robots can perform tasks with a high level of precision and
accuracy
o Safety
 Robots can perform tasks that are dangerous or hazardous for
humans
o Cost-effective
 Robots can help reduce labour costs in the long run
- Disadvantages of robots:
o High initial investment
 Purchasing and setting up robots can be expensive
o Maintenance costs
 Robots require regular maintenance and repairs, which can add to
the overall cost
o Lack of flexibility
 Robots are programmed for specific tasks and cannot adapt easily
to new situation or tasks
o Unemployment
 Increased use of robots can lead to job loss in certain industries

Understand what is meant by artificial intelligence (AI)

- AI is a branch of computer science dealing with the simulation of intelligent
behaviours by computers
- Often used in areas such as:
o Robotics
o Natural language processing
o Expert systems
o Machine learning

Describe the main characteristics of AI as the collection of data and the rules for using
that data, the ability to reason, and can include the ability to learn and adapt
- Collects data
- Stores rules for using the data
- The ability to reason
- The ability to use machine learning by adapting what it does, by changing its own
rules, by changing its own data
- Used to make one or more predictions
- Find/ analyse patterns
Explain the basic operation and component of AI systems to simulate intelligent
behaviour
- Expert system
o Expert systems have a knowledge base, a rule base, an inference engine,
and an interface
- Machine learning
o Machine learning is when a program has the ability to automatically adapt
its own processes and/ or data
 Use algorithms to analyse data and identify patterns or
relationships

Past paper: One component of an expert system is the inference engine

(a) Identify the three other components in an expert system
a. Rule base
b. Knowledge base
c. Interface
(b) Describe the role of the inference engine in an expert system
a. It makes decisions by applying the rules/ logics to the fact/ knowledge, to
provide a result/ diagnosis

Past paper: Explain how the program will use AI

- Use machine learning algorithms
- Collects data about where it has been
- Collects data about obstacles/ problems
- Store successful actions
- Identify stored patterns to make sure it does not repeat the same incorrect route,
so it knows how to react to obstacles next time