Objective:

To measure the voltage, frequency, time period, and phase angle of a given waveform using a
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).

Apparatus Required:

 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

 Function generator (to generate the input waveform)
 Probes and connecting leads

Theory:

1. Voltage Measurement: The vertical deflection on the CRO screen corresponds to the
magnitude of the input signal. The voltage is measured by multiplying the vertical
displacement by the volts/division setting.
2. Time Period and Frequency Measurement: The time period is the time taken for one
complete cycle of the waveform, and it is measured by determining the horizontal
distance between two successive peaks (or zero crossings). Frequency is the reciprocal of
the time period.
3. Phase Angle Measurement: Phase angle is the difference in phase between two
waveforms (e.g., voltage and current) applied to the CRO. It is measured by finding the
time difference between corresponding points on the waveforms and calculating the angle
using the formula.

Experimental Procedure:

Step 1: Setup and Calibration

1. Connect the function generator to the CRO to provide the input signal. Set the desired
waveform (e.g., sine wave) with known amplitude and frequency.
2. Connect the CRO probe to the signal output.
3. Adjust the time base and vertical sensitivity (volts/div and time/div) on the CRO to
display a stable waveform.

Step 2: Measurement of Voltage

1. Observe the vertical deflection of the waveform on the screen.

2. Measure the vertical displacement (in divisions) from the baseline to the peak (for peak
voltage) or from peak-to-peak (for peak-to-peak voltage).
3. Multiply the measured vertical displacement by the volts/div setting to calculate the
voltage.

Step 3: Measurement of Time Period and Frequency

1. Adjust the time base so that at least one complete cycle of the waveform is visible.
 2. Measure the horizontal displacement (in divisions) between two consecutive peaks or
zero crossings.
3. Multiply the horizontal displacement by the time/div setting to obtain the time period T.
4. Calculate the frequency f using the formula:
1
f=𝑇

Step 4: Measurement of Phase Angle (Optional for Two Signals)

1. If two signals are available (e.g., voltage and current), apply them to the CRO’s dual-
channel mode.
2. Measure the horizontal displacement between the peaks (or zero crossings) of the two
waveforms.
3. Multiply the measured horizontal displacement by the time/div setting to obtain the time
difference Δt.
4. Calculate the phase angle ϕ using the formula:

Δ𝑡
ϕ= ×3600
T

Observation Table

Horizonta
Horizonta Time
Vertical l Phase
Calcula l Perio
S. Displacem Volts/ Time/ Freque Displacem Time Angle
ted Displacem d (T)
N ent Div Div ncy (f) ent for Differe (ϕ) in
Voltage ent in
o. (Y₍div₎) in (V/div) (s/div) in Hz Phase nce (Δt) Degre
(V) (X₍div₎) in Secon
Divisions Angle es
Divisions ds
(X₍div₎)
1
2
3

Calculations:

1. Voltage Calculation: V=(Ydiv×Volts/div)V .

2. Time Period Calculation: T=(Xdiv×Time/div)T.
1
3. Frequency Calculation: f=𝑇
Δ𝑡
4. Phase Angle Calculation: ϕ= ×3600
T
Result:

 The voltage of the waveform is found to be __ V.

 The time period of the waveform is __ s, and the corresponding frequency is __ Hz.
 The phase angle between the two signals (if applicable) is __ degrees.

Precautions:

 Ensure that the CRO settings (time/div and volts/div) are properly calibrated before
taking measurements.
 Avoid touching the probe tips while taking measurements to prevent errors due to body
capacitance.
 Make sure the waveform is stable before noting measurements.

Conclusion:

The voltage, frequency, time period, and phase angle of the given waveform were successfully
measured using a CRO, demonstrating the functionality of the oscilloscope in analyzing
electrical signals.

2nd Experiment

Objective:

To measure the rise time, fall time, and delay time of an electronic signal using a Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO).

Apparatus Required:

1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

2. Function Generator (for generating the input signal)
3. Connecting Wires
4. Resistor/Capacitor Circuit (optional, depending on the experiment)

Theory:

 Rise Time: The time required for a signal to change from 10% to 90% of its maximum
amplitude.
 Fall Time: The time required for a signal to drop from 90% to 10% of its maximum
amplitude.
  Delay Time: The time interval between the application of an input signal and the
response at the output.

Procedure:

1. Setting Up the Signal:

o Connect the output of the function generator to the input of the CRO.
o Adjust the function generator to produce a square wave signal with an appropriate
frequency and amplitude.
2. Adjusting the CRO:
o Set the CRO’s voltage (vertical) and time (horizontal) scales to clearly display the
signal.
o Adjust the time base such that at least one full cycle of the waveform is visible on
the screen.
3. Measurement of Rise Time:
o Identify the rising edge of the waveform on the CRO screen.
o Mark the point where the signal reaches 10% of its peak amplitude.
o Similarly, mark the point where the signal reaches 90% of its peak amplitude.
o Measure the time interval between these two points using the horizontal time
scale of the CRO.
o The time between the 10% and 90% points is the rise time.
4. Measurement of Fall Time:
o Identify the falling edge of the waveform on the CRO screen.
o Mark the point where the signal is at 90% of its peak amplitude on the falling
edge.
o Similarly, mark the point where it reaches 10% of its peak amplitude.
o Measure the time interval between these two points.
o The time between the 90% and 10% points on the falling edge is the fall time.
5. Measurement of Delay Time:
o Set up the CRO to trigger from the input signal to observe both the input and
output waveforms on the screen.
o Mark the point at which the input signal starts rising.
o Mark the point at which the output signal begins to respond (first noticeable rise).
o Measure the time interval between the input’s initial rise and the output’s initial
response.
o This interval is the delay time.

Observations:

Record the measured rise time, fall time, and delay time from the CRO display for the given
waveform.

Results:

Calculate the observed values:

  Rise Time = Time between 10% and 90% points on the rising edge
 Fall Time = Time between 90% and 10% points on the falling edge
 Delay Time = Time interval between input rise and output response

3rd Experiment

Objective:

To measure the time period, frequency, and average period of a signal using a frequency counter.

Apparatus Required:

1. Frequency Counter
2. Signal Source (Function Generator or Oscillator)
3. Connecting Wires

Theory:

 Frequency (f): The number of cycles a signal completes per second, measured in Hertz
(Hz).
1
 Time Period (T): The duration of one complete cycle of the signal, where T=𝑇
 Average Period: The mean value of the time period measured over multiple cycles,
which helps to improve accuracy by reducing random measurement errors.

Procedure:

1. Setting Up the Signal Source:

o Connect the signal source (function generator or oscillator) to the input of the
frequency counter using appropriate cables.
o Set the signal generator to output a stable, continuous waveform, such as a sine
wave or square wave, at the desired frequency.
2. Setting Up the Frequency Counter:
o Power on the frequency counter and allow it to warm up for a few minutes, as
some counters require stabilization time.
o Set the frequency counter to the appropriate range and sensitivity for the
frequency of the signal being measured.
o Select the measurement mode: frequency mode for frequency, period mode for
time period, or average mode if available.
3. Measurement of Frequency:
o Switch the frequency counter to frequency mode.
o Observe the frequency reading directly on the display. This value represents the
frequency of the input signal in Hertz (Hz).
o Record the measured frequency value.
4. Measurement of Time Period:
o Switch the frequency counter to period mode.
 o
The frequency counter will display the time period T of the signal in seconds (or
milliseconds, microseconds, etc., depending on the signal frequency).
o Record the time period value displayed on the counter.
5. Measurement of Average Period:
o If the frequency counter has an average mode, enable it to automatically
calculate the average period over multiple cycles.
o The frequency counter will take multiple time period measurements and average
them, reducing random errors.
o Record the displayed average period value.
o If the average mode is unavailable, you can manually average multiple period
measurements to get an accurate result.

Calculations:
1
1. Time Period: T=𝑇
2. Average Period (Manual Calculation): Average Period=∑Ti / n.
o Where Ti is each individual time period measurement and n is the number of
measurements.

Observations:

Record the following measurements:

 Frequency (f) in Hz
 Time Period (T) in seconds (s)
 Average Period (if calculated manually or displayed directly)

Results:

Calculate the average period if necessary and verify that the measurements align with the
expected values for the input signal's frequency and time period.