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Direct Driven Hydraulic Drive for New Powertrain Topologies for Non-Road
Mobile Machinery

Article in Electric Power Systems Research · October 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.epsr.2017.08.003

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 Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Direct driven hydraulic drive for new powertrain topologies for

non-road mobile machinery
T.A. Minav a,∗ , J.E. Heikkinen b , M. Pietola a
a
School of Engineering, Department of mechanical engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14400, Finland
b
Independent Researcher, Helsinki, Finland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Tightening of emission rules and a desire to improve energy efficiency pushes even further the need for
Received 22 July 2015 hybridization of non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). Consequently, this paper illustrates potential of
Received in revised form 24 August 2016 the application of directly driven hydraulic drive (DDH) for NRMM from an energy efficiency point of view.
Accepted 2 August 2017
The control of the DDH system was implemented directly with a servomotor driving a pump without
conventional hydraulic control valves. Angular speed of the servomotor, in-coming oil flow from the
Keywords:
pump, and out-going flow to the hydraulic motor determined the velocity of the double-acting cylinder
Drive
piston. An earlier study by the authors presented that the hydro-mechanical losses were dominant in
Direct driven hydraulics
Energy efficiency
the original DDH setup. Resulting theoretical investigation indicated that the best scenario efficiency
Topology for DDH was estimated to be 76.7%. Therefore, this paper provides a detailed analysis based on Sankey
Non-road mobile machinery diagrams of various powertrain topologies with DDH. This study of powertrains illustrated that DDH
Servomotor has the highest impact with 174% efficiency improvement with an electric NRMM powered by batteries
Variable speed drive control instead of a conventional topology.
Hydraulics © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Komatsu with supercapacitor achieved up to 41% energy savings.

A Hitachi serial hybrid loader with a battery as energy storage
Energy efficiency is becoming crucial in all fields of engineer- achieved energy savings of 25–30% depending on the cycle [5].
ing as a result a tightening of emission rules [1]. At present, Typically, the diesel engine is running hydraulic pumps and the
valve-controlled hydraulic systems with throttled pressure, losses mechanical powertrain. In these, the diesel can be supported by
and lower efficiency are applied commonly in Non-road mobile electric motor/generator located after the diesel engine. In [6] the
machinery (NRMM). Currently, industry is investigating for com- challenges faced by researchers and NRMM manufacturers were
pact, efficient and powerful solutions for control and powertrain underlined, such as energy storage, control of generation energy
applications in NRMM. Similar demands are recognized in indus- and cost in general. These provide new dimensions into the control
trial hydraulics where a flexible layout of production, lower energy of generation and distribution of electric energy. On the other hand,
demand, and avoidance of additional heat and noise. New tech- the development of an electric and plug-in powertrain proposal for
nological solutions are needed to further reduce fuel consumption NRMM is facing identical problems in the automotive sector related
and improve energy efficiency to fit new governmental require- to battery technology and its charging issues. In electric vehicles
ments. Hybrid technology has been identified to be one of the key – especially passenger cars but also busses – there is now urgent
solutions to achieve these targets. There are already some exam- need to define charging systems and develop needed infrastruc-
ples of NRMMs in the market that provide hybrid solutions [2,3]. In ture. Recent research concentrates on charging of electric vehicles
these, the hybridization targets mainly in improving performance [7–9], as this is essential in order to ensure wider acceptance by
and fuel economy. In [4], a 20-ton parallel hybrid excavator by customers and facilitate more electric vehicles on roads. This need
is underlined also by politics in EU.
Before these solutions enter wider markets, it can be hypothe-
Abbreviations: DDH, direct driven hydraulics; NRMM, non-road mobile machin-
sized there will be a need to have even more sophisticated means
ery; SOC, state of charge. to utilize electric energy for creating hydraulic pressure on board
∗ Corresponding author. and only when it is required. Currently, a trend for a decentral-
E-mail address: Tatiana.minav@aalto.fi (T.A. Minav).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2017.08.003
0378-7796/© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.
0/).
 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400 391

Fig. 1. DDH (a) Simplified schematics of the test setup: a—double-acting cylinder, b—wire-actuated encoder, c—pressure sensor, d—reversible gear pump/motor P1 ,
e—pressure sensor in tank line, f—torque sensor, g- T-gear, h—torque sensor, (i) PMSM motor/generator, j—current and voltage probes, k—frequency converter, l—oil tank,
m—hydraulic accumulator, n—pressure sensor, o—reversible gear pump/motor P2 and p—pressure sensor in the tank line. *Sensors are utilized for system diagnostic purpose
only. (b) PMSM motor/generator connected through T-gear into two internal gear motor/pumps [20], (c) experimental setup.

iPM
Rs q Ls
id
id+iD+iPM iD
ud d md Lmd LD iPM

RD

iq Rs d Ls

iq+iQ iQ
uq q mq Lmq LQ

RQ

Fig. 2. Equivalent circuits of circuits of PMSM [25].

ized power network opens up new approaches for hydraulic- and high efficiency with a speed regulation loop without conventional
hybrid circuits for NRMM [10–12]. As a result, electro-hydraulic valves [19,20]. All these features can be beneficial in creating new
systems with motor- or pump-controlled systems are observed on powertrain topologies in NRMM.
the market and research areas [13–18]. These electro-hydraulic sys- Consequently, the development of electro-hydraulic compact
tems are attracting an attention of industry due to advantages of systems motivates current research activities, however no effi-
their size-to-power ratios and the ability to produce large force ciency analysis was found concerning their application in the
and torque only on demand. These technologies provide opportu- NRMM systems. Therefore, the effect of a direct driven hydraulic
nities, compared with traditional systems, a compact structure and setup (DDH) on the efficiency of a variety of powertrain topologies
392 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400

Fig. 3. Efficiency chart of the utilized servomotor in DDH setup.

pump/motor P1 creates a flow depending on the rotating speed

of the servo motor and, simultaneously with the same speed, the
second pump/motor P2 pumps oil out from the cylinder. A Lab-
VIEW program for the electric drive controls both the electrical and
hydraulic sides of the system.
The power source of the frequency converter in the current
setup is an electric network, and an embedded brake resistor acts
as the ‘energy storage’. For the measurements of the system, a fre-
quency converter software was utilised to record the rotating speed
and estimated torque of the PMSM with help of an incremental
encoder as the motor rotor position feedback. A power analyser
Hioki 3390 with a sampling time of 50 ␮s was utilised for measuring
the voltages, currents and active powers. Gems 3100R0400S pres-
sure transducers [21], installed at the pump’s inlet and outlet, was
used to measure system pressures. The actual velocity and posi-
tion of the cylinder’s piston rod (C-10-60/30 × 400 manufactured
by MIRO) were measured with a wire-actuated encoder SIKO SGI
Fig. 4. Efficiency chart of different hydraulic pump types [28].
(IV58M-0039) [22]. Utilised components were chosen for the test
setup, as they were readily available or fast to purchase at the time
is investigated in this paper. This study is realised by either calcu- of construction. The components do not have any specific proper-
lating, or measuring the efficiencies of various used components ties for this kind of application. Figs. 1b and c illustrate photographs
and calculating their common effect on the topologies. of the test setup.
This paper structure as follows. In Section 2 scheme and the The following Section 2.1 introduces an evaluation of the DDH
principles of the DDH system are described in detail with a theoret- components in detail and illustrates the efficiency of the test sys-
ical system component evaluation and validation of efficiencies by tem based on background research and theoretical information
measurements. Topologies of NRMM’s powertrains and their com- provided by component manufacturers with the best scenario
ponent efficiencies are introduced in a system study in Section 3. approach in mind. A theoretical evaluation verified by measure-
Sankey diagrams are utilized in Section 3 to analyze efficiency of ments is presented in Section 2.2.
the conventional and alternative powertrain topologies. Section 4
and 5 contains discussion and concluding remarks.
2.1. System component evaluation
2. Test setup description: detail introduction of direct
driven hydraulics The prime mover of the DDH system is an electric machine
controlled by a frequency converter. The servomotor in the DDH
Simplified schematics of DDH test setup are demonstrated in setup is a 3 kW PMSM (Unimotor 115U2C) by Emerson Control
Fig. 1a. The setup uses a speed-controlled electric servomotor drive Techniques [23]. In general, permanent magnet synchronous ser-
with dual rotating hydraulic pump/motors to directly control the vomotor is characterized by its high efficiency and high overload
position of the double-acting cylinder via a T-gear. First hydraulic capability. Estimation for the total efficiency of the servomotor was
 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400 393

Electrical machine Pump losses

losses: 5.0 [%] 14.2 [%]
Cylinder
losses: 4.0 [%]

Input : energy
100.0 [%]
Output: mechanical energy
76.7 [%]

Fig. 5. Best scenario Sankey diagram of the DDH setup (efficiency of the frequency converter is not included).

Fig. 6. Total efficiency of DDH in ambient temperature +20 ◦ C [19].

made based on the motor parameters and vector equivalent circuits Next DDH setup components under investigation are the
for a PMSM illustrated in Fig. 2. For detail explanation see Ref. [24]. hydraulic ones. Main hydraulic component is the pump. In the
Fig. 3 illustrates the efficiency chart for the servomotor made content of this research, a hydraulic motor is utilised as a pump,
based on the estimation. The efficiency contours are closed and therefore, it will be named pump/motor. In the experiments, two
have large areas with efficiencies above 90%. Moreover, the effi- hydraulic motors of type XV–2 M by Vivoil [27] were utilised with
ciency islands are typically located in areas of nominal speed and a fixed displacement of 14.4 and 22.8 cm3 /rev for P2 and P1 respec-
rated power. In electric motor’s case it may also be similar situa- tively. These hydraulic motors are also capable of working as a
tion to diesel engine that the motor–controller combination is not pumps. According to Fig. 4, depending on the operating point of
operating in its optimum area. the hydraulic pump/motor unit on its performance curve, the rela-
In the experimental study of the DDH, a 400 V servomotor with tionship between flow and hydraulic losses varies significantly. The
a frequency converter Unidrive SP1406 by Emerson Control Tech- pump/motor internal leakage increases with the higher operating
niques [26] was utilised. The Unidrive provides speed, torque, and pressure and lower fluid viscosity. These variables are difficult to
motion control for the servomotor with efficiency in the range of take into account in the calculation of unit efficiency as they vary
97–98%. with time and temperature. Therefore, in our test setup, the power
394 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400

Fig. 7. Measured Sankey diagram of the DDH with motor speed 300 rpm and payload of 175 kg (efficiency of the frequency converter is not included) [19].

losses in pump/motor are assumed to be 15% based on the best

scenario approach.
A double-acting cylinder is utilised as the actuator in the DDH
setup. Cylinder’s overall efficiency is dependent on the frictional
losses associated with the piston and the rod moving during its
stroke. Frictional losses depend on multiple characteristics such as
pressure difference across the seal and its material, sliding velocity,
temperature, time, wear, and direction of the movement. According
to Ref. [29] total seal friction of a hydraulic cylinder varies between
2–5% of the total cylinder force, therefore, the cylinder efficiency
was assumed to be 95% for the best scenario approach.
A mechanical T-gear is utilized as a coupling between the two
pumps/motors and its efficiency varies between 98% and 99%. This
value does not significantly affect the total efficiency of the DDH; Fig. 8. Conventional powertrain.
therefore, this value is neglected from analysis. For this study, elec-
tric cable losses and hydraulic pipe losses were also considered
Fig. 7 illustrates the measured Sankey diagram of the DDH with
neglectable and omitted.
motor speed 300 rpm and payload of 175 kg (efficiency of the fre-
Taking into account all the components’ best scenario efficien-
quency converter is not included).
cies, the DDH setup overall efficiency can be estimated to be 76.7%.
Comparison Figs. 7 and 5 illustrates a significant underesti-
Fig. 5 illustrates the best scenario of the DDH considering the fol-
mation of hydro-mechanic losses and the same time potential of
lowing efficiencies: pump/motor – 85%, electrical machine – 95%
improvement of DDH by better sizing and selection of components.
and double-acting cylinder −95% (efficiency of the frequency con-
This potential is especially highlighted in application of DDH for
verter is not included).
hybrid transmissions. Therefore, following Section 3 will apply DDH
Following Section 2.2 introduces measurement results which
to known powertrain topologies as a system study.
are utilised for validation of efficiency values.

3. Powertrain study

Section 3.1 begins by presenting the single components of pow-

2.2. DDH efficiency measurements ertrain topologies which were not mentioned earlier (in Section
2.1). Each component is analysed from efficiency point of view sim-
This section presents analysis of the DDH based on measure- ilar as in Section 2.1. Efficiencies for the following system studies
ments. In order to determine the behaviour of the DDH system, are summarised in the end of the section. Section 3.2 introduces the
efficiency charts for the lifting and lowering operations of the alternative powertrain’s topologies and their efficiency analysis by
hydraulic boom are created. Fig. 6 displays the measurement results means of Sankey diagrams.
for the total efficiency. The experimental setup was tested with a
payload of 175 kg with a motor speed range from 300 to 500 rpm. In 3.1. Powertrain components
Fig. 6 positive motor speed corresponds to lifting, negative speeds
correspond to lowering motions. The electro-hydraulic efficiency Most of the operations functions in NRMM are powered by
of lifting is defined as a ratio of the input energy from the motor hydraulics. Usually, in conventional machines the powering of the
to the potential energy of the load, and for lowering as a ratio of hydraulic pump is achieved directly with a combustion engine. The
the recovered energy to the potential energy. The efficiency curves hydraulic pump and the combustion engine are connected using a
have been calculated from the measured data by using equations transmission and a coupling as illustrated in Fig. 8.
explained in detail in [19]. As illustrated in Fig. 6, the total lifting Depending on the working cycle and dimensioning of the sys-
efficiency varies with motor speed from 50 to 20%. During lower- tem, the engine may be most of its operation time very far away
ing, total efficiency is in the range of 8–32% depending on the motor from its optimum efficiency. Fig. 9 illustrates example of a diesel
speed and payload. combustion engine efficiency map. According to Ref. [20], diesel
 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400 395

60

50

0.36

0. 3
6
40
0.
43
0.34
T, [Nm]

0.
30 32

0.32
0.3

0.3
0.28
20
0. 2 0.28
6

0.26
0. 2
0.24
0.22
10 0.1 0.2
6
0.18

0
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
, [rad/s]

Fig. 9. Example of the diesel combustion engine efficiency map.

350 5 leakage. In this study, valve losses follow the best-case scenario and
54
0 0. 7 1 76

68
0. .722 02 38

80 are assumed to be 20%.

8307745

0. 7 46
26 0 0.8
43 99
0. 68

0. 8 3 So far, a conventional powertrain was introduced and its disad-

67
0. 764 61
68
0.5

300
0.8
9 38 5

vantages. To meet CO2 requirements, hybrid and electric solutions

0 0.50.5907.5

48 2

6 68
2
7

0.84
5 1

for powertrains are created. Alternative sources of energy for real-

84 .8 0.07. 7.6744.732672092 38 0.606.614.16015939

0.

73 91
78

250 0. 86 87 isation of new topologies for non-road mobile machinery are also
0. 8
45
7
6 6 26 0

05 required. In this research, battery is chosen as a source of energy.

.8 7 91
0. 0.8

0
Current, A

0.88
8

200 73 Fig. 10 illustrates an example of lithium-titanate battery’s Coulom-

8 53
9

86
84

0. 0. 90 bic efficiency. Highest efficiency region is located in low current and

0. 6 6826 0 4 8422 1

91
0 0 0.

53
87 0.908 high state of charge regions. According to Ref. [31], efficiency of 95%
150 0. 8 14
0.929
8

covers working region of NRMM and this value will be utilized for
7

53 0.929 14 the analysis.

73

08
0. 9 0.949 7
6
86
0. 0

100 In following Section 3.2 are the component efficiency datas from
1 4
79 291 0.94976
88 0.9 the current section and Section 2.1. These were utilized to calculate
0. 6
0.949
7 0.97037 the overall efficiencies for the conventional and alternative NRMM
50 0.97037
0 .9 7 0 37 topologies.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fig. 10. Calculated efficiency chart of a lithium–titanate battery [31].

3.2. Powertrain topologies’ efficiency analysis

This section introduces the efficiency analysis of conventional

and alternative powertrains by means of Sankey diagrams. Table 1
combustion engine operating efficiency depending on the working contains summary of the utilized theoretical efficiencies for the
cycle is normally about 20%, and that is only half of the maximum Sankey diagrams. Table 1 is the prime source of data to define best
efficiency 40% in optimum operating region. Due to this fact, the scenario operation conditions for NRMM.
total efficiency of any powertrain based on an engine is automati- Figs. 11–14 demonstrate theoretical efficiencies for the conven-
cally low. tional and alternative NRMM powertrains in optimum operating
A conventional proportional control valve is the main control region based on the above-mentioned data. The theoretical total
unit for on-board hydraulics, which ensures correct direction of efficiency of the NRMM system was calculated by multiplying the
the oil flow in the system. It was demonstrated in Ref. [30] that effi- individual component’s efficiencies. Each subsection ends with a
ciency of a hydraulic boom is only 60% due to the characteristics of brief presentation of how the change of components effects the
conventional valves, which have high flow resistance and internal different powertrains.
396 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400

Fig. 11. (a) Schematics of cconventional powertrain, (b) Sankey diagram of the conventional NRMM powertrain.

Table 1 topology with the best case scenario of the DDH. The best case
Maximum theoretical efficiencies and losses of powertrain components in %.
scenario total efficiency of the powertrain of this system is 27.5%,
Component Maximum theoretical which is slightly higher compared to the conventional powertrain’s
efficiency, [%] 25.8%.
Diesel engine efficiency 40 Fig. 13a presents the electric version where the original engine
Electrical machine (generator and 95 and generator of the NRMM was replaced with a battery. A fre-
motor) efficiency quency converter is used to supply and control the electrical
Hydraulic pump efficiency 85
machine. Pump delivers the flow to all the actuators in the system
Valve losses 20
Hydraulic cylinder efficiency 95 thru conventional valves that control the actuator motions.
Frequency converter/rectifier 97 Fig. 13b illustrates the Sankey diagram for the electric NRMM
efficiency topology with a conventional hydraulic line. Most significant losses
Measured DDH efficiency 50
are due to the valves in hydraulic section of the system. Despite this
Best scenario DDH efficiency 76.7
Lithium titanate battery efficiency 95 fact, overall efficiency is higher compared to conventional engine
driven powertrain (Fig. 11a).
In Fig. 14a is illustrated the second electric approach where the
engine is replaced with a battery, frequency converter is utilised
Fig. 11 illustrates a conventional powertrain, where 100% is to supply the ac network of the machine, control the charging of
input energy from fuel. the batteries and maintain voltage levels in the system. Conven-
According to Fig. 11, significant concentration of losses of the tional hydraulics including the valves are replaced with the DDH
powertrain is located in diesel engine, where 60% is generally dis- per actuator.
carded as heat loss. Total system efficiency in conventional NRMM Fig. 14b illustrates a Sankey diagram where the total efficiency
is 25.8% in optimal operational region. of this powertrain topology is 46.1% which is significantly higher
In order to compare the disadvantages of the conventional compared to the conventional system. By applying the best scenario
NRMM system, the proposed hybrid and electric topologies are of DDH in Fig. 14c, efficiency of the electric powertrain is increased
analysed in identical way. from 46.1% to 70.7%.
Fig. 12a displays a hybrid topology for NRMM with DDH. Gen- Following section contains overall discussion about possible
erator (G) collects energy generated by the engine; as a result the improvements in the powertrain, which can be achieved by
engine can be forced to constantly work in the high-efficiency zone. changes in the utilized topology.
In this topology energy is transferred using direct current directly
to DDH, where the actuator is driven directly by an electrical motor. 4. Discussion
Fig. 12b illustrates hybrid powertrain with measured DDH effi-
ciency. In this topology, DDH losses are second biggest after the The experimental investigation of the DDH demonstrated that
engine. Fig. 12c presents the theoretical efficiencies of the hybrid achieved measured performance was up to 50%. However, the lim-
 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400 397

Fig. 12. (a) Schematics of hybrid powertrain with a DDH, (b) Sankey diagram of the series hybrid powertrain with measured DDH efficiency, (c) Sankey diagram of the hybrid
powertrain with best case scenario DDH efficiency.

iting factor of the DDH is hydraulic losses. The best scenario values scenario DDH) gives an improvement of 7% (Figs. 11b and 12c) of
of 76.7% can be achieved with optimal selection of components for overall efficiency of NRMM’s powertrain.
the DDH. Based on the Sankey diagrams, it can be seen that the From electrification of a conventional NRMM with valve-
optimisation of the DDH’s total efficiency is important. For exam- controlled hydraulics it is possible to get a 118% improvement
ple, with DDH optimized, the powertrain efficiency increased from based on comparison of Figs. 11b and 14b. It is worth mention-
17.9 to 27.5% in hybrid (Figs. 12b and c) and in electric proposal ing that electric proposal is limited mainly by battery capacity and
from 46.1 to 70.7% (Figs. 14b and c). techno-economical boundaries of today’s technical solutions.
Combustion engine is clearly the most non-efficient part in any The comparison of Figs. 11b and 14c indicated that, 174%
powertrain and it was shown that optimizing of hydraulic compo- increase in overall powertrain efficiency can be achieved by con-
nents and locating them closer to the actuators (creating the best verting conventional NRMM to electric topology with the best
398 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic of an electric powertrain with conventional hydraulics, (b) Sankey diagram of the electric NRMM powertrain with conventional lifting cylinder.

case scenario of efficiencies of a DDH. Improving efficiency would (NRMM). This paper investigates a directly driven hydraulic drive’s
besides the energy savings, reduce the demand of cooling which is (DDH) effect on the efficiency of various NRMM powertrain topolo-
one of the system issues of today’s machines in terms of volume, gies and analyses them with help of Sankey diagrams. DDH’s
costs, weight and maintenance. measured energy efficiency varies up to 50% depending on the
Assumptions that efficiency of a combustion engine is constant, direction of the cylinder’s motion and the motor speed. The best
engine is working in its maximum efficiency and excluding working scenario efficiency for the DDH was estimated to be 76.7%. Accord-
cycle is very optimistic and simplifies things significantly, which ing to the Sankey diagrams, the hydro-mechanical losses dominate
causes non-significant difference between the conventional and in the DDH and should be improved. Despite this, the DDH pow-
hybrid topology with regards to efficiency (Figs. 11b and 12c). ertrain without conventional control valves illustrated a 174%
Despite that, effect of the DDH is clearly visible in the electric pow- best scenario increase in overall powertrain efficiency that can be
ertrain proposals. achieved by converting a conventional NRMM to electric topology.
Therefore, the study indicates that DDH can increase the effi- Therefore, further study on optimising the DDH hydro-mechanical
ciency of NRMM. Its full potential can be only realized if NRMM components and investigation on the regenerative energy modes
is converted to be fully electric. It is important to also mention is vital in order to explore all benefits of proposed powertrains.
that current study analysed only linear movements of NRMM and
without energy regenerative features of the DDH. For future devel-
opment, these features should be taken into account. Acknowledgements

5. Conclusion The research was enabled by the financial support of the

ArcticWEll project, and internal funding at the Department of
Tighter emission and energy efficiency requirements demon- Mechanical Engineering at Aalto University. The cooperation of
strates a need for hybridization of non-road mobile machinery Panu Sainio is highly appreciated.
 T.A. Minav et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 152 (2017) 390–400 399

Fig. 14. (a) Schematic of an electric powertrain with DDH hydraulics, (b) Sankey diagram of the electric powertrain with measured DDH efficiency during lifting, (c) Sankey
diagram of the electric powertrain with best scenario DDH efficiency.

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