Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M.

Elghazi

INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX

Instructor: Prof. Mohamed ELGHAZI

Department: English Studies
Institution: Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Ibn Zohr University, Agadir,
Morocco

Chapter 1: Foundations of Syntax

This chapter introduces the core concepts of syntax, the branch of linguistics
concerned with sentence structure. We will explore how words group together to
form phrases and clauses, how grammatical relationships are established, and how
to classify words into different categories based on their properties. Understanding
these foundational elements is crucial for analyzing and describing language
structure.

1. What is Syntax?

Syntax is the study of how words are combined to form larger units like phrases,
clauses, and sentences. It investigates the rules and principles that govern sentence
structure in a language. Think of syntax as the "grammar" that dictates the
permissible arrangements of words.

Why is Syntax Important?

 Meaning: Word order and structure are critical for conveying intended
meaning. Changing the syntax can completely alter the message.
 Grammaticality: Syntax helps us distinguish between grammatically
correct and incorrect sentences in a language.
 Relationships: It reveals the grammatical relationships between words
(e.g., which noun is the subject of which verb).
 Ambiguity: Syntactic analysis can help explain why some sentences have
multiple possible interpretations.

Illustrative Examples:
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
 Sentence Structure: Consider the sentence "The student reads the book."
o This isn't a random collection of words. It follows a specific
pattern: [Subject: The student] [Predicate: reads the book].
o Compare it to "Reads the book the student" – this violates English
syntax and is ungrammatical.
 Grammatical Rules:
o In English, adjectives typically precede nouns: "a tall man".
o In French, adjectives often follow nouns: "un homme grand" (a
man tall). Syntax describes these language-specific rules.
 Ambiguity: The sentence "Visiting relatives can be annoying" is
syntactically ambiguous. It can mean:
o "Relatives who visit can be annoying." (Subject is "visiting
relatives" interpreted as a type of relative)
o "The act of visiting relatives can be annoying." (Subject is "visiting
relatives" interpreted as an activity)
Syntax helps us see the different structural possibilities that lead to
these meanings.

2. Syntactic Categories (Word Classes)

Syntactic categories, also known as word classes or parts of speech, are groups
of words that share similar grammatical properties and behaviors within
sentences. Identifying these categories is the first step in analyzing sentence
structure.

Words are assigned to categories based on three main criteria:

 Semantic Criterion: What kind of meaning does the word typically

convey?
o Nouns (N): Represent entities, concepts, places, things (e.g.,
student, city, idea, table).
o Verbs (V): Represent actions, events, states (e.g., read, think, be,
walk).
o Adjectives (Adj): Describe qualities or attributes of nouns (e.g.,
happy, tall, interesting).
o Adverbs (Adv): Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, often
describing manner, time, place, or degree (e.g., quickly, very, here,
yesterday).
 Morphological Criterion: What kind of grammatical endings
(inflections) or forms can the word take?
o Nouns: Often inflect for plural (-s, -es: cat → cats) and possessive
(-'s: John → John's).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
o Verbs: Inflect for tense (-ed: walk → walked), person/number (-s:
walk → walks), aspect (-ing, -en: walking, written).
o Adjectives: Can take comparative (-er: tall → taller) and
superlative (-est: tall → tallest) endings, or be modified by
more/most.
o Adverbs: Some form comparatives/superlatives (quickly → more
quickly). Many are formed by adding -ly to adjectives (quick →
quickly).
 Syntactic (Distributional) Criterion: Where does the word typically
appear in a sentence relative to other word classes?
o Nouns: Often follow determiners (the cat), adjectives (a tall man),
or prepositions (in the city). Can function as subjects or objects.
o Verbs: Often follow subjects (John runs) and can be preceded by
auxiliaries (will run). Typically central to the predicate.
o Adjectives: Usually precede nouns (a tall man) or follow linking
verbs (He is tall).
o Adverbs: Can appear in various positions, often modifying verbs
(run quickly), adjectives (very tall), or entire clauses (Fortunately,
he came).

Types of Syntactic Categories:

Syntactic categories can also be broadly classified into two types:

1. Lexical Categories: These are the "content" words (N, V, Adj, Adv).
They have relatively rich semantic meaning. This is an open class,
meaning new words are frequently added (e.g., selfie, google, tweet).
2. Functional Categories: These words serve primarily grammatical
functions and contribute to the structure of the sentence. This is a closed
class, meaning new words are rarely added. Examples include:
o Determiners (Det): Specify the reference of a noun (e.g., the, a,
this, those, my, some, many). Appear before nouns.
o Auxiliary Verbs (Aux): Help the main verb express tense, aspect,
modality, or voice (e.g., be, have, do, modal verbs like can, must,
will).
o Pronouns (Pron): Replace nouns or noun phrases (e.g., I, you, he,
she, it, we, they, him, her, them).
o Prepositions (P): Express relationships (location, direction, time,
etc.) between a noun phrase and another element in the sentence
(e.g., in, on, at, to, from, with, by).
o Conjunctions (Conj): Connect words, phrases, or clauses (e.g.,
and, but, or, because, although, while).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
Note: Some classifications include Inflectional Categories separately, while
others view them as features associated with lexical or functional heads. For the
purpose of this introduction, we will discuss Inflectional Categories in a dedicated
section.

Review Exercises: Section 1

1. Define Syntax: In your own words, explain what syntax is and why it is
essential for understanding human language.
2. Categorize Words: Identify the most likely syntactic category (Noun,
Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Determiner, Preposition, Conjunction, Pronoun,
Auxiliary Verb) for the following words based on their typical use.
Explain your reasoning using the three criteria (semantic, morphological,
syntactic) where applicable:

Happiness Quickly Beautiful

Run The On
And She Will

3. Criteria Application: Choose one word from the list above and
demonstrate how you classify it based on the semantic, morphological (if
applicable), and syntactic criteria.
4. Open vs. Closed Classes: Explain the difference between lexical (open)
and functional (closed) categories. Provide at least two examples of each
type.

Chapter 2: Lexical and Functional Categories in Detail

This chapter delves deeper into the specific properties and behaviors of the
primary lexical and functional categories introduced in the previous section.

3. Lexical Categories: Inventory and Characteristics

Lexical categories are the main carriers of meaning in a sentence. Their properties
dictate how they can be used and combined.

 3.1 Nouns (N)

o Semantic: Name persons (teacher), places (Agadir), things (book),
ideas (freedom).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
o Morphological: Plural forms (cat → cats, child → children),
possessive markers (student's essay). Can also take derivational
suffixes (-ness in happiness, -ment in government).
o Syntactic: Function as heads of Noun Phrases (NPs). Appear after
determiners (the cat), quantifiers (many books), adjectives (a
beautiful day), or prepositions (in the garden). Can function as
subjects, objects, complements, or be part of adverbial phrases.
 Example: The young students read interesting books in
the library. (Subject: students, Object: books, Prep.
Complement: library)
 3.2 Verbs (V)
o Semantic: Describe actions (run), processes (grow), states (exist),
experiences (feel).
o Morphological: Take tense markers (-ed: walk → walked),
person/number agreement (-s: walk → walks), aspectual endings (-
ing: walking, -en/-ed: written/walked). Can have irregular forms
(sing → sang → sung).
o Syntactic: Function as heads of Verb Phrases (VPs). Often follow
subjects and precede objects or complements. Combine with
auxiliary verbs (is walking, has eaten, will go). Dictate the types of
complements they require (e.g., eat requires an object NP: eat an
apple; sleep does not require an object: sleep soundly).
 Example: The students have read the book. (Aux: have, V:
read, Object: the book)
 3.3 Adjectives (Adj)
o Semantic: Describe qualities or attributes of nouns (e.g., red,
happy, difficult, tall).
o Morphological: Comparative (-er/ more: taller, more difficult),
superlative (-est/ most: tallest, most difficult). Can be modified by
degree adverbs (very tall, quite happy).
o Syntactic: Function as heads of Adjective Phrases (AdjPs).
Typically appear before the noun they modify (a beautiful flower)
or after a linking verb (The flower is beautiful). Can also follow
the noun in certain constructions (something beautiful).
 Example: She bought a beautiful, expensive dress.
(Adjectives modifying dress)
 3.4 Adverbs (Adv)
o Semantic: Add information about manner (quickly), time
(yesterday), place (here), frequency (often), degree (very), or
express comment/attitude (fortunately).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
o Morphological: Many are formed by adding -ly to adjectives
(quick → quickly). Some have comparative/superlative forms (fast
→ faster → fastest, quickly → more quickly → most quickly).
o Syntactic: Function as heads of Adverb Phrases (AdvPs). Modify
verbs (He ran quickly), adjectives (a very tall building), other
adverbs (ran very quickly), or entire clauses (Fortunately, we
arrived on time). They often have flexible positions in the sentence
compared to other categories.
 Example: He walked slowly down the street. (Adverb
modifying walked, Preposition introducing a phrase
functioning as an adverbial modifier)

4. Functional Categories: Definition and Characteristics

Functional categories serve to link between the parts of a sentence. In other words,
they are the grammatical glue of sentences. They have less descriptive meaning
but are vital for grammatical structure. They are typically closed classes.

 4.1 Determiners (Det)

o Function: Specify or determine the reference of a noun.
o Forms: Articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, that, these,
those), possessives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their, also
possessive nouns like John's), quantifiers (some, any, many, few,
all, every, no).
o Syntax: Function as heads of Determiner Phrases (DPs) in many
modern theories (more on this later). Always precede the noun (and
any adjectives modifying it) they modify (the cat, some beautiful
flowers). Cannot combine with other determiners (the my book).
 Example: The cat chased a mouse. (The and a are
determiners)
 4.2 Auxiliary Verbs (Aux)
o Function: Combine with main verbs to express grammatical
information like tense (will go), aspect (is going, has gone), voice
(is eaten), or modality (can go).
o Forms: Primary auxiliaries (be, have, do), modal auxiliaries (can,
could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would).
o Syntax: Precede the main verb. Form negatives by adding not (will
not go). Form questions by inverting with the subject (Will he go?).
Function as the head of the Inflectional Phrase (IP) or Tense Phrase
(TP) in some theories.
 Example: She will be going to the party. (will and be are
auxiliary verbs)
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
 4.3 Pronouns (Pron)
o Function: Replace noun phrases, referring to entities already
mentioned or understood.
o Forms: Personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and object
forms me, him, her, us, them), possessive pronouns (mine, yours,
his, hers, its, ours, theirs), reflexive pronouns (myself, himself etc.),
relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that), interrogative
pronouns (who, what, which).
o Syntax: Function like noun phrases in the sentence (can be
subjects, objects, etc.). Do not typically combine with determiners
or adjectives that modify them (the he ).
 Example: She saw him at the market. (She and him are
pronouns)
 4.4 Prepositions (P)
o Function: Express a relationship between a noun phrase (its
complement) and another part of the sentence, often indicating
location, direction, time, or abstract relations.
o Forms: Typically short words (in, on, at, to, from, with, by, for),
but can be multi-word (in front of, because of). Do not inflect.
o Syntax: Function as heads of Prepositional Phrases (PPs). Always
precede their complement (usually a noun phrase or pronoun: in
the house, with her). The entire PP often functions as an adverbial
or adjectival modifier.
 Example: The book is on the table. (on is a preposition,
followed by its complement the table)
 4.5 Conjunctions (Conj)
o Function: Connect words, phrases, or clauses.
o Forms:
 Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect elements of equal
grammatical status (e.g., and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet -
FANBOYS).
 Subordinating Conjunctions: Introduce subordinate
(dependent) clauses and connect them to a main clause
(e.g., because, although, if, while, since, when, that).
o Syntax: Appear between the elements they connect (John and
Mary, run or walk). Subordinating conjunctions appear at the
beginning of the subordinate clause (Because it was raining, we
stayed inside).
 Example: I like coffee, but she prefers tea. (but is a
coordinating conjunction)

Review Exercises: Section 2

Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
1. Identify Categories in Sentences: For each sentence below, identify all
the words and label their syntactic category (N, V, Adj, Adv, Det, Aux,
Pron, P, Conj).
o "The quick brown fox jumps easily over the lazy dog."
o "She will read the book and write an essay after class."
o "Because it was raining, we stayed inside and watched a very old
film."
2. Morphological Forms:
o Provide the plural form for the following nouns: Child, Mouse,
City, Criterion
o Provide the past tense and past participle forms for the following
verbs: Sing, Eat, Go, Think
o Provide the comparative and superlative forms for the following
adjectives: Happy, Tall, Difficult
3. Syntactic Positions:
o Write a sentence where a noun functions as the subject and another
noun functions as the direct object. Label these functions.
o Write a sentence where an adjective appears before the noun it
modifies and another sentence where an adjective appears after a
linking verb.
o Write a sentence where an adverb modifies a verb and another
where an adverb modifies an adjective.
4. Functional Category Usage: Write a single sentence that includes at least
one determiner, one auxiliary verb, one pronoun, one preposition, and one
coordinating conjunction. Label each of these functional categories.

Chapter 3: Inflectional Categories and Syntactic Functions

This Chapter explores grammatical features that are often marked

morphologically on words – inflectional categories – and then introduces the roles
that words and phrases play within the sentence structure – syntactic functions.

5. Inflectional Categories: A Comparative Approach with English and

Standard Arabic

Inflectional categories are grammatical properties that often appear as endings or

internal changes on words. They convey important grammatical information about
relationships within the sentence. While English has a relatively limited set of
inflections, Standard Arabic has a rich system, offering a valuable point of
comparison.
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
 5.1 Number
o Indicates quantity (singular, plural, dual).
o English: Primarily singular vs. plural for nouns (cat → cats), some
pronoun distinctions (I vs. we), and verb agreement with 3rd
person singular present tense (He reads vs. They read). Plural
formation is mostly adding -s or -es, with some irregulars (child →
children, mouse → mice).
o Standard Arabic: More complex. Distinguishes singular, dual (for
exactly two), and plural. Applies to nouns ( ‫( ِكتَاب‬kitāb, "book") →
dual ‫( ِكتَابَان‬kitābān) → plural ‫( ُك ُتب‬kutub)), adjectives, and verbs
(verb forms change based on the subject's number). Plurals include
regular "sound" plurals and many irregular "broken" plurals.
o Comparison: Arabic's dual form is a key difference from English.
Arabic has more pervasive number agreement across different
word classes.
o
 5.2 Person
o Indicates the relationship of the subject to the speaker (1st: speaker,
2nd: listener, 3rd: other).
o English: Marked on pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) and on
verbs in the 3rd person singular present tense (He reads).
o Standard Arabic: Marked on pronouns ( ‫(أنا‬anā, 1st sg), َ‫(أنت‬anta,
2nd masc sg), ‫(هو‬huwa, 3rd masc sg), etc.). Verb conjugation is
heavily inflected for person and number simultaneously ( ‫(أقرأ‬aqraʾ,
I read), ‫(تقرأ‬taqraʾ, you (masc sg) read), ‫(يقرأ‬yaqraʾ, he reads)).
o Comparison: Both languages mark person, but Arabic integrates
person and number more tightly into verb morphology.
o
 5.3 Gender
o Categorizes words (especially nouns and pronouns) as masculine,
feminine, or sometimes neuter.
o English: Primarily natural gender marked on pronouns (he/she/it)
and some nouns referring to people/animals (actor/actress). No
grammatical gender for most inanimate nouns.
o Standard Arabic: Grammatical gender (masculine/feminine)
applies to all nouns, including inanimate objects, based on form or
convention. Marked on pronouns ( ‫(هو‬huwa, he), ‫(هي‬hiya, she)),
adjectives (must agree with the noun's gender: ‫(كبير‬kabīr, masc
"big") vs. ‫(كبيرة‬kabīra, fem "big")), and verbs (agree with the
subject's gender: ‫(الطالب يقرأ‬masc subject, masc verb form) vs.
‫(الطالبة تقرأ‬fem subject, fem verb form)).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
o Comparison: Arabic has a pervasive grammatical gender system
affecting agreement across phrases and clauses, whereas English
gender is mostly limited to animate referents and pronoun choice.
Arabic lacks a neuter gender.
o
 5.4 Case
o Indicates the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun (e.g.,
subject, object, possessor).
o English: Primarily marked on pronouns (I/me, he/him, she/her,
we/us, they/them - Nominative/Subjective vs.
Accusative/Objective). Also possessive case marked by 's or
changing pronoun forms (John's, my/mine, his, her/hers). Most
nouns do not show case marking except for the possessive.
o Standard Arabic: More extensive case system marked by endings
(vowels) on nouns and adjectives, typically in three main cases:
Nominative (for subjects and predicate nouns), Accusative (for
direct objects and certain adverbials), and Genitive (for objects of
prepositions and possessors). These endings (often /-u/, /-a/, /-i/ or
their nunated forms /-un/, /-an/, /-in/) are crucial in formal Arabic.
o Comparison: English has very limited case marking, mostly on
pronouns. Arabic has a more systematic case system marked
morphologically on nouns and adjectives, though these endings are
often omitted in spoken dialects
o
 5.5 Tense, Aspect, Mood (TAM)
o Tense: Locates an action in time (Past, Present, Future).
 English: Uses verb endings (-ed for past: walked) and
auxiliaries (will for future: will walk) and base forms
(walks/walk for present).
 Standard Arabic: Traditionally described with two main
tenses: Past (often corresponding to perfective aspect in
English) and Non-Past (can express present or future).
Auxiliaries are used for more complex temporal relations
( ‫(كان‬kāna, was) + Non-Past for past progressive). Future
can be marked by prefixing ‫(سـ‬sa-) or ‫(سوف‬sawfa) to the
Non-Past verb.
 NB: In linguistic analysis of Arabic verbs, the two core
forms are often called Perfective (Past) and Imperfective
(Non-Past), reflecting their primary focus on completed vs.
ongoing/habitual/future actions.

Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
o Aspect: Describes the internal nature of the action (completed,
ongoing, habitual, repeated, etc.).
 English: Uses auxiliaries (be + -ing for progressive: is
walking; have + -en/-ed for perfect: has walked).
 Standard Arabic: The Perfective/Imperfective distinction
carries inherent aspectual meaning. Specific aspectual
nuances can be expressed using auxiliaries or adverbs ( ‫كان‬+
Imperfective for past progressive, ‫(ما زال‬mā zāla, still) +
Imperfective for ongoing).

o Mood: Indicates the speaker's attitude or the status of the statement
(factual, hypothetical, command, wish).
 English: Uses verb forms (Imperative: Walk!), auxiliaries
(may, might, could), and constructions (If I were... for
subjunctive).
 Standard Arabic: Uses specific verb forms (Imperative:
‫امش‬
ِ ! (imshee!, walk!)), particle prefixes, and different
endings on the Non-Past verb to indicate moods like
Indicative (default), Subjunctive (after certain particles like
‫(أن‬an, to)), and Jussive (after particles like ‫(لم‬lam, not)).

o Comparison: Both languages have ways to express TAM, but
Arabic relies more heavily on complex verb conjugation and
prefixes/suffixes attached to the verb stem, while English uses a
combination of verb endings, auxiliary verbs, and separate modal
verbs. Arabic has more distinct morphological marking for
subjunctive/jussive moods.

Review Exercises: Section 3

1. Comparative Inflection: For each category below, provide an English

example and a Standard Arabic example illustrating the concept. Briefly
state a key difference between the two languages regarding this category.
o Plural Number (Noun)
o 3rd Person Singular Subject (Pronoun & Verb)
o Grammatical Gender (Noun & Adjective agreement)
o Case Marking (Pronoun or Noun)
o Past Tense (Verb)
2. Arabic Tense/Aspect: Explain the distinction between the Perfective
(Past) and Imperfective (Non-Past) forms in Standard Arabic verbs. How
are future and progressive aspects typically indicated?
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
3. English TAM Practice: Rewrite the sentence "She reads the book." to
show the following TAM features:
o Past Simple Tense
o Present Progressive Aspect
o Future Tense (using 'will')
o Imperative Mood (addressing the subject)

Chapter 4: Syntactic Functions and Phrasal Organization

This Chapter introduces the functional roles that constituents play within the
sentence and begins to explore how words group together to form phrases, which
are the building blocks of larger structures.

6. Syntactic Functions

Syntactic functions describe the grammatical role or job a word or phrase

performs in a sentence relative to the verb or other elements. These are distinct
from syntactic categories (which are about the type of word/phrase).

 Subject: The element that typically controls verb agreement and is often
interpreted as the "doer" of an action, the entity in a state, or the topic of
predication.
o Traditional Semantic Views: Often defined as the "doer" (Agent)
or "topic." However, these semantic roles don't always align
perfectly with the grammatical subject.
 Example: Mary slapped John. (Subject = Mary, Agent)
 Example: John was bitten by a dog. (Subject = John,
Patient - not the doer)
 Example: This book is interesting. (Subject = This book,
Topic)
o Grammatical Identification (in English): Subjects are best
identified by their grammatical properties:
 Usually precedes the main verb in declarative sentences
(The cat slept).
 Determines the form of the verb in the present tense 3rd
person singular (He runs, They run).
 Is replaced by a subject pronoun (I, he, she, they) (John saw
Mary → He saw Mary).
 Appears after the auxiliary verb in yes/no questions (Will
he go?).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
 Is referred to by the pronoun in a tag question (He is happy,
isn't he?).
o Grammatical vs. Logical Subject: In passive sentences (John was
bitten by a dog), "John" is the grammatical subject (satisfies the
grammatical tests), while "a dog" (in the by phrase) is the logical
subject (the semantic doer).
o Arabic Subject: In Standard Arabic, the subject ( ‫الفاعل‬al-fāʿil)
typically follows the verb and is in the nominative case. In passive
sentences, the ‫نا‬nāʾib al-fāʿil ( ‫نائب الفاعل‬, "deputy of the doer")
takes the subject's position (after the verb) and nominative case,
but it corresponds to the logical object. Example: ‫َب زيدٌ الرسال َة‬ َ ‫َكت‬
(kataba Zaydun ar-risālata, Zayd wrote the letter - Zayd is subject,
nominative). ‫ت الرسال ُة‬
ِ َ‫( ُكتِب‬kutibati ar-risālatu, The letter was written
- The letter is nāʾib al-fāʿil, nominative).
o
 Predicate: The part of the sentence that says something about the subject.
In a simple binary analysis, it includes the verb and everything that
follows it (objects, complements, modifiers). The core of the predicate is
the verb, sometimes called the predicator.
o Example: The cat slept soundly on the mat. (The bold part is the
predicate)
o Example: She gave him a book. (The bold part is the predicate)
o
 Object: A noun phrase that typically follows the verb and is affected by
the action of the verb. Identified grammatically rather than solely
semantically ("receiver").
o Direct Object: The primary entity affected by a transitive verb.
Can often become the subject in a passive sentence.
 Example: Mary slapped John. (John is the direct object)
 Example: He ate an apple. (An apple is the direct object)
o Indirect Object: The recipient or beneficiary of the action,
typically appearing before the direct object or in a prepositional
phrase (usually with to or for).
 Example: She gave him a book. (Him is the indirect object)
 Example: She gave a book to him. (Him is the complement
of the preposition, fulfilling the role of indirect object)
o Grammatical Identification (in English):
 Follows the verb in active sentences (ate an apple ).
 Is replaced by an object pronoun (me, him, her) (saw Mary
→ saw her).
 Becomes the subject in a passive sentence (The cat chased
the mouse → The mouse was chased by the cat).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
 Note: Not every NP after a verb is an object (e.g., He died
last week - "last week" is an adverbial phrase, not an
object).

 Complements: Elements that complete the meaning of a head word (verb,
noun, adjective, preposition). They are often structurally required by the
head.
o Verb Complements: Direct objects, indirect objects, and
predicative complements (following linking verbs).
 Example: She is happy. (Happy is a predicative adjective
complement of is)
 Example: They elected him president. (President is an
object complement of elected, referring to the object him)
o Noun Complements: Phrases that complete the meaning of a
noun.
 Example: the destruction of the city (of the city is a PP
complement of destruction)
o Adjective Complements: Phrases that complete the meaning of an
adjective.
 Example: happy about the result (about the result is a PP
complement of happy)
o Preposition Complements: The noun phrase that follows the
preposition (in the house ).
 Modifiers (Adjuncts): Elements that add extra, non-essential information
about another word or phrase (adding qualities, describing
how/when/where something happened). They are often optional.
o Adjectival Modifiers: Modify nouns (adjectives, adjective
phrases, some PPs).
 Example: the tall man (tall modifies man)
 Example: the man in the hat (in the hat modifies man)
o Adverbial Modifiers: Modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or
clauses (adverbs, adverb phrases, PPs, clauses).
 Example: He walked quickly. (quickly modifies walked)
 Example: He walked in the park. (in the park modifies
walked)

Relationship between Functions and Categories:

It is crucial to understand that syntactic categories (like N, V, Adj) are classes of

words, while syntactic functions (like Subject, Object, Modifier) are the roles
these words or phrases play in a sentence. There isn't a one-to-one mapping:
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
 A single category can perform multiple functions:
o A Noun Phrase (NP) can be a Subject, Object, Complement, or part
of a Modifier (in a PP).
 The boys are playing football. (Subject, Object)
 He is the teacher. (Complement)
 He came last month. (Adverbial Modifier - the NP functions
like an adverb)
 A single function can be filled by multiple categories or phrases:
o The Subject function can be filled by an NP, a Pronoun, a Gerund
Phrase, or a Clause.
 The dog is barking. (NP)
 We will stay. (Pronoun)
 Running fast can be dangerous. (Gerund Phrase)
 That he left is surprising. (Clause)

Review Exercises: Section 4

1. Identify Syntactic Functions: In the following sentences, identify and

label the Subject, Predicate, Direct Object (if any), Predicative
Complement (if any), and any Modifiers.
o "The enthusiastic students quickly finished their challenging
assignment."
o "She is a talented musician."
o "We went to the market yesterday."
o "The committee elected Sarah president."
2. Subject vs. Object Identification: For the sentence "A sudden noise
scared the small child," identify the Subject and the Direct Object using
the grammatical tests discussed (e.g., pronoun replacement, passivization
mentally).
3. Modifier vs. Complement: In the sentence "He put the book on the
table," is "on the table" functioning as a Complement of the verb "put" or a
Modifier? Explain your reasoning. (Hint: Consider if the phrase is required
to complete the meaning of the verb).
4. Function in Arabic: Based on the discussion, how would you typically
identify the Subject (‫ )الفاعل‬in a simple active Standard Arabic sentence?
Consider its position relative to the verb and its case marking.

Chapter 5: Phrase Structure and Constituency

This Chapter explores how words combine to form hierarchical structures called
phrases and how linguists identify these functional units (constituents) within
sentences. We will introduce the fundamental mechanism for building these
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
structures (Merge) and a foundational theory for describing phrase structure (X-
bar Theory).

7. Constituents: Building Blocks of Sentences

A constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as a unit or a single

building block within a larger syntactic structure (a sentence or clause). Syntactic
rules often operate on constituents rather than individual words. Most constituents
are phrases.

 Example: In the sentence "The cat chased the mouse,"

o "The cat" is a constituent (a Noun Phrase - NP).
o "chased the mouse" is a constituent (a Verb Phrase - VP).
o "the mouse" is a constituent (an NP).
o "The cat chased the mouse" is the largest constituent (the
sentence).

Why Identify Constituents?

Identifying constituents helps us understand the hierarchical organization of

sentences. It shows how smaller units combine to form larger ones, revealing the
underlying structure. This is crucial for understanding how meaning is built and
how grammatical rules apply.

8. Tests for Constituency

Linguists use several tests to determine whether a string of words behaves as a

constituent:

 Stand-Alone Test (Answer to a Question): If a group of words can

function as a complete answer to a question, it is likely a constituent.
o Sentence: John saw the old man in the park.
o Question: Who did John see? Answer: The old man in the park.
(Shows "the old man in the park" is a constituent)
o Question: Where did John see the old man? Answer: In the park.
(Shows "in the park" is a constituent)
o Question: What kind of man did John see? Answer: Old. (Shows
"old" is a constituent - an Adjective)
o
 Replacement Test (Pro-form Substitution): If a group of words can be
replaced by a single word (like a pronoun, do so, there, one), it is likely a
constituent.
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
o Sentence: The fat cat with black and white fur demanded
attention.
o Replacement: It demanded attention. (Shows "The fat cat with
black and white fur" is a constituent, replaceable by the pronoun
"It")
o Sentence: Mary said she would [VP finish her homework]. And
she did so.
o Replacement: And she did so. (Shows "finish her homework" is a
constituent, replaceable by "did so")
o Sentence: I liked [NP the [N' blue car]], but I preferred [NP the [N'
red one]].
o Replacement: I preferred the red one. (Shows "blue car" is a
constituent (N'), replaceable by "one")
o
 Movement (Displacement) Test: If a group of words can be moved as a
unit to a different position in the sentence, it is likely a constituent.
o Topicalization: Moving a phrase to the front for emphasis.
 Sentence: I wouldn't eat this rotten apple.
 Movement: This rotten apple, I wouldn't eat. (Shows "this
rotten apple" is a constituent)
o Clefting: Putting a phrase after "It is/was..." followed by "that..."
 Sentence: I saw the cat with the black and white fur
yesterday.
 Cleft: It was the cat with the black and white fur that I
saw yesterday. (Shows "the cat with the black and white
fur" is a constituent)

 Coordination Test: If two or more groups of words can be joined by a
coordinating conjunction (like and, but, or), they must be constituents of
the same type.
o Example: He ate [NP an apple] and [NP a banana]. (Shows "an
apple" and "a banana" are constituents (NPs))
o Example: She is [AdjP happy] and [AdjP proud]. (Shows "happy"
and "proud" are constituents (AdjPs))
o Example: He walked [PP into the house] and [PP out of the
door]. (Shows "into the house" and "out of the door" are
constituents (PPs))

Review Exercises: Section 5 (Part 1: Constituency)

1. Apply Stand-Alone Test: Use the stand-alone test to determine if

"quickly finish" is a constituent in the sentence: "The students quickly
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
finished their assignment." What is the answer to the question "What did
the students do quickly?" Does this support "quickly finish" as a
constituent?
2. Apply Replacement Test: Use pronoun replacement to test if "the
challenging assignment" is a constituent in the sentence: "The students
quickly finished the challenging assignment." Show the replacement.
3. Apply Movement Test: Use clefting to test if "in the park" is a constituent
in the sentence: "John saw the old man in the park." Show the clefted
sentence.
4. Apply Coordination Test: Consider the sentence "She is tired but happy."
What constituents are being coordinated?

9. Merge: The Structure-Building Operation

In modern syntactic theories, particularly Noam Chomsky's Minimalist Program,

structure is built through a fundamental operation called Merge. Merge is a binary
operation that takes two syntactic objects (words or phrases) and combines them
to form a new, larger syntactic object (a constituent). This process is recursive,
meaning the output of Merge can be an input for another Merge operation,
allowing for the creation of infinitely complex structures.

 External Merge: Combines two elements that were previously separate in

the derivation. This is how basic phrases are formed.
o Example: Merge "read" (V) and "books" (N) → forms the
constituent [read books] (VP).
o Example: Merge "the" (Det) and [read books] (VP)? No, Merge
respects categories. Merge "the" (Det) and "books" (N) → forms
the constituent [the books] (DP). Then Merge "read" (V) and [the
books] (DP) → forms [read [the books]] (VP).
o
 Internal Merge (Move): Combines an element that has already been
created in the structure with another element, essentially moving the
element from one position to another. This accounts for phenomena like
question formation or passive sentences.
o Example (Simplified): Underlying: [TP you [T Past] read [DP
what]].
o Internal Merge moves "what" to the front: [CP [DP what] [TP did
you [T Past] read ___ ]].

Why Merge?
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
Merge is seen as the simplest possible structure-building operation. Its recursive
nature explains a fundamental property of human language: the ability to generate
an infinite number of sentences from a finite set of words.

10. X-Bar Theory: Describing Phrase Structure

X-bar theory is a framework that provides a template or schema for how phrases
are structured across different syntactic categories (Noun, Verb, Adjective,
Preposition). It proposes that phrases are not flat sequences but have a layered,
hierarchical structure.

 Contrast with Traditional (Flat) Grammar: Traditional grammar often

treated phrases as just two levels: a head and potentially some
modifiers/complements all directly attached. For example, "the big cat"
might just be labeled as NP containing {the, big, cat}. This doesn't capture
internal relationships well.
 X-Bar's Layered Structure: X-bar theory proposes three main levels for
any phrase headed by category X (where X can be N, V, Adj, P, Det, etc.):
1. XP (Maximal Projection): The highest level of the phrase. This is
the full phrase that can function as a constituent in a sentence (e.g.,
a full Noun Phrase or Verb Phrase). It often corresponds to the
traditional phrase label (NP, VP, AP, PP).
2. X' (Intermediate Projection): One or more intermediate levels
between the head and the maximal projection. This level is crucial
for capturing the grouping of the head with its complements and
closer modifiers.
3. X (Head): The core word that determines the category of the
phrase (e.g., the noun in a noun phrase, the verb in a verb phrase).
 The X-Bar Schema (Simplified):
o XP → (Specifier) X'
 The Maximal Projection (XP) can consist of an optional
Specifier and an Intermediate Projection (X'). Specifiers
often include determiners (for NP/DP), subjects (for
VP/TP), or degree words (for AP/AdvP).
o X' → X (Complement(s))
 An Intermediate Projection (X') combines the Head (X)
with its required Complement(s). Complements are sisters
to the head and typically appear close to it.
o X' → X' (Adjunct(s))
 Modifiers or Adjuncts attach to an X' level (or sometimes
higher). Adjuncts are typically optional and can be
recursive (multiple adjuncts can attach).
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
o X' → (Adjunct(s)) X' (Adjuncts can also appear before the X')

Example:

DP
|
D'
/ \
D NP
| |
a N'
/ \
N PP <--- Complement to Noun 'book'
| |
book P'
/ \
P NP <--- Complement to Preposition 'about'
| |
about syntax

 Empirical Evidence for X' and XP Levels: The constituency tests we

discussed earlier provide evidence for these layered structures. For
example, the "one"-replacement test supports the N' level: "I like the [N'
red car], but I prefer the [N' blue one]" shows that "red car" and "blue one"
(where "one" replaces N') behave as constituents without the determiner.
VP ellipsis ("do so") supports the V' level.

 Why X-Bar Matters:

o Universality: Proposes a common structural blueprint for phrases
across all languages, capturing fundamental similarities.
o Predictability: Provides rules for how phrases are built (Head +
Complement forms X', X' + Specifier forms XP, Adjuncts attach to
X').
o Foundation: X-bar theory was a crucial step in the development of
modern generative syntax, including theories like the Minimalist
Program, which adapts and simplifies the X-bar schema using
operations like Merge.

Review Exercises: Section 5 (Part 2: Phrase Structure)

Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
1. X-Bar Levels: Briefly explain the difference between the X, X', and XP
levels in X-bar theory. What type of element typically occupies the
Specifier position? What type of element is typically a sister to the Head
(X)?
2. Phrase Structure: Draw a simplified tree diagram (following the
corrected model above) for the phrase "a book about syntax". Label the
nodes with syntactic categories (Det, N, P, NP, PP, DP, N'). Identify the
head, complement(s), and specifier in your diagram.
3. Merge Application: Using the concept of Merge, describe the steps you
would take to build the simple sentence "Cats sleep." starting from the
individual words "cats" (N) and "sleep" (V). What constituent is formed
first? What is the final constituent? (Assume "cats" functions as a full DP
here for simplicity).
4. X-Bar Evidence Connection: How does the "one"-replacement test (e.g.,
"I like the old car, and you like the new one") provide evidence for the
existence of the N' level?

Chapter 11: The DP Hypothesis: NP or DP?

This Chapter examines a major development in syntactic theory concerning the

structure of noun phrases: the proposal that determiners, not nouns, are the heads
of nominal phrases, leading to the DP (Determiner Phrase) Hypothesis.

11. The DP Hypothesis

Traditionally, a phrase like "the cat" was analyzed as a Noun Phrase (NP) headed
by the noun "cat," with "the" as a specifier or modifier within that NP. The DP
Hypothesis, proposed by Abney (1987) and widely adopted in generative syntax,
argues that the determiner (D) is actually the head of the phrase, and the
traditional NP is its complement. The full phrase is therefore a Determiner
Phrase (DP).

 Traditional View (NP headed by N):

 NP
 / \
 Det N
 | |
 the cat
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi

 DP Hypothesis (DP headed by D):

 DP
 / \
 Spec D'
 | / \
 ??? D NP (Complement of D)
 | |
 the cat

(Note: The Specifier position in DP can be occupied by elements like

possessors, e.g., [DP [NP John]'s [D' Ø [NP book]]])

Why adopt the DP Hypothesis? Evidence:

Several arguments suggest that determiners behave more like heads than nouns in
controlling the phrase's properties:

 Determiners Select their Complements: Just as a verb selects its objects

(e.g., eat selects an NP), a determiner selects the type of NP it combines
with (e.g., these requires a plural NP; a requires a singular NP). Heads
typically do this kind of selection.
o Example: These cats (plural Det + plural N) vs. These cat (plural
Det + singular N - ungrammatical). This suggests these is selecting
cats.
 Pronouns are DPs: Pronouns behave like full DPs, not just NPs. They
cannot combine with determiners (the he is ungrammatical because he is
already a DP). They can replace full DPs (I saw [DP the man] → I saw
[DP him]). This suggests that pronouns are not just bare nouns but
structures that fill the entire DP slot.
 Possessors in Specifier Position: Possessors (John's, my) behave
structurally like specifiers of a larger phrase, often appearing before
adjectives and the noun. In DP theory, possessors are often analyzed as
occupying the Specifier position of DP (Spec,DP).
o Example: [DP [NP John]'s [D' Ø [NP book]]] - John's is in
Spec,DP.
 Cross-linguistic Parallels: In some languages (though not English),
nouns can move position in ways that suggest they are moving to the Head
(D) position, implying D is the higher head.
 Unified Structure: The DP hypothesis provides a more uniform X-bar
structure across different phrase types. If Nouns head NPs, Verbs head
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
VPs, Adjectives head APs, and Prepositions head PPs, it's consistent to
propose that Determiners head DPs.

Conclusion on DP Hypothesis:

While initially counterintuitive, the DP Hypothesis provides a more consistent and

explanatorily powerful account of the behavior of determiners and the structure of
nominal phrases across languages. In modern syntax, analyzing nominal phrases
as DPs headed by a determiner is the standard approach.

Review Exercises: Section 6 (Part 1: DP Hypothesis)

1. Traditional vs. DP: Briefly explain the core difference between the
traditional analysis of nominal phrases (NP-headed by N) and the DP
Hypothesis (DP-headed by D).
2. Evidence for DP: Provide one piece of evidence (from the lecture) that
supports the DP Hypothesis over the traditional NP analysis. Explain how
it supports the DP analysis.
3. Pronouns as DPs: How does the behavior of pronouns (like he or they)
support the idea that nominal phrases are DPs rather than NPs?
4. Draw DP Tree: Draw a simple tree diagram for the phrase "my friend"
following the DP Hypothesis. Label the nodes (Det, N, DP, N').

Conclusion

In these foundational Chapter s, we have laid the groundwork for understanding

syntactic structure. We began by defining syntax and exploring how words are
classified into syntactic categories based on their semantic, morphological, and
syntactic properties. We then examined these categories in detail, including the
distinction between open lexical classes and closed functional classes. We also
took a comparative look at inflectional categories in English and Standard Arabic,
highlighting key similarities and differences.

Moving from words to structure, we introduced the concept of syntactic functions

– the roles words and phrases play in sentences (Subject, Predicate, Object,
Modifier, Complement). Finally, we delved into how structures are built,
introducing the idea of constituents as grammatical units, methods for testing
constituency, the fundamental operation of Merge, and the layered framework of
X-bar theory to describe phrase structure. We concluded by examining the DP
Hypothesis as a key development in the analysis of nominal phrases.
Introduction to Syntax (April 2025) edit. by Prof M. Elghazi
Mastering these concepts provides you with the essential tools to analyze the
grammatical structure of sentences in English and other languages. In future
Chapter s, we will build upon this foundation to explore more complex syntactic
phenomena and theories.

General Review Exercises (Covering all topics):

1. Define the following terms in your own words: Syntax, Syntactic

Category, Constituent, Merge, X-bar Theory.
2. Identify the syntactic category and function of the italicized word/phrase
in each sentence:
o The tall man walked quickly.
o She gave him a book yesterday.
o The book on the table is mine.
o To swim is fun.
3. Analyze the following sentence using the constituency tests discussed:
"The students finished the difficult exam." Test if "the difficult exam" is a
constituent. Test if "finished the difficult exam" is a constituent (using
replacement like "did so").
4. Draw an X-bar tree diagram for the phrase "very happy about the news,"
assuming "happy" is an Adjective (Adj), "very" is a Degree Adverb (Deg,
functioning as a Specifier), and "about the news" is a Prepositional Phrase
(PP) functioning as a Complement.
5. Briefly explain how the concept of grammatical gender in Standard Arabic
differs significantly from the concept of gender in English.
6. Consider the sentence "The cake was eaten by the child." Identify the
grammatical subject and the logical subject. Explain why they are different
in this passive sentence.
7. Explain the role of Merge in building syntactic structure according to the
Minimalist Program.