AIME Practice Set 2015

David Altizio
March 8, 2015

Abstract
These problems are ones I have collected from my problem-solving over the past few years that resemble
AIME level problems, except that none of them have actually appeared on the AIME. Each problem (should)
has a nonnegative integer answer, and each of the four sections have ten problems roughly ordered by difficulty.
I tried to make the sections of similar difficulties, but this is probably not the case (Combinatorics and Number
Theory seem easier than Algebra and Geometry). Have fun with the problems!
The majority of these problems have been selected from both collections of questions (AoPS, Brilliant, various
math camps) and actual contests (HMMT, iTest, Math League, Mandelbrot1 , NIMO, etc.).

1 Several of the Mandelbrot problems that appear in this collection came from the book Mandelbrot Morsels. To be honest, it has

some pretty awesome problems, and it’s one of the few books that has a bunch of problems that haven’t all been released onto the
Internet yet. It’s definitely worth checking out!

1
David Altizio AIME Practice Set 2015 Page 2

1 Algebra
1. Let c be the larger solution to the equation x2 − 20x + 13 = 0. Compute the area of the circle with center
(c, c) passing through the point (13, 7).
2. Suppose a, b, and c are real numbers such that
       
1 1 1 1 1 1
a+ b+ c+ = 1+ 1+ 1+ .
b c a a b c

If abc = 13, what is |a + b + c|?

3. What is the only real number x > 1 which satisfies the equation

log2 x log4 x log6 x = log2 x log4 x + log2 x log6 x + log4 x log6 x?

√ √ √ √
4. Suppose that P is the polynomial of least degree with integral coefficients for which P ( 3 + 2) = 3 − 2.
Compute P (2).
5. Let a1 , a2 , . . . be a sequence defined by a1 = 1 and for n ≥ 1,
p
an+1 = a2n − 2an + 3 + 1.

Find a513 .
√ √
6. Let {xn }150
n=1 be a sequence of real numbers such that xi ∈ { 2 + 1, 2 − 1} for all positive integers i with
1 ≤ i ≤ 150. For how many positive integers 1 ≤ S ≤ 1000 does there exist such a sequence {xn } with the
property that
x1 x2 + x3 x4 + x5 x6 + · · · + x149 x150 = S?

7. Let c1 , c2 , c3 , . . . , c2008 be complex numbers such that

|c1 | = |c2 | = |c3 | = · · · = |c2008 | = 2011,

and let S(2008, t) be the sum of all products of these 2008 complex numbers taken t at a time. Let Q be the
maximum possible value of
S(2008, 1492)
.
S(2008, 516)
Find the remainder when Q is divided by 1000.
8. Let S be the sum of all x such that 1 ≤ x ≤ 99 and

{x2 } = {x}2 .

Find the number formed by the first three digits of bSc. (Here bxc denotes the greatest integer less than or
equal to x and {x} = x − bxc denotes the fractional part of x.)

9. Let a, b, c, and d be positive real numbers such that

a2 + b2 = c2 + d2 = 2008,
ac = bd = 1000.

If S = a + b + c + d, compute the value of bSc.

10. Suppose a, b, c, d are integers such that

a+b+c+d=0 and (ab − cd)(ac − bd)(ad − bc) + 5282 = 0.

What is the maximum possible value of a?

David Altizio AIME Practice Set 2015 Page 3

2 Combinatorics
1. A random pizza is made by flipping a fair coin to decide whether to include pepperoni, then doing the same
for sausage, mushrooms, and onions. The probability that two random pizzas have at least one topping in
common can be written in the form mn where m and n are positive integers. Find m + n.

2. How many permutations (a1 , a2 , . . . , a10 ) of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 satisfy

|a1 − 1| + |a2 − 2| + · · · + |a10 − 10| = 4?

A
3. How many paths are there from A to B through the network shown if you
may only move up, down, right, and up-right? A path also may not traverse
any portion of the network more than once. A sample path is highlighted.

4. Consider the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , 100}. How many subsets of this set with two or more elements satisfy:
(i) the terms of the subset form an arithmetic sequence, and
(ii) we cannot include another element from S with this subset to form an even longer arithmetic sequence?
5. Simon and Garfunkle play in a round-robin golf tournament. Each player is awarded one point for a victory,
a half point for a tie, and no points for a loss. Simon beat Garfunkle in the first game by a record margin as
Garfunkle sent a shot over the bridge and into troubled waters on the final hole. Garfunkle went on to score
8 total victories, but no ties at all. Meanwhile, Simon wound up with exactly 8 points, including the point for
a victory over Garfunkle. Amazingly, every other player at the tournament scored exactly n. Find the sum
of all possible values of n.

6. An ant starts at the origin of a coordinate plane. Each minute, it either walks one unit to the right or one
unit up, but it will never move in the same direction more than twice in the row. In how many different ways
can it get to the point (5,5)?
7. Thaddeus is given a 2013 × 2013 array of integers each between 1 and 2013, inclusive. He is allowed two
operations:

1. Choose a row, and subtract 1 from each entry.

2. Chooses a column, and add 1 to each entry.

He would like to get an array where all integers are divisible by 2013. Let M be the number of initial arrays
for which this is possible. What is the number formed by the last three digits of M ?

8. If you flip a fair coin 1000 times, let P be the expected value of the product of the number of heads and the
number of tails. What are the first three digits of P ?
9. Suppose N is the number of ways to partition the counting numbers from 1 to 12 (inclusive) into four sets
with three numbers in each set so that the product of the numbers in each set is divisible by 6. What is the
number formed by the last three digits of N ?

10. Seven points are spaced equally around a circle each having labeled with some number. A labeling is clean
if for any two pairs of points a, b and c, d with a having the same label as b and c as d, but a not having the
same label as c, the chords connecting ab and cd do not intersect. Additionally, two clean labelings are the
same if the set of points that have the same label in one labeling are the same as in the other and if the points
can be rotated to equal the other. How many unique clean labelings are there?
David Altizio AIME Practice Set 2015 Page 4

3 Geometry
1. Regular hexagon ABCDEF is given in the plane. If the area of the triangle whose vertices are the midpoints
of AB, CD, and EF is 225, what is the area of ABCDEF ?
S 2 2 2 R
2. In the corners of a square P QRS with side length 6 cm four smaller squares
are placed with side lengths 2 cm. Let us denote their vertices by W, X, Y, Z D 2
like in the picture. A square ABCD is constructed in such a way, that points Z Y
W, X, Y, Z lie inside the sides AB, BC, CD, DA respectively. Find the square
A
of the largest possible distance between points P and D. 2
C
3. Two perpendicular planes intersect a sphere in two circles. These circles W X
intersect in two points, A and B, such that AB = 42. If the radii of the two 2
B
circles are 54 and 66, find the remainder when R2 is divided by 1000, where
R is the radius of the sphere. P Q

4. Two circles, ω1 and ω2 , have radii of 5 and 12 respectively, and their centers are 13 units apart. The circles
intersect at two different points P and Q. A line l is drawn through P and intersects the circle ω1 at X 6= P
and ω2 at Y 6= P . Find the maximum value of P X · P Y .

5. Two circles in the Cartesian plane have four common tangent lines. If the slopes of these lines are 2, 3, 4,
and m, in increasing order, then calculate b100mc.
6. Let point O be the origin of a three-dimensional coordinate √
system, and let points A, B, and C be located on
the positive x, y, and z axes, respectively. Suppose OA = 4 75 and m∠BAC = 30◦ . Compute 100K, where
K is the area of 4ABC.
7. Let 4ABC be an isosceles triangle with AB = AC, and denote by ω the unique circle inscribed inside the
triangle. Suppose the orthocenter of 4ABC lies on ω. Then there exist relatively prime positive integers m
and n such that cos ∠BAC = m n . Find m + n.

8. Let 4ABC have AB = 6, BC = 7, and CA = 8, and denote by ω its circumcircle. Let N be a point on
ω such that AN is a diameter of ω. Furthermore, let the tangent to ω at A intersect BC at T , and let the
second intersection point of N T with ω be X. The length of AX can be written in the form √mn for positive
integers m and n, where n is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find m + n.
9. Given a convex, n-sided polygon P , form a 2n-sided polygon clip(P ) by cutting off each corner of P at the
edges’ trisection points. In other words, clip(P ) is the polygon whose vertices are the 2n edge trisection
points of P , connected in order around the boundary of P . Let P1 be an isosceles trapezoid with side lengths
13, 13, 13, and 3, and for each i ≥ 2, let Pi = clip(Pi−1 ). This iterative clipping process approaches a limiting
shape P∞ = limi→∞ Pi . If the difference of the areas of P10 and P∞ is written as a fraction xy in lowest terms,
calculate the number of positive integer factors of x · y.

10. Let ABC be a triangle, and I its incenter. Let the incircle of ABC touch side BC at D, and let lines BI and
CI meet the circle with diameter AI at points P and Q, respectively. Given BI = 6, CI = 5, DI = 3, find
2
the sum of the numerator and denominator of (DP/DQ) when written in lowest terms.
David Altizio AIME Practice Set 2015 Page 5

4 Number Theory
1. Jack chose nine different integers from 1 through 19 and found their sum. From the remaining ten integers,
Jill chose nine and found their sum. If the ratio of Jack’s sum to Jill’s sum was 7 : 15, which of the nineteen
integers was chosen by neither Jack nor Jill?
2. There exist unique positive integers x and y such that 4y − 615 = x2 . What is the value of x + y?
3. In the binary expansion of
22007 − 1
,
2225 − 1
how many of the first 10, 000 digits to the right of the radix point are 0’s?
4. For positive integers n ≥ 2, define g(n) to be one more than the largest proper divisor of n. Hence g(35) = 8,
since the proper divisors of 35 are 1, 5, and 7. For how many n in the range 2 ≤ n ≤ 100 do we have
g(g(n)) = 2?

5. A positive integer n is called a good number if

n3 + 7n − 133 = m3

for some positive integer m. What is the sum of all good numbers?
6. How many zeroes occur at the end of the number 19996 + 6 · 1999 + 5?

7. All the digits of the positive integer N are either 0 or 1. The remainder after dividing N by 37 is 18. What
is the smallest number of times that the digit 1 can appear in N ?
8. It is well-known that the nth triangular number can be given by the formula n(n + 1)/2. A Pythagorean
triple of square numbers is an ordered triple (a, b, c) such that a2 + b2 = c2 . Let a Pythagorean triple of
triangular numbers (a PTTN) be an ordered triple of positive integers (a, b, c) such that a ≤ b < c and

a(a + 1) b(b + 1) c(c + 1)

+ = .
2 2 2
For instance, (3, 5, 6) is a PTTN (6 + 15 = 21). Here we call both a and b legs of the PTTN. Find the smallest
natural number n such that n is a leg of at least six distinct PTTNs.
9. How many of the first 2010 rows of Pascal’s Triangle (rows 0 through 2009) have exactly 256 odd entries?
10. For how many integers 1 ≤ n ≤ 9999 is there a solution to the congruence

φ(n) ≡ 2 (mod 12),

where φ(n) is the Euler phi-function?

 AIME Solution Set 2015
David Altizio
January 12, 2018

Abstract
These problems are ones I have collected from my problem-solving over the past few years that resemble
AIME level problems, except that none of them have actually appeared on the AIME. Each problem (should)
has a nonnegative integer answer, and each of the four sections have ten problems roughly ordered by difficulty.
I tried to make the sections of similar difficulties, but this is probably not the case (Combinatorics and Number
Theory seem easier than Algebra and Geometry). Have fun with the problems!
The majority of these problems have been selected from both collections of questions (AoPS, Brilliant, various
math camps) and actual contests (HMMT, iTest, Math League, Mandelbrot1 , NIMO, etc.).

1 Several of the Mandelbrot problems that appear in this collection came from the book Mandelbrot Morsels. To be honest, it has

some pretty awesome problems, and it’s one of the few books that has a bunch of problems that haven’t all been released onto the
Internet yet. It’s definitely worth checking out!

1
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 2

1 Algebra
1. Let c be the larger solution to the equation x2 − 20x + 13 = 0. Compute the area of the circle with center
(c, c) passing through the point (13, 7).

Solution. It suffices to find the distance between the two points (c, c) and (13, 7) - this value will be the
radius r of the circle and the desired answer is πr2 . We manipulate carefully and hope for the best:
p
r = (c − 13)2 + (c − 7)2
p
= (c2 − 26c + 169) + (c2 − 14c + 49)
p
= 2c2 − 40c + 218
p √
= 2(c2 − 20c + 13) + 192 = 192.

Success! As per our reasoning earlier the area of the circle is therefore 192π .

Source. Mandelbrot 2013-2014

2. Suppose a, b, and c are real numbers such that
       
1 1 1 1 1 1
a+ b+ c+ = 1+ 1+ 1+ .
b c a a b c

If abc = 13, what is |a + b + c|?

Solution. Let s = a + b + c. Expanding both sides of the equality and manipulating yields
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
abc + a + b + c + + + + =1+ + + + + + +
a b c abc a b c ab ac bc abc
1 1 1
=⇒ abc + a + b + c = 1 + + +
ab bc ca
a+b+c
=1+
abc
s
=⇒ 13 + s = 1 + .
13

Solving this equation yields |s| = 013 .

Source. AoPS, otherwise unknown

3. What is the only real number x > 1 which satisfies the equation

log2 x log4 x log6 x = log2 x log4 x + log2 x log6 x + log4 x log6 x?

Solution. This equation looks scary, but in fact it has a simple solution. Divide both sides by log2 x log4 x log6 x
to get
log2 x log4 x + log2 x log6 x + log4 x log6 x
1=
log2 x log4 x log6 x
1 1 1
= + +
log6 x log4 x log2 x
1 1 1
= + +
log x/ log 6 log x/ log 4 log x/ log 2
log 6 log 4 log 2 log 48
= + + = .
log x log x log x log x

Therefore log x = log 48 =⇒ x = 48 .

Source. Math League 1988-1989

David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 3

√ √ √ √
4. Suppose that P is the polynomial of least degree with integral coefficients for which P ( 3 + 2) = 3 − 2.
Compute P (2).
√ √ √ √
Solution. Let t = 3 + 2. Note that 3 − 2 = 1t , so we wish to find a polynomial P (x) such that
P (t) = 1t . Squaring gives
√ √ √ √
t2 = ( 3 + 2)2 = 5 + 24 =⇒ t2 − 5 = 24.
Squaring again gives (t2 −5)2 = t4 −10t2 +25 = 24, so t4 −10t2 = −1 and 10t−t3 = 1t . Hence P (x) = 10x−x3
and the requested answer is P (2) = 20 − 8 = 012 .

Source. Math League 1997-1998/2009-2010

5. Let a1 , a2 , . . . be a sequence defined by a1 = 1 and for n ≥ 1,
p
an+1 = a2n − 2an + 3 + 1.

Find a513 .

Solution. Note that the given recursion can be rewritten as

p p
an+1 − 1 = a2n − 2an + 3 = (an − 1)2 + 2 =⇒ (an+1 − 1)2 = (an − 1)2 + 2.

Let bn = (an − 1)2 . Then bn+1 = bn + 2 and b1 = 0, so an = 2(n − 1) for all positive integers n. (This is easily
provable by induction or anything else.) Hence b513 = 1024, so

(a513 − 1)2 = 1024 =⇒ a513 − 1 = 32 =⇒ a513 = 033 .

Source. OMO Fall 2012, Ray Li

√ √
6. Let {xn }150
n=1 be a sequence of real numbers such that xi ∈ { 2 + 1, 2 − 1} for all positive integers i with
1 ≤ i ≤ 150. For how many positive integers 1 ≤ S ≤ 1000 does there exist such a sequence {xn } with the
property that
x1 x2 + x3 x4 + x5 x6 + · · · + x149 x150 = S?

Solution. Let ai = x2i−1

√ √ x2i for all positive integers i. Note that each ai can take one of three possible
values: 1, 3+ 8, and 3− 8. Let a, b, and c be the number of the ai that are each of these values respectively.
Then by considering both the total number of terms and the value of each term we can set up the system of
equations (
a+b+c = 75,
√ √
a + (3 + 8)b + (3 − 8)c = S.
√
Note that the LHS of the second equation can be written in the form m + n 2 where m and n are integers.
However, we want it to be an integer, so n = 0 =⇒ b = c. Therefore we can substitute b into every place a c
exists and simplify to get a new simplified system
(
a + 2b = 75,
a + 6b = S.

This implies there exists a bijection between the number of possible values of S and the number of solutions
in positive integers to the Diophantine equation a + 2b = 75. To compute this new value, we simply realize
that a can take on every odd integer between 1 and 75, and that each of these values of a gives a unique b.
Therefore the number of possible values of S is 75+1
2 = 038 .

Source. Adapted from Argentina TST 2005

7. Let c1 , c2 , c3 , . . . , c2008 be complex numbers such that

|c1 | = |c2 | = |c3 | = · · · = |c2008 | = 2011,

David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 4

and let S(2008, t) be the sum of all products of these 2008 complex numbers taken t at a time. Let Q be the
maximum possible value of
S(2008, 1492)
.
S(2008, 516)
Find the remainder when Q is divided by 1000.

Solution (Official). Let ck = 2011zk for 1 ≤ k ≤
2008 such

that zk = cis θk for some angle θk . Noting that
1492 + 516 = 2008, we recognize that there are 2008 2008
1492 = 516 terms in both the numerator and denominator.
Letting p1 , p2 , . . ., p(2008) be the products of the zk taken 1492 at a time, and
1492

P = z1 z2 . . . z2008 ,

we have

S(2008, 1492) 20111492 (p1 + p2 + · · · + p(2008) )

1492
= !
S(2008, 516)
1 1 1
2011516 P p1 + p2 + ··· + p
(2008
1492)

2011976 (p1 + p2 + · · · + p(2008) )

1492
=  
P p1 + p2 + · · · + p(2008)
1492

1 (p1 + p2 + · · · + p(2008) )
= 2011976 · ·  1492

P p1 + p2 + · · · + p(2008)
1492

= 2011976 · 1 · 1 = 2011976 .

Finally, to compute the last three digits of this integer, we note that
   
976 976
2011976 ≡ 11976 ≡ (10 + 1)976 ≡ 102 + 10 + 1 ≡ 761 (mod 1000).
2 1

Source. Modified from iTest Tournament of Champions 2008

8. Let S be the sum of all x such that 1 ≤ x ≤ 99 and

{x2 } = {x}2 .

Find the number formed by the first three digits of bSc. (Here bxc denotes the greatest integer less than or
equal to x and {x} = x − bxc denotes the fractional part of x.)

Solution. Using the definition {x} = x − bxc gives

x2 − bx2 c = (x − bxc)2 =⇒ bx2 c = 2xbxc − bxc2 .

a
Let bxc = k. Note that we must have 2kx − k 2 to be integral, so x = k + for some positive integer
2k
0 ≤ a < 2k. I claim that all of these work. Indeed, note that
  a 2   a 2
2
n a o2 2
{x } = k+ = k +a+ = = {x}2 .
2k 2k 2k
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 5

Now it remains to find their sum. This is calculation; if we are careful, we should get that the sum equals
98       
X 1 2 2k − 1
99 + k+ k+ + k+ + ··· + k +
2k 2k 2k
k=1
98
" 2k−1
#
X 1 X
= 99 + k(2k) + a
2k a=0
k=1
98  
X 1
= 99 + 2k 2 + k −
2
k=1
 
98(99)(197) 98(99)
= 99 + 2 + − 48 = 641999.
6 2

Finding bSc as opposed to S is unnecessary and the resulting answer is 641 .

Source. iTest 2007

9. Let a, b, c, and d be positive real numbers such that

a2 + b2 = c2 + d2 = 2008,
ac = bd = 1000.

If S = a + b + c + d, compute the value of bSc.

Solution. Note that since a2 + b2 = c2 + d2 = 2008, we have (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = 20082 . Multiplying this
out gives
(ac)2 + (ad)2 + (bc)2 + (bd)2 = 20082 .
Next note that if x and y are two equal numbers then x2 + y 2 = 2xy. In this case, letting x = ac and y = bd
gives (ac)2 + (bd)2 = 2abcd. Therefore

(ac)2 + (ad)2 + (bc)2 + (bd)2 = (ad)2 + 2abcd + (bc)2 = (ad + bc)2 = 20082 ,

so ad + bc = 2008.
Now note that since a2 + b2 = c2 + d2 = ad + bc, we have

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 − 2(ad + bc) = 0 =⇒ (a − d)2 + (b − c)2 = 0,

implying that a = d and b = c. Finally, remark that

(a + b)(c + d) = ac + bd + (ad + bc) = 4008.

√ √
From the equalities established above, we have a + b = c + d = 4008, so bSc = b2 2008c = 126 .

Source. iTest 2008

10. Suppose a, b, c, d are integers such that

a+b+c+d=0 and (ab − cd)(ac − bd)(ad − bc) + 5282 = 0.

What is the maximum possible value of a?

Solution. Note that using the condition a + b + c + d = 0 we can see that

ab − cd = ab + ac − ac − cd = a(b + c) − c(a + d)
= a(b + c) + c(b + c) = (a + c)(b + c).

Similarly, ac − bd = (a + d)(c + d) and ad − bc = (a + b)(d + b). Therefore, the second equation becomes

(a + b)(a + c)(a + d)(b + c)(b + d)(c + d) = −5282 .

David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 6

Noting once again that a + b = −(c + d), a + c = −(b + d), and a + d = −(b + c), we can simplify this product
to
−(a + b)2 (a + c)2 (a + d)2 = −5282 =⇒ (a + b)(a + c)(a + d) = 528.
(It is easy to see why the negative solution should be thrown out here.) It remains to maximize the sum of
the three factors on the left hand side, as (a + b) + (a + c) + (a + d) = 3a + b + c + d = 2a, and maximizing
this sum will in turn maximize a.
Lemma 1. Suppose x, y, and z are positive integers such that xyz = c. Then x + y + z ≤ c + 2.

Proof. Note that since x ≥ 1 and y ≥ 1, we have

(x − 1)(y − 1) ≥ 0 =⇒ x + y ≤ xy + 1.

By applying this repeatedly we get

x + y + z ≤ xy + z + 1 ≤ xyz + 2 = c + 2

as desired. Equality holds when (x, y, z) = (c, 1, 1) or permutations.

Applying this lemma to our original problem, we have

2a ≤ 528 + 1 + 1 = 530 =⇒ a ≤ 265 .

Source. Brilliant.org
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 7

2 Combinatorics
1. A random pizza is made by flipping a fair coin to decide whether to include pepperoni, then doing the same
for sausage, mushrooms, and onions. The probability that two random pizzas have at least one topping in
common can be written in the form mn where m and n are positive integers. Find m + n.

Solution. We first compute the probability that the two random pizzas have no toppings in common. Note
that for any one topping, there is a 43 probability that it is not common to both pizzas (since the probability
of this is 12 · 12 = 14 ). Since there are four toppings, and each of the coin flips is independent, the probability
that two random pizzas have no toppings in common is ( 43 )4 = 256 81
. Hence the probability that the two pizzas
81 175
have at least one topping in common is 1 − 256 = 256 and the requested answer is 431 .

Source. Mandelbrot 2010-2011

2. How many permutations (a1 , a2 , . . . , a10 ) of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 satisfy

|a1 − 1| + |a2 − 2| + · · · + |a10 − 10| = 4?

Solution (Zimbalono). Any transposition alters the sum by an even amount. All permutations can be
constructed out of transpositions, so the sum must be even. No element can move more than two steps away
from its original position without making the sum greater than 4. So to create a sum of 4, you need

• two transpositions of pairs of consecutive numbers, or

• one transposition of numbers differing by two, or
• one cycle of length three of consecutive numbers (forward or back).

In the first case, you have 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 28, in the second case, you have 8, and in the third case,
you have 8 · 2 = 16. Total of 52 .

Source. Turkey First Round 2012

A
3. How many paths are there from A to B through the network shown if you
may only move up, down, right, and up-right? A path also may not traverse
any portion of the network more than once. A sample path is highlighted.

Solution. The important part of this problem is that the path can not move to the left in any way, shape,
or form. Once it leaves the first column, it can not traverse back there again. Thus, it is advantageous to
consider each column independently.
Note that there are seven ways to travel from the first column to the second column: meander through either
the three diagonal sides or the four horizontal ones. Once this first column is left, it can be ignored, and the
problem is reduced to determining the number of ways to travel from the second column to the third one.
But note that this is the exact same problem as before! No matter where the path enters the second column,
there are seven ways the path can go to the third column. Similarly, there are seven ways the path can go
from the third to the fourth column, at which point the path drops down to B.
This is thus an algorithm to construct any of the 73 = 343 possible paths.

Source. Mandelbrot 2013-2014

4. Consider the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , 100}. How many subsets of this set with two or more elements satisfy:
(i) the terms of the subset form an arithmetic sequence, and
(ii) we cannot include another element from S with this subset to form an even longer arithmetic sequence?
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 8

Solution. The key idea in this problem is that each subset of S we desire is determined uniquely by the
arithmetic sequence it contains. To prove this, suppose S1 and S2 are two distinct subsets with S1 ⊂ S2 .
Then we can add elements in S2 to the front or back of the arithmetic sequence to obtain S1 , but then S1
and S2 are not distinct, contradiction!
Let a and d be the first term and common difference of the arithmetic sequence in S. We now do casework
based on the value of d.
CASE 1: d ≤ 50. Here, remark that a can take on any of the values 1, 2, . . . , d. This is because if a = d + 1,
then a 1 can be appended to the sequence to get a subset we have already counted. As a result, for every d
there are d possible values of a.
CASE 2: d > 50. In this case, we have to be careful, since there can be only at most two elements in the
subset we desire. Hence S must be one of the sets

{1, d + 1}, {2, d + 2}, ..., {100 − d, 100},

so for every d in this case there are 100 − d possible values of a.

In conclusion, the total number of subsets S that satisfy the problem condition is
 
49 · 50
1 + 2 + · · · + 49 + 50 + 49 + · · · + 2 + 1 = 50 + 2(1 + 2 + · · · + 49) = 50 + 2 = 2500 .
2

Source. AoPS Intermediate Counting and Probability

5. Simon and Garfunkle play in a round-robin golf tournament. Each player is awarded one point for a victory,
a half point for a tie, and no points for a loss. Simon beat Garfunkle in the first game by a record margin as
Garfunkle sent a shot over the bridge and into troubled waters on the final hole. Garfunkle went on to score
8 total victories, but no ties at all. Meanwhile, Simon wound up with exactly 8 points, including the point for
a victory over Garfunkle. Amazingly, every other player at the tournament scored exactly n. Find the sum
of all possible values of n.

Solution. Consider the complete graph with k vertices of all the games played at the competition. There
are two ways to count the total number of points awarded to all players in the tourney. First is the obvious way:
counting with respect to the vertices. Simon and Garfunkle both score 8 points (since from the information
given Garfunkle has 8 wins and some number of losses but no ties for 8 points total), while the other k − 2
competitors get n points for a total of 16 + n(k − 2). However, there’s another way to count the number of
points total: counting with respect to the edges. For every match played, the total number of points goes
up by 1 (since each player

is awarded half a point in a tie). For k players, the number
of total matches (and
hence total points) is k2 . Setting these equal to each other gives 16 + n(k − 2) = k2 , or
k


− 16 k 2 − k − 32
 
2 1 30
n= = = k+1− .
k−2 2(k − 2) 2 k−2

The only integer k greater than nine that make the RHS an integer are 12, 17, and 32. This gives n = 5, 8, 16
and the requested sum is 29 .

Source. iTest Tournament of Champions 2008

6. An ant starts at the origin of a coordinate plane. Each minute, it either walks one unit to the right or one
unit up, but it will never move in the same direction more than twice in the row. In how many different ways
can it get to the point (5,5)?

Solution (Official). We can change the ant’s sequence of moves to a sequence a1 , a2 , . . ., a10 , with ai = 0
if the i-th step is up, and ai = 1 if the i-th step is right. We define a subsequence of moves ai , ai+1 , . . ., aj ,
(i ≤ j) as an up run if all terms of the subsequence are equal to 0, and ai−1 and aj+1 either do not exist or
are not equal to 0, and define a right run similarly. In a sequence of moves, up runs and right runs alternate,
so the number of up rights can differ from the number of right runs by at most one.
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 9

Now let f (n) denote the number of sequences a1 , a2 , . . ., an where ai ∈ {1, 2} for 1 ≤ i ≤ n, and a1 + a2 +
· · · + an = 5. (In essence, we are splitting the possible 5 up moves into up runs, and we are doing the same
with the right moves.) We can easily compute that f (3) = 3, f (4) = 4, f (5) = 1, and f (n) = 0 otherwise.
For each possible pair of numbers of up runs and right runs, we have two choices of which type of run is first.
Our answer is then

2 f (3)2 + f (3)f (4) + f (4)2 + f (4)f (5) + f (5)2 = 2 (9 + 12 + 16 + 4 + 1) = 84 .

Source. HMMT November 2010

7. Thaddeus is given a 2013 × 2013 array of integers each between 1 and 2013, inclusive. He is allowed two
operations:

1. Choose a row, and subtract 1 from each entry.

2. Chooses a column, and add 1 to each entry.

He would like to get an array where all integers are divisible by 2013. Let M be the number of initial arrays
for which this is possible. What is the number formed by the last three digits of M ?

Solution (Official). We claim that the set of grids on which it is possible to obtain an array of all zeroes
(mod 2013) is indexed by ordered 4025-tuples of residues (mod 2013), corresponding to the starting entries
in the first row and the first column of the grid, giving the answer of 20134025 . To do this, we show that
given after fixing all of the entries in the first row and column, there is a unique starting grid which can
become an array of all zeroes after applying the appropriate operations.
Let ai,j be the entry in the i-th row and j-th column. Suppose there is a sequence of operations giving
all zeroes in the array; let ri be the number of times we operate on row i, and let cj be the number of
times we operate on column j. It is enough to take all of these values to be residues modulo 2013. Clearly,
ai,j + ri + cj ≡ 0 (mod 2013) for each i, j. In particular, r1 + c1 ≡ a1,1 . Now for each i and j we have

ai,j ≡ −ri − cj
≡ (ai,1 + c1 ) + (a1,j + r1 )
≡ ai,1 + a1,j − a1,1 ,

which is fixed. Thus the rest of the entries in the grid are forced.
Conversely, if we set ai,j to be the appropriate representative of the residue class of ai,1 + a1,j − a1,1 modulo
2013, we may take ri ≡ −ai,1 (mod 2013), and cj ≡ a1,1 − a1,j (mod 2013) for each i and j. It is clear that
ai,j + ri + cj ≡ 0 (mod 2013) for each i, j, so we’re done.

Source. HMMT February 2013

8. If you flip a fair coin 1000 times, let P be the expected value of the product of the number of heads and the
number of tails. What are the first three digits of P ?

Solution (yimingz89). Let x denote expected number of heads and n denote the total number of coin
flips (in this case, n = 1000). We’re looking for E(n(n − x)). By linearity of expectation, E(n(n − x)) =
nE(x) − E(x2 ). Recall that Var(x) = E(x2 ) − E(x)2 . Note that the variance for each coin flip is just
1 n 2
4 , so Var(x) = 4 . Plugging into the varience equation and solving for the expected value of x , we get
2
E(x2 ) = n4 + n4 . Therefore,

n n2 n2 − n
 
n
E(n(n − x)) = n × − + = .
2 4 4 4

Plugging in n = 1000, we get 249 750.

OR
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 10

Solution (Naysh). Take

 1000
x+y
f (x, y) = .
2
Then, the problem is just asking for us to compute
 
∂ ∂
f (x, y) .
∂x ∂y
(x,y)=(1,1)

Differentiating f (x, y) partially first with respect to y and then with respect to x yields the new function
 998
1000 · 999 x+y
· .
4 2
So, the expected value of the product of the number of heads and tails is just 999 · 250, whose first three digits
are just 249 . 

OR

1 1000


Solution (bobthesmartypants). The probability of getting k heads and 1000 − k tails is 21000 k . The
product that this gives is k(1000 − k). Thus, the expected value for this case is
1000


k
k(1000 − k)
21000
and the expected value overall is
1000
X 1000


k
k(1000 − k) .
21000
k=0

Now we do some clever algebraic manipulation to get

1000 1000

1000
X
k 1 X 1000!
k(1000 − k) 1000 = 1000 k(1000 − k)
2 2 k!(1000 − k)!
k=0 k=0
999
1 X 1000!
=
21000 (k − 1)!(1000 − k − 1)!
k=1
998
999000 X 998!
= 1000
2 k!(998 − k)!
k=0
998  
999000 X 998
= 1000
2 k
k=0
999000
= 1000 · 2998 = 249 750.
2

Source. HMMT November 2014

9. Suppose N is the number of ways to partition the counting numbers from 1 to 12 (inclusive) into four sets
with three numbers in each set so that the product of the numbers in each set is divisible by 6. What is the
number formed by the last three digits of N ?
Note: it is possible that this solution below contains a mistake, since although I think the answer I get differs
from the official one, I have no way anymore of checking the actual solution right now. In the event that this
solution is actually incorrect, do not hesitate to contact me.

Solution. First remark that there are exactly four numbers divisible by 3 to choose from - 3, 6, 9, and 12.
Thus, it must be the case that each one of these goes into its own set, so the sets must be of the form

{3, , }, {6, , }, {9, , }, {12, , }.

David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 11

Now in order to fufill the condition, the sets containing 3 and 9 must have an even number as well. There
are four left to choose from - 2, 4, 8, and 10. It thus suffices to find the number of ways one can place the
remaining eight numbers into the eight slots above such that the sets containing 3 and 9 have at least one
even number.
It turns out it is slightly easier to count the number of configurations which do not satisfy this property - as
we shall see later, this is because the cases are more symmetric. While a classic PIE strategy suffices here, in
reality we can be a bit more clever. Consider the distribution of the even numbers among the four sets. Note
that if the product of the elements of some set is not divisible by 6, then it must not be the case that an even
number appers in all four subsets. This leaves only two possible distributions of even numbers left.

• First suppose two of the sets have two even numbers
and the other two have none. There are 5 ways to
choose which two sets get the two even numbers, 42 = 6 ways to split the even numbers between the
two sets, and 42 = 6 ways to split the remaining four numbers between the two remaining sets. This

gives 5 · 62 = 180 possibilities total.

• Now suppose one set gets two even numbers while two other sets get one number each. There are 6 ways
to choose the sets which get chosen for the even numbers. Then there are 4 · 3 = 12 ways to distribute
the even numbers among the given sets, and 4 · 3 = 12 ways to distribute the remaining four numbers
among the remaining four positions. This yields 6 · 122 = 864 possibilities.
8


Finally, since the total number of distributions of the eight numbers is 2,2,2,2 = 2520, our answer is

2520 − 180 − 864 = 1476 ≡ 476 (mod 1000).

Source. Mandelbrot 2002-2003

10. Seven points are spaced equally around a circle each having labeled with some number. A labeling is clean
if for any two pairs of points a, b and c, d with a having the same label as b and c as d, but a not having the
same label as c, the chords connecting ab and cd do not intersect. Additionally, two clean labelings are the
same if the set of points that have the same label in one labeling are the same as in the other and if the points
can be rotated to equal the other. How many unique clean labelings are there?

Solution. I actually don’t know how to do this one....

Source. Unknown
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 12

3 Geometry
1. Regular hexagon ABCDEF is given in the plane. If the area of the triangle whose vertices are the midpoints
of AB, CD, and EF is 225, what is the area of ABCDEF ?

Solution. Suppose s is the side length of the hexagon, and let M , N , and P denote the midpoints of AB,
CD, and EF respectively. Then M N is a midline of trapezoid ABCD, and so M N = 23 s. Thus
√
[ABCDEF ] 6 · s2 3/4 8
= √ = ,
[M N P ] (3s/2)2 3/4 3

8
and so the requested answer is 3 · 225 = 600 .

Source. MATHCOUNTS
S 2 2 2 R
2. In the corners of a square P QRS with side length 6 cm four smaller squares
are placed with side lengths 2 cm. Let us denote their vertices by W, X, Y, Z D 2
like in the picture. A square ABCD is constructed in such a way, that points Z Y
W, X, Y, Z lie inside the sides AB, BC, CD, DA respectively. Find the square
A
of the largest possible distance between points P and D. 2
C
Solution. Let M denote the midpoint of Y Z. Then P M = 5 by
W X
Pythagorean Theorem and M D = 12 · Y Z = 1, and so Triangle Inequal- 2
B
ity dictates that P D2 ≤ 62 = 36 , with equality achieved when P , M , and
D are collinear. P Q

Source. Cayley 2007

3. Two perpendicular planes intersect a sphere in two circles. These circles intersect in two points, A and B,
such that AB = 42. If the radii of the two circles are 54 and 66, find the remainder when R2 is divided by
1000, where R is the radius of the sphere.

Solution. Let O, O1 , and O2 be the centers of the sphere, the circle with radius 54, and the circle with
radius 66 respectfully. In addition, let M be the midpoint of AB. Note that OO1 is perpendicular to the
plane containing circle O1 , so OO1 ⊥ O1 A. Additionally, since O1 M ⊥ O2 M , we have that OO1 = M O2 .
Therefore,

R2 = AO2 = AO12 + OO12 = AO12 + M O22 = AO12 + (AO22 − AM 2 )

= 542 + 662 − 212 = 6831 .

Source. iTest 2008

4. Two circles, ω1 and ω2 , have radii of 5 and 12 respectively, and their centers are 13 units apart. The circles
intersect at two different points P and Q. A line l is drawn through P and intersects the circle ω1 at X 6= P
and ω2 at Y 6= P . Find the maximum value of P X · P Y .

Solution. Let the centers of the circles ω1 and ω2 be O1 and O2 respectively, and let the projections of
O1 and O2 onto XY be M and N , once again respectively. Let θ = ∠XP O1 . Since 4O1 P M is right, we
have P M = O1 P cos θ =⇒ P X = 2O1 P cos θ = 10 cos θ. Furthermore, since O1 O2 = 13, 4O1 P O2 is a
right
triangle, which implies that ∠O1 P M and ∠O2 P N are complementary. Thus, N P = O2 P cos π2 − θ =⇒
Y P = 2O2 P sin θ = 24 sin θ. Therefore

P X · P Y = (10 cos θ) · (24 sin θ) = 240 sin θ cos θ = 120 sin 2θ ≤ 120 .
π
Equality holds when θ = 4.

Source. West Windsor Plainsboro Math Tournament 2013

David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 13

5. Two circles in the Cartesian plane have four common tangent lines. If the slopes of these lines are 2, 3, 4,
and m, in increasing order, then calculate b100mc.

Solution (ahaanomegas). First, notice that the two internal tangents are the ones with slopes 2 and m and
the two external tangents are the ones with slopes 3 and 4. The internal tangents and the external tangents
are symmetric about the line through the centers of the circles. Say that line has slope a. Then we have the
system of equations (
arctan(a) − arctan(3) = arctan(4) − arctan(a),
arctan(a) − arctan(2) = arctan(m) − arctan(a).
a−3 4−a a−2
m−a 29
Using trig identities, we get 1+3a = 1+4a and= 1+ma
1+2a. Solving gives m = 3 . This slope is indeed the
29
 
largest of the four, so we are done and our answer is 100 · 3 = 966 .

Source. Mandelbrot 2004-2005

6. Let point O be the origin of a three-dimensional coordinate √
system, and let points A, B, and C be located on
the positive x, y, and z axes, respectively. Suppose OA = 4 75 and m∠BAC = 30◦ . Compute 100K, where
K is the area of 4ABC.
−
−→ −→
|AB×AC|
−
−→ −→
|AB||AC| sin 30◦ √
Solution (brandbest1). The problem reduces to finding 2 = 2 . Let A = ( 4 75, 0, 0), B =
(0, b, 0), C = (0, 0, c). We know that
−−→ √
−→ √

AB = − 4 75 b 0 and AC = − 4 75 0 c .
−−→ −→ −−→ −→ √ −−→ −→
Note that AB · AC = |AB||AC| cos 30◦ = 75. This makes |AB||AC| = 10. Substituting this back into our
equation, we get
−−→ −→
|AB||AC| sin 30◦ 10 5
K= = =
2 4 2
Therefore, our answer, 100K, is 250 .

Source. Mandelbrot 2004-2005

7. Let 4ABC be an isosceles triangle with AB = AC, and denote by ω the unique circle inscribed inside the
triangle. Suppose the orthocenter of 4ABC lies on ω. Then there exist relatively prime positive integers m
and n such that cos ∠BAC = m n . Find m + n.

Solution. Let the vertices of the triangle be A, B, and C, with A the vertex of the isosceles triangle. Let
H be the orthocenter and I the incenter of the triangle. Additionally, let D denote the intersection of the
incircle and BC, and let F be the foot of the perpendicular from B to AC.
Suppose that ∠ABC = x. Then ∠F BC = 90◦ − ∠ACB = 90◦ − x. Additionally, since I is the intersection
x ID
of the angle bisectors of the triangle, ∠IBD = . Next note that tan ∠IBD = DB and tan ∠HBD = HD
DB .
2
Plugging in our expressions for x, this gives
 
◦ HD ID x x
tan(90 − x) = =2 = 2 tan =⇒ cot x = 2 tan .
DB DB 2 2

Rewriting in terms of sines and cosines (and in addition using a tangent half-angle identity) gives
 
cos x 1 − cos x 2
=2 =⇒ cos x = 2(1 − cos x) =⇒ cos x = .
sin x sin x 3

Finally, we have
 
4 1
cos ∠BAC = cos(180◦ − 2x) = − cos(2x) = 1 − 2 cos2 x = 1 − 2 = .
9 9

Source. ARML 1983

David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 14

8. Let 4ABC have AB = 6, BC = 7, and CA = 8, and denote by ω its circumcircle. Let N be a point on
ω such that AN is a diameter of ω. Furthermore, let the tangent to ω at A intersect BC at T , and let the
second intersection point of N T with ω be X. The length of AX can be written in the form √mn for positive
integers m and n, where n is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find m + n.

Solution. Note that AT ⊥ AN and AX ⊥ T N√, so it suffices to first compute AT and AN . AN is easier:
7 15
by Law of Cosines cos A = 17 32 =⇒ sin A = 32 . Hence AN = 2R = sin ∠A =
BC √32 . AT , however, is
15
a bit harder; we shall solve for its length for general a, b, c with b > c. Let AT = x and T C = y. From
4ABT ∼ 4CAT we obtain two equations for similarity, x2 = y(y − a) and cy = bx. Multiplying both sides
of the first equation by b2 gives

(bx)2 = (cy)2 = b2 (y 2 − ay)

c2 y = b2 y − b2 a
b2 a
y=
b2
− c2
 2 
c b a abc
=⇒ x = = 2 .
b b2 − c2 b − c2
6·7·8
Plugging in the specific numbers gives AT = 82 −62 = 12.
Now we compute AX. To do this, scale computations down by a factor of 4, so that AT = 3 and AN = √8 .
15
By Pythagorean Theorem,
√
64 199 199
N T 2 = AT 2 + AN 2 = 9 + = =⇒ N T = √ .
15 15 15
Therefore
AT · AN 3 · √8 24
AT · AN = N T · AX =⇒ AX = = √ 15 = √ .
NT √ 199 199
15

Scaling back up gives a final value of AX = √96 , and the requested answer is 96 + 199 = 295 .
199

Source. NIMO 16, Own

9. Given a convex, n-sided polygon P , form a 2n-sided polygon clip(P ) by cutting off each corner of P at the
edges’ trisection points. In other words, clip(P ) is the polygon whose vertices are the 2n edge trisection
points of P , connected in order around the boundary of P . Let P1 be an isosceles trapezoid with side lengths
13, 13, 13, and 3, and for each i ≥ 2, let Pi = clip(Pi−1 ). This iterative clipping process approaches a limiting
shape P∞ = limi→∞ Pi . If the difference of the areas of P10 and P∞ is written as a fraction xy in lowest terms,
calculate the number of positive integer factors of x · y.

Solution (fedja). Let Dn be the difference in the areas between Pn and Pn+1 . Let our trapezoid be
P1 = ABCD (and [ABCD] = 12(3+13)
2 = 96); then without loss of generality construct diagonal BD.
Let A1 , A2 be the trisection points on AB, AD, respectively, that are closest to A. Then the operation clip(P )
deletes 4A1 AA2 . Since A1 A/AB = 1/3, A2 A/AD = 1/3, and 4A1 AA2 , 4BAD share common ∠A, we have
4A1 AA2 ∼ 4BAD by side ratio 1/3. Their areas are in the ratio (1/3)2 = 1/9.
Similarly, [C1 CC2 ] = 91 [BCD], and [A1 AA2 ] + [C1 CC2 ] = 91 [ABCD]. Cutting along diagonal AC, we get the
same result, so D1 = 29 P1 .
We now consider the effects of the second clipping. Without loss of generality consider what happens along
the vertex A1 of P2 . Let A11 be the trisection point along AB (again closest to A1 ), and A12 be the trisection
point along A1 A2 . Now AAA1 A11
1
= (AB/3)/3
AB/3 = 13 and AA11AA12
2
= 13 , and

∠AA1 A2 = 180 − ∠A11 A1 A12 =⇒ sin(∠AA1 A2 ) = sin(∠A11 A1 A12 ).

Using the 12 ab sin C definition of the area of a triangle, we see that [A1 A11 A12 ] = 19 [AA1 A2 ]. A similar
clipping about A2 gives [A2 A21 A22 ] = 91 [AA1 A2 ]; around each clipped region in D1 , we clip a new area
2/9D1 . Generalizing, we have the recursion Dn = 29 · Dn−1 .
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 15

As a result,
   2  n−1 !
2 2 2
Pn = P1 − D1 − D2 − · · · − Dn−1 = 96 − 96 + + ··· + .
9 9 9

Hence  10  11 !   

10
215

2 2 2 1
P10 − P∞ = 96 + + ··· = = 17
9 9 9 1 − 2/9 3 ·7

and so xy = 215 · 317 · 7 has 16 · 18 · 2 = 576 factors.

Source. iTest 2008

10. Let ABC be a triangle, and I its incenter. Let the incircle of ABC touch side BC at D, and let lines BI and
CI meet the circle with diameter AI at points P and Q, respectively. Given BI = 6, CI = 5, DI = 3, find
2
the sum of the numerator and denominator of (DP/DQ) when written in lowest terms.

Solution (Official). Let the incircle touch sides AC and AB at E and F respectively. Noe that E and F
both lie on the circle with diameter AI since ∠AEI = ∠AF I = 90◦ . The key observation is that D, E, and
P are collinear. To prove this, suppose that P lies outside the triangle (the other case is analogous), then
1 1
∠P EA = ∠P IA = ∠IBA + ∠IAB = (∠B + ∠A) = 90◦ − ∠C = ∠DEC,
2 2
which implies that D, E, and P are collinear. Similarly, D, F , and Q are collinear. Then, by Power of a
Point, DE · DP = DF · DQ, so DP/DQ = DF/DE.
Now we compute DF/DE. Note that
√
 
p 3
DF = 2DB sin ∠DBI = 2 62 − 32 =3 3
6

and that  
p 3 24
DE = 2DC sin ∠DCI = 2 52 − 32 = .
5 5
Therefore, (DF/DE)2 = 75/64 and the requested answer is 139 .

Source. HMMT February 2008

David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 16

4 Number Theory
1. Jack chose nine different integers from 1 through 19 and found their sum. From the remaining ten integers,
Jill chose nine and found their sum. If the ratio of Jack’s sum to Jill’s sum was 7 : 15, which of the nineteen
integers was chosen by neither Jack nor Jill?

Solution. Let x be a positive integer such that Jack’s integers sum to 7x while Jill’s integers sum to 15x,
and let n be the integer not chosen by either person. Then adding all nineteen integers together gives

7x + 15x + n = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 19 =⇒ 22x + n = 190.

Taking (mod 22) of both sides (i.e. considering the remainders of various parts of the equation upon division
by 22) gives n ≡ 190 ≡ 14 (mod 22). Therefore, since n ≤ 19, we must have n = 14 . (Indeed, this scenario
can occur if, for example, Jack picks 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 12 while Jill picks 1, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18,
and 19.)

Source. Math League

2. There exist unique positive integers x and y such that 4y − 615 = x2 . What is the value of x + y?

Solution. Note that the equation rearranges to

615 = 4y − x2 = (2y − x)(2y + x).

Now it suffices to find two numbers which multiply to 615 and which average to a power of two. Experimen-
tation yields that the only possibility is 615 = 5 · 123, which yields y = 6, x = 59, and x + y = 65 .

Source. Math League 2005-2006

3. In the binary expansion of
22007 − 1
,
2225 − 1
how many of the first 10, 000 digits to the right of the radix point are 0’s?
207
Solution. First, I claim that the answer is the same as that of the binary expansion of 22225 −1
−1 . To prove this,
remark that 225|1800, so 2225 |21800 − 1. Thus 21800 ≡ 1 (mod 2225 − 1), so 22007 − 1 ≡ 2207 − 1 (mod 2225 − 1)
as desired. Now rewrite the number as 207
2 −1
2225
1 .
1 − 2225
In binary, 2207 − 1 corresponds to the integer with 207 consecutive ones. Also, division by 2225 shifts the digits
1
over 225 places. This value is the first term of a geometric series with common ratio 2225 . Thus this pattern
207
2 −1
repeats, and we get that the fractional part of 2225 −1 is

0. |00 {z
· · · 0} 11 · · · 1} 00
| {z · · · 0} 11
| {z · · · 1} · · · .
| {z
18 0s 207 1s 18 0s 207 1s

Each block of zeroes and ones takes up 225 digits, so b 10000

225 c = 44 complete blocks are present within the first
10000 digits of the binary expansion. In the 45th block, since 10000 ≡ 100 (mod 225), the entire set of 0’s is
located within the first 10000 digits as well. Thus the number of zeroes is 18 · 45 = 810 .

Source. iTest 2007

4. For positive integers n ≥ 2, define g(n) to be one more than the largest proper divisor of n. Hence g(35) = 8,
since the proper divisors of 35 are 1, 5, and 7. For how many n in the range 2 ≤ n ≤ 100 do we have
g(g(n)) = 2?

Solution (Official). We observe that g(n) = 2 if and only if n is a prime, since composite numbers all
have at least one proper divisor between 1 and n, making g(n) larger than 2. Therefore g(g(n)) = 2 exactly
when g(n) is a prime. We now count how many times this occurs for 2 ≤ n ≤ 100. Evidently we could have
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 17

g(n) = 2 or g(n) = p for an odd prime p > 2. In the first case n itself must be prime (as we have just seen),
and there are 25 primes from 2 to 100. But there are also cases such as n = 44 whose largest proper divisor
22 is one less than a prime, making g(44) = 23. These cases occur whenever n has the form n = 2(p − 1) for
p an odd prime. There are 14 such values of n, from 2(3 − 1) = 4 through 2(47 − 1) = 92, for a grand total
of 25 + 14 = 39 values of n.

Source. Mandelbrot 2013-2014

5. A positive integer n is called a good number if

n3 + 7n − 133 = m3

for some positive integer m. What is the sum of all good numbers?

Solution (tastymath75025). Consider when n < m. Then

m3 − n3 = 7n − 133 ≥ 3n2 + 3n + 1

since the minimum value of m3 − n3 is when m = n + 1. Thus we reduce the inequality to 3n2 − 4n + 134 ≤ 0,
impossible by checking the discriminant.
If n = m, we see they are both 19.
Now consider when n > m. Clearly

n3 − m3 = 133 − 7n ≥ 3n2 − 3n + 1

since the minimum of n3 − m3 is n3 − (n − 1)3 . Thus, by simplifying the inequality, we find 3n2 + 4n − 132 ≤ 0.
Clearly this restricts n to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and we may check them manually to see that (6, 5) and (5, 3) are the
only solutions.
So to conclude, our solutions are (5, 3), (6, 5), and (19, 19) for (n, m).

Source. Unknown
6. How many zeroes occur at the end of the number 19996 + 6 · 1999 + 5?

Solution. Write the number in question as n6 + 6n + 5 for n = 1999. Now remark that this factors as

(n + 1)(n5 − n4 + n3 − n2 + n + 5) = (n + 1)2 (n4 − 2n3 + 3n2 − 4n + 5).

The (n + 1)2 = 20002 term contributes six factors of 5. With respect to the other term, note that

n4 − 2n3 + 3n2 − 4n + 5 ≡ (−1)4 − 2(−1)3 + 3(−1)2 − 4(−1) + 5 ≡ 15 (mod 25),

meaning that it is divisible by 5 but not 25. Thus this term adds exactly one extra factor of 2, meaning that
the desired answer is 7 .

Source. Mandelbrot 2003-2004

7. All the digits of the positive integer N are either 0 or 1. The remainder after dividing N by 37 is 18. What
is the smallest number of times that the digit 1 can appear in N ?

Solution. The key is to note that 37 × 3 = 111, so 103 ≡ 999 + 1 ≡ 1 (mod 37). Hence we can break the
number into blocks of 3 when computing the remainder modulo 37. As an example, the numbers 12345678
and 12 + 345 + 678 are congruent mod 37.
Let a, b, c be the total number of ones that are ones, tens, and hundreds digits in these blocks. (For example,
if N = 110101, then (a, b, c) = (1, 1, 2).) Then since each “units digit” contributes one to the remainder, each
“tens digit” 10, and each “hundreds digit” 100 ≡ −11, we have

N ≡ a + 10b − 11c ≡ (a + b + c) + 3(3b − 4c) ≡ 18 (mod 37).

We first wish to find the minimum possible value of a + b + c; this will in turn limit our options and leave
only a finite number of cases to check.
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 18

Now it just becomes trial and error. Obviously a + b + c = 1, 2, 3 do not work. If a + b + c = 4, then

3(3b − 4c) ≡ 14 (mod 37) =⇒ 3b − 4c ≡ 17 (mod 37).

Simple checking yields no solutions with b, c ≤ 4. On the other hand, if a + b + c = 5, then

3(3b − 4c) ≡ 13 (mod 37) =⇒ 3b − 4c ≡ −8 (mod 37),

and here it’s easy to see that (a, b, c) = (3, 0, 2) works! Hence the smallest number of possible ones is 5 , and
it is easy to see that 1, 101, 101 is the smallest possible construction under this case.

Source. AMC (Australian Mathematics Competition) 2013

8. It is well-known that the nth triangular number can be given by the formula n(n + 1)/2. A Pythagorean
triple of square numbers is an ordered triple (a, b, c) such that a2 + b2 = c2 . Let a Pythagorean triple of
triangular numbers (a PTTN) be an ordered triple of positive integers (a, b, c) such that a ≤ b < c and

a(a + 1) b(b + 1) c(c + 1)

+ = .
2 2 2
For instance, (3, 5, 6) is a PTTN (6 + 15 = 21). Here we call both a and b legs of the PTTN. Find the smallest
natural number n such that n is a leg of at least six distinct PTTNs.

Solution. Multiplying everything by 8 and adding two to both sides gives

(2a + 1)2 + (2b + 1)2 = 1 + (2c + 1)2 .

Making the substitution x = 2a + 1, etc, we now come across the simplified equation x2 + y 2 = z 2 + 1. The
one caveat is that all three variables are odd.
We’re trying to find the smallest positive integer that appears in at least six different triples (x, y, z) that satisfy
this equation (as only x or y, NOT z). Let this integer be x. Then rewrite as x2 − 1 = z 2 − y 2 = (z − y)(z + y).
Since both y and z are odd, z − y and z + y are both even and additionally have different residues (mod 4).
Therefore one of these two quantities must have exactly one factor of 2 while the other one must have at least
two. For all odd x, 8|x2 − 1 since a2 ≡ 0, 1, 4 (mod 8) for integer a, so we’ll never have fewer than three
factors of 2 at any point in time. Hence in order to get our set of solutions, we find all solutions in integers
to the equation w = (z − y)(z + y) (where w is the number that results after all powers of two are removed
from the prime factorization of x2 − 1), add these powers of two back, and convert to a PTTN.
Now we have to figure out what to do with all those odd factors. At first glance, it seems like the condition
that x be contained in at least six PTTN’s implies that x2 − 1 must have at least six positive odd divisors.
However, we need to be more strict than this. The pair (y, z) = (1, x) always works as a solution, but y = 1
translates to b = 0, which is not a positive integer! Hence the number of odd positive divisors of x2 − 1
actually has to be at least eight. (It can’t be seven because then x2 − 1 = (p3 )2 for some prime p, but no two
perfect squares differ by 1.)
At this point, it suffices to bash out numbers. (I tried some less-bashy methods to find one solution, but then
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 19

ended up grinding through the whole list anyway to confirm that no smaller solutions existed.)

32 − 1 = 8 = 23 ,
52 − 1 = 24 = 23 × 3,
72 − 1 = 48 = 24 × 3,
92 − 1 = 80 = 24 × 5,
112 − 1 = 120 = 23 × 3 × 5,
132 − 1 = 168 = 23 × 3 × 7,
152 − 1 = 224 = 25 × 7,
172 − 1 = 288 = 23 × 32 ,
192 − 1 = 18 × 20 = 23 × 32 × 5,
212 − 1 = 20 × 22 = 23 × 5 × 11,
232 − 1 = 22 × 24 = 24 × 3 × 11,
252 − 1 = 24 × 26 = 24 × 3 × 13,
272 − 1 = 26 × 28 = 23 × 7 × 13,
292 − 1 = 28 × 30 = 23 × 3 × 5 × 7.

Success! Now for each of the 8 pairs of integers that satisfy z 2 − y 2 = 3 × 5 × 7 = 105, we can partition
powers of two uniquely as mentioned previously to get our set of solutions. Indeed, when x = 29 =⇒ a = 14,
there are at least six PTTN’s that work (namely the seven (14, 104, 105), (14, 33, 36), (14, 18, 23), (11, 14, 18),
(5, 14, 15), (14, 14, 20), and (14, 51, 53)). Hence the smallest natural numbers n that works is 14 .

Source. iTest Tournament of Champions 2008

9. How many of the first 2010 rows of Pascal’s Triangle (rows 0 through 2009) have exactly 256 odd entries?

Solution. To solve this problem easily, we use the following lemma.

Lemma 2 (Lucas). Let m and n be positive integers and p a prime. Write m = mk · · · m1 m0p and n =
nk · · · n1 n0p as the base-p representations of m and n respectively. Then
      
m mk m1 m0
≡ ··· (mod p).
n nk n1 n0

Proof. Write
k
(1 + x)m = (1 + x)m0 +m1 p+···+mk p
k k
= (1 + x)m0 (1 + x)m1 p · · · (1 + x)mk p ≡p (1 + x)m0 (1 + xp )m1 · · · (1 + xp )mk .

Now consider the coefficient of xn of both sides. The LHS is trivially m

n . To get the right side, write
n = n0 + n1 p + · · · + nk pk . Then it is not hard to see from the fact that 0 ≤ mi ≤ p − 1 for all i that the
coefficient of xn on the right hand side is
 k k

([xn0 ](1 + x)m0 ) ([xn1 p ](1 + xp )m1 ) · · · [xnk p ](1 + xp )mk
    
m0 m1 mk
≡p ···
n0 n1 nk

as desired.

Now fix some 0 ≤ n ≤ 2009, and let 0 ≤ k ≤ n vary. Write, as before,

      
n n` n1 n0
≡ ··· (mod 2).
k k` k1 k0
David Altizio AIME Solution Set 2015 Page 20

Now note that 00 = 10 = 11 = 1 and 01 = 0. Thus, nk is even if and only if there exists a j such that the

j th digit in the binary expansion of n is zero while the j th digit in the binary expansion of k is one. It follows
that the total number of entries in the nth row which are odd is 2f (n) , where f (n) denotes the number of ones
in the binary expansion of n (since for each of these digits we have a choice of 0 or 1 for the corresponding
digit in k, while all other digits are forced).
The condition that row n has 256 odd entries reduces down to n having eight ones in its binary representation.
The number of such integers can be computed (e.g. by complementary counting) to be 153 .

Source. iTest 2008

10. For how many integers 1 ≤ n ≤ 9999 is there a solution to the congruence

φ(n) ≡ 2 (mod 12),

where φ(n) is the Euler phi-function?

Solution (f ). Suppose n = pk for some positive integer k and p > 3 where p is a prime number. Thus,
φ(n) = pk−1 (p − 1) ≡ 2 (mod 12). Since gcd (p, 12) = 1, we can only have p ≡ 1, 5, 7, 11 (mod 12). If p ≡ 1,
we’d have 0 ≡ 2 (mod 12), no solution. If p ≡ 5, then 5k−1 (4) ≡ 2 (mod 12), no solution, because the RHS
isn’t divisible by 4. If p ≡ 7 (mod 12), then the LHS is divisible by 6, but not the RHS. Hence, we must have
p ≡ 11. This would give us 11k−1 (10) ≡ 2 (mod 12), which reduces to (−1)k−1 ≡ −1 (mod 6), which implies
that k is even.
We must have p < 100 because p2 ≤ 9999 < 10000. The primes congruent to 11 modulo 12 are 11, 23, 47, 59,
71, and 83, so 112 , 232 , 472 , 592 , 712 , and 832 are solutions. But 114 > 104 = 10000 > 9999, so we can’t have
k > 2.
Now let us consider when p = 2. We have φ(2k ) = 2k−1 so we have 2k−1 ≡ 2 (mod 12), implying that k = 2
is the only solution (otherwise 4 divides the LHS and not the RHS). So we have 22 = 4 is a solution.
For p = 3: we have φ(3k ) = 3k−1 · 2 so 3k−1 ≡ 1 (mod 6), implying that k = 1 is the only solution, giving us
3 as a solution.
So now what if n is divisible by multiple primes? Say n = pe11 pe22 · · · pekk . Then, the totient of this would be

φ(n) = N (p1 − 1)(p2 − 1)(p3 − 1) · · ·

for some N ∈ N. If at least two of these primes are odd, then 4 | φ(n), and so no solution exists here. Thus n
must be the product of exactly two primes, with one of them being 2.
In conclusion, our solutions are

3, 4, 112 , 232 , 472 , 592 , 712 , 832 , 2 · 3, 2 · 112 , 2 · 232 , 2 · 472 , 2 · 592 .

There are 13 in total.

Source. iTest Tournament of Champions 2008

 AIME/USA(J)MO Handout

Trigonometry in the AIME and USA(J)MO

Authors:
For:
naman12
AoPS
freeman66
Date:
May 26, 2020

K
M N
X
Q
O

B D E C

Yet another beauty by Evan. Yes, you can solve this with trigonometry.

“I was trying to unravel the complicated trigonometry of the radical thought that silence could make up the
greatest lie ever told.” - Pat Conroy
naman12 and freeman66 (May 26, 2020) Trigonometry in the AIME and the USA(J)MO

Contents

0 Acknowledgements 3

1 Introduction 4
1.1 Motivation and Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Basic Trigonometry 5
2.1 Trigonometry on the Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Definitions of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Radian Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Properties of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5.1 Graph of sin(x ) and cos(x ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5.2 Graph of tan(x ) and cot(x ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.3 Graph of sec(x ) and csc(x ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.4 Notes on Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Bounding Sine and Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.8 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Applications to Complex Numbers 22

3.1 Roots of Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Applications to Planar Geometry 28

4.1 Direct Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Indirect Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Trigonometric Functions at Special Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 Vector Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.5 Parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5 3-D Geometry 49
5.1 More Vector Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

6 Trigonometric Substitution 51

7 Worked Through Problems 54

8 Parting Words and Final Problems 64

A Appendix A: List of Theorems and Definitions 66

B Appendix B: Hints 68

2
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§0 Acknowledgements
This was made for the Art of Problem Solving Community out there! We would like to thank Evan Chen for his
evan.sty code. In addition, all problems in the handout were either copied from the Art of Problem Solving
Wiki or made by ourselves.

Art of Problem Solving Community

Evan Chen’s Personal Sty File

naman12’s Website: Say hi!

freeman66’s Website: Say hi!

Note: This is a painting by Richard Feynman, who I admire a lot.

And Evan says he would like this here for evan.sty:

Boost Software License - Version 1.0 - August 17th, 2003

Copyright (c) 2020 Evan Chen [evan at evanchen.cc]
https://web.evanchen.cc/ || github.com/vEnhance

He also helped with the hint formatting. Evan is a LATEXgod!

And finally, please do not make any copies of this document without referencing this original one. At least cite
us when you are using this document.

3
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naman12 and freeman66 (May 26, 2020) Trigonometry in the AIME and the USA(J)MO

§1 Introduction
§1.1 Motivation and Goals
Trigonometry is one of the main ways to solve a geometry problem. Although there are synthetic solutions,
trigonometry frequently offers an solution that is very easy to find - even in the middle of the AIME or USA(J)MO.
Here’s a fish we will be trying to chase:

Problem 1 (2016 AIME II Problem 14)

Equilateral 4ABC has side length 600. Points P and Q lie outside the plane of 4ABC and are on opposite
sides of the plane. Furthermore, P A = P B = P C, and QA = QB = QC, and the planes of 4P AB and
4QAB form a 120◦ dihedral angle (the angle between the two planes). There is a point O whose distance
from each of A, B, C, P, and Q is d. Find d.

Geometry in three dimensions often is very hard to visualize - that is why algebraic vectors are so useful (more
information in 3-D Geometry), being used as a way to easily manipulate such-things. A second such problem
follows:

Problem 2 (2014 AIME II Problem 12)

Suppose that the angles of 4ABC satisfy cos(3A) + cos(3B) + cos(3C) = 1. Two sides of the triangle have
lengths 10 and 13. There is a positive integer m so that the maximum possible length for the remaining
√
side of 4ABC is m. Find m.

Note how it is impossible to solve this problem without knowledge of trigonometry - such problems will be there
on the AIME. And finally, here’s a third problem:

Problem 3 (2005 AIME II Problem 12)

Square ABCD has center O, AB = 900, E and F are on AB with AE < BF and E between A and
√
F, m∠EOF = 45◦ , and EF = 400. Given that BF = p + q r, where p, q, and r are positive integers and r
is not divisible by the square of any prime, find p + q + r.

Remark. A word of advice for those who intend to follow this document: almost all problems are from the AIME; a
few HMMT and USA(J)MO problems might be scattered in, but remember we go into a fair amount of depth here.
Many of the areas will have olympiad-style questions, but the underlying idea is that they could very well show up on
the AIME, and most definitely olympiads.

§1.2 Contact
If do you have questions, comments, concerns, issues, or suggestions? Here are two ways to contact naman12 or
freeman66:
1. Send an email to [email protected] and I should get back to you (unless I am incorporating your
suggestion into the document, then it might take a bit more time).

2. Send a private message to naman12 or freeman66 by either clicking the button that says PM or by going
here and clicking New Message and typing naman12 or freeman66.
Please include something related to Trigonometry AIME/USA(J)MO Handout in the subject line so
naman12 or freeman66 knows what you are talking about.

4
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naman12 and freeman66 (May 26, 2020) Trigonometry in the AIME and the USA(J)MO

§2 Basic Trigonometry
We’ll start out with a right triangle. It’s a nice triangle - we know an angle of 90◦ . What about the other angles?
Let’s call one θ and the other one will be 90◦ − θ:

90◦ − θ
c
b

θ
a

The big question arises: how does θ even relate to a, b, c? That’s why we introduce trigonometric functions.
But first we need the unit circle.

§2.1 Trigonometry on the Unit Circle

Although these definitions are accurate, there is a sense in which they are lacking, because the angle θ in a right
triangle can only have a measure between 0◦ and 90◦ . We need a definition which will allow the domain of the
sine function to be the set of all real numbers. Our definition will make use of the unit circle, x2 + y 2 = 1. We
first associate every real number t with a point on the unit circle. This is done by “wrapping” the real line
around the circle so that the number zero on the real line gets associated with the point (0, 1) on the circle. A
way of describing this association is to say that for a given t, if t > 0 we simply start at the point (0, 1) and
move our pencil counterclockwise around the circle until the tip has moved t units. The point we stop at is
the point associated with the number t. If t < 0, we do the same thing except we move clockwise. If t = 0, we
simply put our pencil on (0, 1) and don’t move. Using this association, we can now define cos(t) and sin(t).
Using the above association of t with a point (x(t), y(t)) on the unit circle, we define cos(t) to be the function
x(t), and sin(t) to be the function y(t), that is, we define cos(t) to be the x-coordinate of the point on the unit
circle obtained in the above association, and define sin(t) to be the y coordinate of the point on the unit circle
obtained in the above association.

Example 2.1
What point on the unit circle corresponds with t = π2 ?

Solution. One loop around the circle gives an angle of 2π, implying π2 is one-fourth of a loop. This brings us to
the northernmost point of the circle, which gives a vertical component of 1 (because that is the radius of a unit
circle), and a horizontal component of 0. This implies cos π2 is 0, and sin π2 is 1.

Exercise 2.2. What point on the unit circle corresponds with t = π? What therefore are cos(π) and sin(π)?
Hints: 92

3π
Exercise 2.3. What point on the unit circle correspond with t = 2 ? What therefore is cos( 3π
2 )? Hints: 72

5
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naman12 and freeman66 (May 26, 2020) Trigonometry in the AIME and the USA(J)MO

§2.2 Definitions of Trigonometric Functions

Let us first start with a quick definition of a few important parts of a right triangle:

Definition 2.4 (Hypotenuse) — The hypotenuse of a right triangle is the side across from the right angle.

Definition 2.5 (Leg) — A leg of a right triangle is a side adjacent to the right angle and not the hypotenuse.

Definition 2.6 (Sine) — The sine of an angle θ is written as sin(θ), and is equivalent to the ratio of the
length of the side across from the angle to the length of the hypotenuse.

r y
θ
x

Figure 1: The length of the side opposite the angle is represented with y and the length of the hypotenuse is
represented with r (which is also the radius of the circle).

Note that when this altitude to the x-axis is below the x-axis the sine of the angle is negative. When θ is
between 0◦ and 180◦ or 0 rad and π rad, then sin(θ) is positive. In addition, when θ is between 0◦ and 90◦ ,
sin(θ) can be viewed in the context of a right triangle as the ratio of the length side opposite the angle to the
length of the hypotenuse. To see this, think about how the radius of the unit circle is the hypotenuse of the
triangle in the first definition and how from there we can scale it up for larger hypotenuses without changing the
value of the sine.

Definition 2.7 (Cosine) — The cosine of an angle θ is written as cos(θ), and is equivalent to the ratio of
the length of the side adjacent to the angle (not the hypotenuse) to the length of the hypotenuse.

6
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naman12 and freeman66 (May 26, 2020) Trigonometry in the AIME and the USA(J)MO

θ
x x

Figure 2: The length of the side adjacent to the angle is represented with x.

Similar to the sine, the cosine is negative when the point is to the left of the y-axis (i.e. for 90◦ < θ < 270◦ ). In
addition, for angles between 0◦ and 90◦ , the cosine can be seen in the context of a right triangle as the ratio of
the lengths of the side adjacent to the angle over the hypotenuse of the triangle (again, think about scaling up
the unit circle).

Definition 2.8 (Tangent) — The tangent of an angle θ is written as tan(θ) and is equivalent to the ratio
of the length of the line segment opposite the angle to the length of the line segment adjacent to the angle
(that is not the radius of the circle, i.e. the hypotenuse).

y
θ
x x

7
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naman12 and freeman66 (May 26, 2020) Trigonometry in the AIME and the USA(J)MO

sin θ
The tangent is negative when exactly one of the sine cosine is negative. The tangent can also be seen as cos θ.
Thinking about the right triangle definitions of sine and cosine, we can get that for angles between 0 and 180◦ ,
◦

the tangent in a right triangle is equal to the ratio of the side opposite the angle to the side adjacent to the angle.

Definition 2.9 (SOH-CAH-TOA) — If a is the length of the side opposite θ in a right triangle, and b is the
length of the side adjacent to θ, and c is the length of the hypotenuse, then
a
sin(θ) = c
b
cos(θ) = c
a
tan(θ) = b
b
cot(θ) = a
c
sec(θ) = b
c
csc(θ) = a.

This is commonly memorized as SOH-CAH-TOA, where S represents sine, C represents cosine, T represents
tangent, all Os represent opposite (the leg opposite the angle), all As represent adjacent (the leg adjacent/-
touching the angle), and H represents hypotenuse. Using the above definition of sin(θ) and cos(θ), we can
similarly define
sin(θ)
tan(θ) = cos(θ)
cos(θ)
cot(θ) = sin(θ)
1
sec(θ) = cos(θ)
1
csc(θ) = sin(θ)

§2.3 Radian Measure

Definition 2.10 — [Radian] A radian is defined to be the measure of an angle in a unit circle with arc
length one.

Thus, a 90◦ angle corresponds to an angle of radian measure π2 , since the distance one fourth of the way around
the unit circle is π2 .
It is also useful to note that an angle of measure 1◦ corresponds with an angle of radian measure 180
π
, since 90
of these would
correspond to a right angle. Also, an angle of radian measure 1 would correspond to an angle of
180 ◦ π
measure π , since 2 of these would correspond to a right angle. These facts are enough to help you convert
from degrees to radians and back, when necessary.

Exercise 2.11. What is the degree measure of the angle θ = π6 ? Hints: 66

Exercise 2.12. What is the radian measure of the angle 225◦ ? Hints: 100

§2.4 Properties of Trigonometric Functions

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Theorem 2.13 (Trigonometric Properties)

The following are some properties of functions:

1. Range of sin(x) and cos(x): −1 ≤ sin(x) ≤ 1, −1 ≤ cos(x) ≤ 1.

2. cos(x) is Even: cos(−x) = cos(x).

3. sin(x) is Odd: sin(−x) = − sin(x).

4. Periodicity: sin(x + 2π) = sin(x), cos(x + 2π) = cos(x).

Remark 2.14. Don’t get fooled! sin2 (x) doesn’t mean sin(sin(x)) – rather, it means (sin(x))2 . But later, you will
learn that sin−1 (x) 6= sin(x)
1
- it’s actually the angle y such that sin(y) = x. While this seems confusing for now, you
will get accustomed to it.

Proofs. 1. Take a look at the unit circle again:

1
b
θ
a x

We can see that a and b are fully contained inside the unit circle. However, this means that |a| and |b| are
at most 1 (as they are contained in a circle radius 1). Thus, we get that

|x| ≤ 1 =⇒ −1 ≤ a ≤ 1,

|y| ≤ 1 =⇒ −1 ≤ b ≤ 1.
However, we know that a = sin x and b = cos x, so then we get

−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1,

−1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1.

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Remark 2.15. Typically, when it is unambiguous, we will resort to writing sin x instead of sin(x). However, if
there is a chance of misinterpretation, we shall include parentheses.

2. Once again, we resort to the unit circle:

θ
−θ b x

We see this is just a reflection over the x-axis - in particular, the value of the x-coordinate, b, stays the
same. However, we know that this particular value is cos θ, so we get that cos θ = cos −θ = b.

3. Can you guess what we will use? The unit circle:

1 a
θ
−θ x
−a
1

We see this is just a reflection over the x-axis - in particular, the value of the y-coordinate, a, becomes

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negative. However, we know that this particular value is sin θ, so we get that sin θ = − sin −θ = a.

4. Think of this visually - as 2π = 360◦ , in reality, we are just going all the way around the circle, so indeed
the point corresponding to (cos x, sin x) also corresponds to (cos(2π + x), sin(2π + x)).

§2.5 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

§2.5.1 Graph of sin(x) and cos(x)
Note that from the definition of sine and cosine, it is clear that the domain of each of these is the set of all
real numbers. Also, from the properties above, we know that the range of both of these is the set of numbers
between −1 and 1, and that the functions are periodic. This information, together with a few points plotted as
a guide, are enough to graph the two functions. Note that if we shift the graph of the sine function by π2 units
to the left, we get the graph of the cosine function. This is related to the fact that sin(x − π2 ) = cos(x), which
we will explore more later.

0.5

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−0.5

−1

Figure 3: Graph of sin x

0.5

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−0.5

−1

Figure 4: Graph of cos x

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§2.5.2 Graph of tan(x) and cot(x)

Note that the domain of tan(x) is the set of all real numbers except those at which cos(x) = 0. Thus, the points
π 3π
2 , 2 , and so on aren’t in the domain of tan(x). An easy way to characterize these points is to say that these
are all the points which have the form π2 + kπ, where k is any integer. Thus the domain of the tangent function
is everything unless x = π2 , 3π 5π
2 , 2 , . . ..

Exercise 2.16. What is the domain of cot(x)? Hints: 69

We can get a good grasp on the graph of tan(x) by plotting a few points and doing a careful analysis of the
limiting behavior when x is near π2 and the other points that aren’t in the domain. Note that when x is a little
less than π2 , sin(x) is close to 1, while cos(x) is close to zero (but is positive.)

10

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−5

−10

Figure 5: Graph of tan x

10

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−5

−10

Figure 6: Graph of cot x

§2.5.3 Graph of sec(x) and csc(x)

Like the tangent function, the domain of the secant function is the set of all real numbers except those which
make cos(x) equal to zero. Thus the domain of the secant function is the same as the domain of the tangent

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1
function. Also, the fact that the cosine function always has values between −1 and 1 tells us that sec(x) = cos(x)
always has values less than or equal to −1 or greater than or equal 1. An analysis of the limiting behavior of
sec(x) near x = π2 and −π 2 and a few strategically plotted points leads to the graph of y = sec(x).

10

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−5

−10

Figure 7: Graph of sec x

10

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−5

−10

Figure 8: Graph of csc x

§2.5.4 Notes on Graphing

These notes were contributed by AoPS User AOPS12345678910.

1. The amplitude

of a graph that models a tangent equation f (i.e. f (x) = a tan(bx + c) + d) is equivalent
to f π4 .

π


4,1

Figure 9: Graph of tan x. 1 is the amplitude in this case.

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2. When graphing sec x, it helps to first sketch cos x. Similarly, when graphing csc x, it helps to first sketch
sin x.

Figure 10: Graph of sec x, with cos x in dashed blue.

§2.6 Bounding Sine and Cosine

The following theorem is extremely trivial but extremely useful. It is analogous to the ”Trivial Inequality” of
trigonometry:

Theorem 2.17 (Bounds of sin θ and cos θ)

For all angles θ,
−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1,
−1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1.

Remark 2.18. The angle θ is actually a Greek Letter, theta, and is typically used to represents angles.

Proof. Refer to Property 3 of Trigonometric Properties.

Exercise 2.19. Bound tan θ, cot θ, sec θ, and csc θ. Hints: 49 95

1
Exercise 2.20 (AIME 1991/4). How many real numbers x satisfy the equation 5 log2 x = sin(5πx)? Hints:
18 19

§2.7 Periodicity
From the graphs of sin x and cos x, one intuitively knows sine and cosine have periods.

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Theorem 2.21 (Periods of Trigonometric Functions)

The periods of the following functions are:

1. sine: 2π

2. cosine: 2π

3. tangent: π

4. cotangent: π

5. secant: 2π

6. cosecant: 2π

Notice that both of tan and cot actually have a period of π. That’s because (from the graphs) we have
sin(x + π) = − sin x and cos(x + π) = − cos x. Later, we’ll also see another way to prove it with algebra.

§2.8 Trigonometric Identities

Let me now list them out:

Theorem 2.22 (Even-Odd Identities)

For all angles θ,

• sin(−θ) = − sin(θ)

• cos(−θ) = cos(θ)

• tan(−θ) = − tan(θ)

• sec(−θ) = sec(θ)

• csc(−θ) = − csc(θ)

• cot(−θ) = − cot(θ)

Sketch of Proof. We’ve already seen the proof of the sin and cos. Now, the rest follows by expressing each
function in terms of sin and cos. For example,
sin(−θ) sin θ
tan(−θ) = =− = − tan θ
cos(−θ) cos θ

Theorem 2.23 (Pythagorean Identities)

For all angles θ,

• sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

• 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

• tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

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Proof. We consider the triangle 4ABC:

90◦ − θ
c
b

θ
C a B

The Pythagorean Theorem tells us that

a2 + b2 = c2
or upon dividing by c2 ,
 a 2  2
b
+ =1
c c
b
We now can use SOH-CAH-TOA. This tells us sin θ = c and cos θ = ac , so we can substitute to get
sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1
We just use the definition of Tangent and Secant:
sin(θ)
tan(θ) =
cos(θ)
1
sec(θ) =
cos(θ)
Now, we get
sin2 (θ) sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ)
1 + tan2 (θ) = 1 + =
cos2 (θ) cos2 (θ)
However, by the first identity, we have that sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1. Thus, we get
sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) 1
1 + tan2 (θ) = = = sec2 (θ)
cos2 (θ) cos2 (θ)
The other one follows similarly. The definitions of Cotangent and Cosecant are:
cos(θ)
cot(θ) =
sin(θ)
1
csc(θ) =
sin(θ)
Now, we get
cos2 (θ) sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ)
1 + cot2 (θ) = 1 + 2 =
sin (θ) sin2 (θ)
However, by the first identity, we have that sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1. Thus, we get
sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) 1
1 + cot2 (θ) = 2 = = csc2 (θ)
sin (θ) sin2 (θ)

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Exercise 2.24 (AIME 1995/7). Given that (1 + sin t)(1 + cos t) = 54 , compute (1 − sin t)(1 − cos t). Hints:
61

Exercise 2.25. If cos x + sin x = 0.2, compute cos4 x + sin4 x. Hints: 60

Theorem 2.26 (Addition-Subtraction Identities)

For all angles α and β,

• sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± sin β cos α

• cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

tan α±tan β
• tan(α ± β) = 1∓tan α tan β

Proof. The proof of these will feel pretty magical. That’s completely intended:

A
F

β
α
C E B

We’ll use the above diagram to find our values. We let DB = 1. Then, we first note that

AD = sin β,

AB = cos β,
from right triangle ADB. Now, from right triangle ABC, we get

AC = AB sin α = cos β sin α.

Now, we get that AF EC is a rectangle, so we must have that F E = AC = cos β sin α. Furthermore, we have
that AF k BC, so thus ∠F AG = ∠GBE = α. Thus, we must have that

∠DAF = 90◦ − ∠GAF = 90◦ − α,

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so
∠F DA = 90◦ − ∠DAF = α.
Now, we can use trigonometry on the right triangle 4DAF to get

DF = AD cos α = sin β cos α.

Thus, we get from trigonometry on right triangle 4BDE

sin(α + β) = DE = DF + F E = sin α cos β + sin β cos α.

Doing it for cos and tan are essentially the same and left as an exercise. Furthermore, an additional comment is
that to achieve the ± result, use the Even-Odd Identities.

Exercise 2.27. Verify cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β. Hints: 26

tan α+tan β
Exercise 2.28. Verify tan(α + β) = 1−tan α tan β . Hints: 86

If we let α = β, then

Theorem 2.29 (Double Angle Identities)

For all angles α,

• sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α

• cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α = 2 cos2 α − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 α

• tan 2α = 2 tan α
1−tan2 α

csc(α) sec(α)
• csc(2α) = 2

• sec(2α) = 1
2 cos2 (α)−1
= 1
cos2 (α)−sin2 (α)
= 1
1−2 sin2 (α)

1−tan2 (α)
• cot(2α) = 2 tan(α)

Exercise 2.30. Verify all the Double Angle Identities. Hints: 23

Exercise 2.31. The angle θ has the property that

2
sin θ + cos θ = .
3
Compute sin 2θ. Hints: 70 90

Exercise 2.32. Determine all real 0 ≤ θ < 2π such tath

 π
1 + sin 2θ = sin θ + .
4
Hints: 93 88

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Theorem 2.33 (Half Angle Identities)

For all angles θ,
q
• sin 2 = ± 1−cos
θ
2
θ

q
• cos 2θ = ± 1+cos
2
θ

q
• tan θ
2 = ± 1−cos θ
1+cos θ =
sin θ
1+cos θ = 1−cos θ
sin θ

Make sure to understand why we have the ±. We note that for any angle θ, cos 2θ = cos(2π + 2θ) = cos 2(θ + π).
However, we have that cos(π + θ) = − cos θ, and sin(π + θ) = − sin θ, so we must have the ±. These aren’t very
hard to show - they’re a direct application of the Double Angle Identities - try it as an exercise.

Exercise 2.34. Verify all the Half Angle Identities. Hints: 54

Theorem 2.35 (Sum to Product Identities)

For all angles θ and γ,
θ+γ θ−γ
• sin θ + sin γ = 2 sin cos
2 2
θ−γ θ+γ
• sin θ − sin γ = 2 sin cos
2 2
θ+γ θ−γ
• cos θ + cos γ = 2 cos cos
2 2
θ+γ θ−γ
• cos θ − cos γ = −2 sin sin
2 2

θ+γ θ−γ
Proof. Let α = 2 and β = 2 . Then, we get

α+β =θ

α−β =γ
so thus we can use Addition-Subtraction Identities to get

sin θ + sin γ = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) = (sin α cos β + sin β cos α) + (sin α cos β − sin β cos α) = 2 sin α cos β =

and looking back at our definition of α, β, we get the first of the Sum to Product Identities. The rest follow
essentially the same proof and will be left as an exercise.

Another remark - the product-to-sum identities turn out to be extremely helpful when they slap a bunch of
trigonometric functions at you:

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Exercise 2.36. Verify the rest of the Sum to Product Identities.

Exercise 2.37 (ARML 1988). If 0◦ < x < 180◦ and cos x + sin x = 12 , then find (p, q) such that tan x =
√
p+ q
− 3 . Hints: 44
sin 13◦ +sin 47◦ +sin 73◦ +sin 107◦
Exercise 2.38 (ARML). Compute cos 17◦ . Hints: 35

Exercise 2.39 (AIME I 2006/12). Find the sum of the values of x such that cos3 3x + cos3 5x =
8 cos3 4x cos3 x, where x is measured in degrees and 100 < x < 200. Hints: 47 22

Theorem 2.40 (Potpourri)

Some other identities:

1. sin(90 − θ) = cos(θ)

2. cos(90 − θ) = sin(θ)

3. tan(90 − θ) = cot(θ)

4. sin(180 − θ) = sin(θ)

5. cos(180 − θ) = − cos(θ)

6. tan(180 − θ) = − tan(θ)

7. (tan θ + sec θ)2 = 1+sin θ

1−sin θ

8. sin(θ) = cos(θ) tan(θ)

sin(θ)
9. cos(θ) = tan(θ)

tan(θ)
10. sec(θ) = sin(θ)
 
x+y
11. arctan(x) + arctan(y) = arctan
1 − xy

12. sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) + tan2 (θ) = sec2 (θ)

13. sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) + cot2 (θ) = csc2 (θ)

Most of these can be proved by Addition-Subtraction Identities, with a few of them following from Pythagorean
Identities.

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Exercise 2.41. Verify the identites given in the Potpourri.

Exercise 2.42. Compute the exact numerical value of

π 3π 5π 7π
cos cos cos cos .
9 9 9 9
Hints: 12 97

Exercise 2.43. Compute sin 18◦ . Hints: 94 55

Exercise 2.44. Determine the sum of the values of tan θ for which 0 ≤ θ < π and 1 = 2004 cos θ · (sin θ −
cos θ). Hints: 46

These are oftentimes very useful, as we shall see in the following examples.

Example 2.45 (AIME I 2012/12)

Let 4ABC be a right triangle with right angle at C. Let D and E be points on AB√with D between A and
m p
E such that CD and CE trisect ∠C. If DE 8
BE = 15 , then tan B can be written as n , where m and n are
relatively prime positive integers, and p is a positive integer not divisible by the square of any prime. Find
m + n + p.

C B

Solution. Let CB = 1, and let the feet of the altitudes from D and E to CB be D0 and E 0 , respectively. Also,
let DE = 8k and EB = 15k. We see that BD0 = 15k cos B and BE 0 = 23k cos B by right triangles 4BDD0
and 4BEE 0 . From this we have that D0 E 0 = 8k cos B. With the same triangles we have DD0 = √ 23k sin B
0 ◦ ◦ ◦ 0 0
and EE = 15k sin B. From 30 − 60 − 90 triangles 4CDD and 4CEE , we see that CD = 0 23k 3 sin B
and
√ √ 3
0 0
CE = 15k 3 sin B, so D E =0 22k 3 sin B 0 0
. From our two values of D E we get:
3
√
22k 3 sin B
8k cos B = ,
3
sin B 8k
= √ = tan B,
cos B 22k 3
3
√ √
8 24 8 3 4 3
tan B = √ = √ = = .
22 3 22 3 22 11
3

Thus, m = 4, n = 3, p = 11, so 4 + 3 + 11 = 018 .

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That was a geometric problem. We’ll leave you with this problem, which is algebraic:

Exercise 2.46 (AIME II 2000/15). Find the least positive integer n such that
1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + = .
sin 45◦ sin 46◦ sin 47◦ sin 48◦ sin 133◦ sin 134◦ sin n◦
Hints: 32 65 39

§3 Applications to Complex Numbers

Definition
√ 3.1 (Complex Numbers) — A complex number is of the form z = a + bi where a, b are√real and
i = −1 is the imaginary unit. It has a conjugate z = a − bi. Furthermore, it has magnitude |z| = a2 + b2 .

Theorem 3.2 (Complex Number Multiplication and Addition)

We multiply complex numbers w = a + bi and z = c + di as

wz = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i

and add them as

w + z = (a + c) + (b + d)i

Proof. The second follows by the associative law of addition, while the first follows by using FOIL (First Inner
Outer Last) as well as the fact that i2 = −1.

Exercise 3.3 (AIME 1985/3). Find c if a, b, and c are positive integers which satisfy c = (a + bi)3 − 107i,
where i2 = −1. Hints: 63

Exercise 3.4 (AIME 1988/11). Let w1 , w2 , . . . , wn be complex numbers. A line L in the complex plane is
called a mean line for the points w1 , w2 , . . . , wn if L contains points (complex numbers) z1 , z2 , . . . , zn such
that
X n
(zk − wk ) = 0.
k=1

For the numbers w1 = 32 + 170i, w2 = −7 + 64i, w3 = −9 + 200i, w4 = 1 + 27i, and w5 = −14 + 43i, there
is a unique mean line with y-intercept 3. Find the slope of this mean line. Hints: 78

Exercise 3.5 (AIME I 2009/2). There is a complex number z with imaginary part 164 and a positive
integer n such that
z
= 4i.
z+n
Find n. Hints: 37

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Theorem 3.6 (Euler’s Theorem)

For all angles θ,
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.

This is a very deep result that Euler proved from the Taylor Series (This is calculus - don’t worry) of ex , sin x,
and cos x. But let’s see some properties

Definition 3.7 (Polar Complex Numbers) — Every complex number can be expressed as z = reiθ for r = |z|.

Theorem 3.8 (Properties of Complex Numbers)

cis θ1 · cis θ2 = cis(θ1 + θ2 ).

Proof. Let complex numbers z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 . Then

z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 ) .

This directly implies

cis θ1 · cis θ2 = cis(θ1 + θ2 ).

The following are other useful properties:

Exercise 3.9. Show that w + z = w + z. Hints: 79

Exercise 3.10. Show that w · z = w · z. Hints: 74

Exercise 3.11. Show that |wz| = |w||z|. Hints: 59

Theorem 3.12 (De Moivre’s Theorem)

Let θ be an angle. Then
(cis θ)n = cis(nθ).

Proof. Use Properties of Complex Numbers n times, all on the angle θ.

Theorem 3.13 (Complex Form of Trigonometric Functions)

For some angle θ and constant k, defining z = cis θ,
 
1 k 1
cos kθ = z + k ,
2 z

and  
1 k 1
sin kθ = z − k .
2i z

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Proof. From De Moivre’s Theorem, we get that if

cos kθ + i sin kθ = (cis θ)k = z k

cos kθ − i sin kθ = cos −kθ + i sin −kθ = (cis θ)−k = z −k

Adding these and dividing by 2 gives the first result. Subtracting these and dividing by 2i gives the second
result.

§3.1 Roots of Unity

Definition 3.14 (Root of Unity) — A root of unity is a root of the equation

ω n = 1.

We define ωk as the kth root of unity, ordered by their angle with respect to the positive x-axis counter-
clockwise.

These actually turn out to form a regualr polygon, as implied by the next theorem:

Theorem 3.15 (Roots of Unity)

Let ω be a solution to the equation
ω n = 1.
Then
2kπi
ω=e n ,
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1. This of course implies there exist n solutions to this equation (which should be
intuitive from the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra).

ω3 ω2
ω1
ω4
ω0
ω5
ω8
6
ω ω7

Proof. This is more or less a direct consequence of De Moivre’s Theorem. We must have that if ω = cis θ, then

ω n = (cis θ)n = cis nθ = cis 2kπ

so in particular, we have that θ = 2πk

n . Now, note by taking 1 ≤ k ≤ n, we get n such distinct solutions. We
can’t have any more by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (see my Polynomials in the AIME Handout and
Appendix A).

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Exercise 3.16 (AIME I 2004/13). The polynomial P (x) = (1 + x + x2 + · · · + x17 )2 − x17 has 34 complex
roots of the form zk = rk [cos(2πak ) + i sin(2πak )], k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 34, with 0 < a1 ≤ a2 ≤ a3 ≤ · · · ≤ a34 < 1
and rk > 0. Given that a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 = m/n, where m and n are relatively prime positive integers,
find m + n. Hints: 2

Exercise 3.17 (AIME 1990/10). The sets A = {z : z 18 = 1} and B = {w : w48 = 1} are both sets of
complex roots of unity. The set C = {zw : z ∈ A and w ∈ B} is also a set of complex roots of unity. How
many distinct elements are in C ? Hints: 102

Exercise 3.18 (AIME I 2002/15). Let P (x) = x+2x2 +3x3 . . . 24x24 +23x25 +22x26 . . . x47 . Let z1 , z2 , . . . , zr
be the distinct zeros of P (x), and let zk2 = ak + bk i for k = 1, 2, . . . , r, where ak and bk are real numbers. Let
r
X √
|bk | = m + n p,
k=1

where m, n, and p are integers and p is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find m + n + p. Hints: 82 21

Theorem 3.19 (Vieta’s Formulas in Roots of Unity)

Let the n nth roots of unity be ω0 , ω1 , . . . , ωn . Then
n−1
X n−1
X  
2kπ
Re(ωk ) = cos θ0 + = 0,
n
k=0 k=0

n−1
X n−1
X  
2kπ
Im(ωk ) = sin θ0 + = 0.
n
k=0 k=0
n−1
Y
ωk = (−1)n+1
k=0

Proof. Note that the ωk are the roots of the polynomial

zn − 1 = 0
so by Vieta’s Formulas (see my Polynomials in the AIME Handout and Chapter 3), we have that the last one
immediately follows and
n−1
X
ωk = 0.
k=0
To be formal, I would say that 1 and i are linearly independent over R, which means that we can seperate out
into real and imaginary parts. For those of you who aren’t linear algebra experts, it basically means that we
can’t cancel out 1 and i when adding them together, which gives us the first two.

Theorem 3.20 (Complex Trigonometric Products)

n−1
Y n−1
Y
(1 − ωk )(1 + ωk ) = (−2i)n−1 sin θk .
k=1 k=1

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Proof. We note that for all z = reiθ ,

zz = |z|2 = r2 ,
z + z = 2r cos θ,
z − z = 2ri sin θ.
Thus, if ω n = 1 or −1, then for all ωk = eiθk ,

(x − ωk )(x − ωn−k ) = (x − ωk )(x − ωk ) = x2 − 2x cos θk + 1,

(x + ωk )(x + ωn−k ) = (x − ωk )(x + ωk ) = x2 − 2xi sin θk − 1.

If we plug in x = 1 and take the product over all ωk , we get
n−1
Y n−1
Y
n−1
(1 − ωk )(1 + ωk ) = (−2i) sin θk .
k=1 k=1

as desired.

Exercise 3.21. Derive a similar equation for cosines. Hints: 24

Theorem 3.22 (Triple Angle Trig Theorem)

Let A, B, C be angles such that

sin A + sin B + sin C = cos A + cos B + cos C = 0.

Then 3 cos(A + B + C) = cos 3A + cos 3B + cos 3B and 3 sin(A + B + C) = sin 3A + sin 3B + sin 3C

Proof. This is one of the most coveted uses of complex numbers. We have that if we let

a = cos A + i sin A = eiA

b = cos B + i sin B = eiB

c = cos C + i sin C = eiC
then a + b + c = 0. Noting the identity a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ac), we get

a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc =⇒ e3iA + e3iB + e3iC = 3ei(A+B+C)

Breaking this into real and imaginary parts, we get the desired result.

Example 3.23
Find 2 cos 72◦ .

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2kπ
Solution. Let z = e 5 . This implies
z 5 = 1,
and z 6= 1, so
(z − 1)(z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + z + 1) = 0,
z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + z + 1 = 0.
Note that 2 cos 72◦ = z + z1 . If we divide the equation above by z 2 , we get
1 1
z 2 + z + 1 + + 2 = 0,
z z
   
1 1
z2 + 2 + z + + 1 = 0,
z z
   
1 2 1
z+ + z+ − 1 = 0,
z z
which implies
  √
1 −1 + 5
z+ = .
z 2
Note that we find that the other root doesn’t work from bounding cos 72◦ (i.e. it is positive from 0◦ to 90◦ ).

Example 3.24 (AIME II 2005/9)

For how many positive integers n less than or equal to 1000 is (sin t + i cos t)n = sin nt + i cos nt true for all
real t?

Solution. We note that this looks a lot like De Moivre’s Theorem - if only we could get it in that form! Well, we
know π 
sin x = cos −x
2
so we basically have
π  π  π  π n
cos n − t + i sin n − t = (cos − t + i sin − t = (sin t + i cos t)n = sin nt + i cos nt
2 2 2 2
Now, it really boils down to finding the solutions to cos x = sin y, right? But what are they? Fortunately, we
can use our above observation again to get
π 
cos x = cos −y
2
Now, we note that cos a = cos b if and only if a − b or a + b is a multiple of 2π. Thus, we get that
π
2πk = x + − y
2
or
π
2πk = x + y −
2
Thus, we have that either
π  π (n + 1)π
2πk = n − t + nt − =
2 2 2
π  π (n − 1)π
2πk = n − t − nt − = − 2nt
2 2 2
The second can’t hold for all t, so the first one is our only possibility. But that’s not too hard to find - it’s just
all n ≡ 1 (mod 4). This gives us 250 solutions.

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Example 3.25 (AIME I 2012/6)

The complex numbers z and w satisfy z 13 = w, w11 = z, and the imaginary part of z is sin mπ
n , for relatively
prime positive integers m and n with m < n. Find n.

Solution. Well, we should be easily able to do this. We have that z = z 11·13 = z 143 , so it is a 142 root of unity.
Thus, it is in the form
2πk 2πk
cos + i sin
142 142
Thus, the answer is 71 (don’t forget to divide by 2!)

Here’s a few exercises to test you: none of them are from the AIME.

Exercise 3.26. What is the value of sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦ ? Hints: 15

Exercise 3.27 (Lagrange’s Trigonometric Identity). For all angles θ and positive integer n,
 
1 sin (2n + 1) 2θ
1 + cos θ + cos 2θ + . . . + cos nθ = +
,
2 2 sin 2θ

and derive a similar expression for sine. Hints: 28

Exercise 3.28 (Generalized ARML 2013). Let a = cos 2π 4π 8π

7 , b = cos 7 , and c = cos 7 . Then compute
ab + bc + ca and a3 + b3 + c3 . Hints: 76
√
p 5
Exercise 3.29 (PUMaC 2010/7). The expression sin 2◦ sin 4◦ sin 6◦ . . . sin 90◦ is equal to 250
, where p is
an integer. Find p. Hints: 71
2πi
Exercise 3.30. Let ω = e 101 . Evaluate the product
Y
(ω p + ω q ).
0≤p<q≤100

Hints: 41

Exercise 3.31. ABCDEF G is a regular heptagon inscribed in a unit circle. Compute the value of the
following expression:
AB 2 + AC 2 + AD2 + AE 2 + AF 2 + AG2 .
Hints: 56 27

§4 Applications to Planar Geometry

§4.1 Direct Applications

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Theorem 4.1 (Trigonometric Laws)

In triangle ABC with a = BC, b = CA, c = AB,

• Law of Sines: a
sin A = b
sin B = c
sin C

• Law of Cosines: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

tan ( A−B
2 )
• Law of Tangents: tan ( A+B
= a−b
2 )
a+b

Theorem 4.2 (Extended Law of Sines)

Let ABC be a triangle with sides a, b, and c, and of circumradius R. Then
a b c
= = = 2R.
sin A sin B sin C

Proof. In the diagram below, point O is the circumcenter of 4ABC. Point D is on BC such that OD is
perpendicular to BC. Since 4ODB ∼ = 4ODC, BD = CD = a2 and ∠BOD = ∠COD. But 2∠BAC = ∠BOC
making ∠BOD = ∠COD = θ. We can use simple trigonometry in right triangle 4BOD to find that
a
a 2
sin θ = = 2R. ⇐⇒
R sin θ
The same holds for b and c, thus establishing the identity.

A
θ

O
R θ

B a/2 D C

Law of Cosines has been listed before, so to avoid repetition I will not list it again.

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Theorem 4.3 (Ratio Lemma)

Let D be a point on BC in triangle ABC. Then
DB AB sin ∠DAB
= · .
DC AC sin ∠DAC

B D C

Theorem 4.4 (Trig Ceva)

Let ABC be a triangle with points D, E, and F on sides BC, AC, and AB respectively of triangle ABC.
Line segments AD, BE, and CF are concurrent if and only if
sin ∠BAC sin ∠ACF sin ∠CBE
= 1.
sin ∠DAC sin ∠F CB sin ∠EBA

Sketch of Proof. From Regular Ceva’s, start to apply Law of Sines everywhere fathomable.

Theorem 4.5 (Quadratic Formula of Trigonometry)

Let
a cos θ + b sin θ = c.
Then √
ac ± b a2 + b2 − c2
cos θ = ,
a2 + b2
√
bc ± a2 + b2 − c2
sin θ =
a2 + b2

Proof. Just solve

a cos θ + b sin θ = c
and
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
It’s not fun, but it’ll come with enough practice.

The following theorem and proof is by AoPS User NJOY. Many thanks to him for the diagram and the
proof!

Theorem 4.6 (Trigonometric Form of Ptolemy’s Theorem)

Four points X, A, B, C of the Euclidean plane are concyclic if, and only if

XA · sin ∠BXC + XB · sin ∠CXA + XC · sin ∠AXB = 0.

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←→ ←→ ←→
Proof. Without Loss of Generality, we can assume that the ray XB lies between XA and XC, as in the diagram
below. Let B 0 be the point in which XB intersects the circle (XAC).

B0

X C

Then by Ptolemy’s theorem,

XA · CB 0 + XC · AB 0 = XB 0 · AC.
By the law of sines,
AB 0 B0C AC
2R = = = ,
sin ∠AXB sin ∠BXC sin ∠CXA
so that we get XA · sin ∠BXC + XB 0 · sin ∠CXA + XC · sin ∠AXB = 0. Therefore, XB 0 = XB and hence,
B 0 = B, as desired.

Here is a nice problem using Trigonometric Form of Ptolemy’s Theorem:

Example 4.7 (IMO SL 2012 G2)

Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral whose diagonals AC and BD meet at E. The extensions of the sides
AD and BC beyond A and B meet at F . Let G be the point such that ECGD is a parallelogram, and let
H be the image of E under reflection in AD. Prove that D, H, F, G are concyclic.

Proof. Using Trigonometric Form of Ptolemy’s Theorem, it remains to prove that

DH · sin ∠F DG + DG · sin ∠F DH = DF · sin ∠HDG.

Note that DH = DE and DG = CE. Now, simple angle chasing yields

∠F DG = ∠DBC, ∠HDF = ∠ADB, ∠HDG = ∠DF C.

Our condition can then be rewritten as

DE · sin ∠DBC + CE · sin ∠ADB = DF · sin ∠DF C.

Now, by the law of sines,

DF · sin ∠DF C = DC · sin ∠F CD = DC · sin ∠BCD

CE · sin ∠ADB = CE · sin ∠ECB = EB · sin ∠EBC

and hence
DE · sin ∠DBC + EB · sin ∠EBC = DC · sin ∠BCD,
as desired.

Let’s look at a few problems:

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Example 4.8
Square ABCD has center O, AB = 900, E and F are on AB with AE < BF and E between A and
√
F, m∠EOF = 45◦ , and EF = 400. Given that BF = p + q r, where p, q, and r are positive integers and r
is not divisible by the square of any prime, find p + q + r.

A E x G y F B

450

D C

Solution. We let G be the midpoint of AB. We get

EG EG
tan ∠EOG = =
OG 450
FG FG
tan ∠F OG = =
OG 450
Thus, we can use the tangent addition formula to get
FG EG
450 + 450
tan ∠EOF = F G·EG
1− 4502

But wait! tan ∠EOF = tan 45◦ = 1! So we have that

4502 − F G · EG = 450 · EF = 450 · 400

Thus, we get
F G · EG = 1502
F G + EG = 400
√
We can get a quadratic by substitution - we have F G2 − 400F G + 1502 = 0, so
√ F G = 200 ± 50 7 (the
√ ± is
there to choose between F G and EG). However, F G < EG, so F G = 200 − 50 7, so BF = 250 + 50 7. The
answer is thus 307 .

Example 4.9 (AIME II 2005/14)

In triangle ABC, AB = 13, BC = 15, and CA = 14. Point D is on BC with CD = 6. Point E is on BC
such that ∠BAE ∼= ∠CAD. Given that BE = pq where p and q are relatively prime positive integers, find q.

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C
D
E
B

Solution. There are very smart solutions using the fact that AE and AD are isogonal. However, that isn’t really
enough for us. We shall trig bash. Using the ratio lemma, we have
BD AB sin ∠BAD
= ·
DC AC sin ∠CAD
What’s the inspiration for this? Well, the ratio lemma is always a handy tool. And we have that ∠BAE = ∠CAD
and ∠BAD = ∠CAE, which is even nicer. So that’s why we try this. Similarly, we get
BE AB sin ∠BAE
= ·
EC AC sin ∠CAE
so multiplying get’s rid of our worries
BE · BD AB 2
=
CD · EC AC 2
This implies
CE 3 · 142 294
= 2
=
BE 2 · 13 169
Now, we look for BE. Noting CE + BE = BC, we get
15 BC CE 294
−1= −1= =
BE BE BE 169
Thus, we solve for BE to get
2535
BE =
463
which gives the answer as 463 .

Try the next few problems:

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Exercise 4.10 (AIME 1987/15). Squares S1 and S2 are inscribed in right triangle ABC, as shown in the
figures below. Find AC + CB if area (S1 ) = 441 and area (S2 ) = 440. Hints: 51 77

Exercise 4.11 (AIME 1985/9). In a circle, parallel chords of lengths 2, 3, and 4 determine central angles
of α, β, and α + β radians, respectively, where α + β < π. If cos α, which is a positive rational number, is
expressed as a fraction in lowest terms, what is the sum of its numerator and denominator? Hints: 98

Exercise 4.12 (AIME II 2004/7). ABCD is a rectangular sheet of paper that has been folded so that
corner B is matched with point B 0 on edge AD. The crease is EF, where E is on AB and F is on CD. The
dimensions AE = 8, BE = 17, and CF = 3 are given. The perimeter of rectangle ABCD is m/n, where m
and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n. Hints: 62

C0
D F C

B0

A E B

§4.2 Indirect Applications

What is this section for? Well, sometimes when working with problems, trigonometry sometimes doesn’t solve
the whole problem - you have to combine it with techniques such as coordinates and/or synthetic observations,
that will finish the problem. Let’s see some examples:

Example 4.13 (AIME II 2016/10)

Triangle ABC is inscribed in circle ω. Points P and Q are on side AB with AP < AQ. Rays CP and CQ
meet ω again at S and T (other than C), respectively. If AP = 4, P Q = 3, QB = 6, BT = 5, and AS = 7,
then ST = mn , where m and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n.

Solution. I’ll provide a proof for those who are an expert at projective geometry - take a pencil through C and
the cross ratio is preserved.

For those of you who didn’t understand that, let’s use the Ratio Lemma:

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4 3 6
A P Q B

7 5

T
S

Well, let’s try to find almost everything here. Well, we note that we have a ton of application of similar
triangles (by, say AA similarity):
• 4ACQ ∼ 4T BQ
• 4P CB ∼ 4P AS
There are more, but those are enough. In fact, the first one itself suffices. We get from Ratio Lemma that
AC 5
=
CQ 6
so we get that using Ratio lemma on 4ACQ, we have
4 AP AC sin ∠ACP 5 sin ∠ACP
= = · = ·
3 PQ CQ sin ∠P CQ 6 sin ∠P CQ
This implies that
sin ∠ACP 24
=
sin ∠P CQ 15
Well, I could have kept on going, but it’s not of substance anymore. We can just use the Extended Law of Sines
to get
AS ST
= 2R =
sin ∠ACP sin ∠P CQ
which implies
sin ∠ACP 35
ST = AC · =
sin ∠P CQ 8
so the answer is 35 + 8 = 43 .

Example 4.14 (AIME II 2012/15)

Triangle ABC is inscribed in circle ω with AB = 5, BC = 7, and AC = 3. The bisector of angle A meets
side BC at D and circle ω at a second point E. Let γ be the circle with diameter DE. Circles ω and γ
meet at E and a second point F . Then AF 2 = m n , where m and n are relatively prime positive integers.
Find m + n.

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Solution. For those

√ of you who know how inversions and harmonics work, here’s a two-second solution: Use
a force overlaid bc inversion to get M ←→ F (M is the midpoint of BC) implying AF is the symmedian so
ABF C is a harmonic bundle. Law of Cosines and/or Ptolemy’s will finish it off.

X E
D
A

F
C

Remark 4.15. While this solution is quick, it is overkill. Try not to use the sledgehammer when only a hammer is
needed. That being said, don’t use a hammer when nothing needs to be nailed. However, if something does need to
be nailed, use a hammer.

Now, if you are a normal competitor, and have no idea what that means, don’t worry. This is trig, so I’ll talk
about trig here. First, what’s 4ABC? That seems like horrible numbers - unless we have nice numbers. We try
to use the law of cosines:
52 + 32 − 72 −15 1
cos ∠A = = =−
2·5·3 2 · 15 2
52 + 72 − 32 65 13
cos ∠B = = =
2·5·7 2 · 35 14
32 + 72 − 52 34 17
cos ∠C = = =
2·3·7 2 · 21 21
Well, only the first one looks nice. That’s ∠A = 120◦ , and seems like the only nice characterization here. Now,
this also makes sense as the problem is A-indexed. Now, let’s see what else we have. We note that as E is on
the angle bisector, we have
∠EAB = ∠EAC = 60◦
Why did we choose E? Well, it’s on the circumcircle, so it’s nice right away, and another important property is
that E is the midpoint of arc BC. That’s because we have that

∠CBE = ∠CAE = ∠BAE = ∠BCE

which means CE = BE. But wait! We know that’s 60◦ , so we have an equilateral triangle. What other
information can we extract? Well, we know that we have to get F into the picture somehow. But how do we
insert F ? Well, what do we know? Looking at our characterizations, we have that ∠DF E = 90◦ . What else do
we know? ∠BF C = 60◦ , but that doesn’t give us any important things. Remember, if we can find most of these
lengths, from the diagram, it appears we should apply Ptolemy to ABF C. So we need to find BF and F C.
How do we do that? Well, time to find almost every single length possible. First, let’s find CD, BD, AD, as we
have good control of those. We use the angle bisector theorem to get
AB 35
BD = · BC =
AB + AC 8
AC 21
CD = · BC =
AB + AC 8

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Now, AD - that’s Stewart’s theorem, right? We get

r r
1 225 15
AD = (AC 2 · BM + AB 2 · CM − CM · BM · AB) = =
BC 64 8
So everything is a rational number! How nice. Let’s write down every single Law of Cosines equation we can get:

AE 2 = AF 2 + EF 2 − 2 · AF · EF cos ∠AF E

AF 2 = AE 2 + EF 2 − 2 · AE · EF cos ∠AEF
What can we do? Canel stuff out! We get

2 · EF 2 = 2 · EF · (AF cos ∠AF E + AE cos ∠AEF )

Hmmm...what do we know about those angles? well, we know that E, F is on the circle, so ∠AF E = ∠ACE.
We’re doing this to get rid of F , so let’s see if we can get ∠AEF . Well, we know that D, E, A are collinear, so
∠AEF = ∠DEF . But that’s perfect! We know that as DEF is a right triangle (right angle at F ) so we have
that
EF 8EF
cos ∠AEF = cos ∠DEF = =
DE 49
AC 2 + CE 2 − AE 2 AC 2 + BC 2 − AE 2 1
cos ∠AF E = cos ∠ACE = = =−
2 · AC · CE 2 · AC · BC 7
So we can find EF ! We have
AF 8 · EF · AE AF 64EF
EF = − + =− +
7 64 7 49
which implies that
15EF = 7AF
Well, we were so close! But we also have that

AE 2 = AF 2 + EF 2 − 2 · AF · EF cos ∠AF E

Let’s use this equation one last time! Substituting, we get

49 2 304
64 = 82 = AE 2 = AF 2 + EF 2 − 2 · AF · EF cos ∠AF E = AF 2 + AF 2 + AF 2 = AF 2
225 15 225
We get
900
AF 2 =
19
which gives us an answer of 919 .

So what exactly did we do? Made a few trivial observations, and then said hello to our good friend Law of
Cosines. Sometimes, it will be Law of Sines, but it’s not always too much of a variant. There are only 2 main
laws, after all! In addition, this example was pretty involved - make sure you understand this.

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Exercise 4.16 (AIME II 2003/14). Let A = (0, 0) and B = (b, 2) be points on the coordinate plane. Let
ABCDEF be a convex equilateral hexagon such that ∠F AB = 120◦ , AB k DE, BC k EF, CD k F A, and
the y-coordinates of its vertices are distinct elements of the set {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. The area of the hexagon
√
can be written in the form m n, where m and n are positive integers and n is not divisible by the square of
any prime. Find m + n. Hints: 91 68 43

Exercise 4.17 (AIME I 2018/15). David found four sticks of different lengths that can be used to form
three non-congruent convex cyclic quadrilaterals, A, B, C, which can each be inscribed in a circle with
radius 1. Let ϕA denote the measure of the acute angle made by the diagonals of quadrilateral A, and
define ϕB and ϕC similarly. Suppose that sin ϕA = 23 , sin ϕB = 35 , and sin ϕC = 67 . All three quadrilaterals
m
have the same area K, which can be written in the form , where m and n are relatively prime positive
n
integers. Find m + n. Hints: 48 67 6

Exercise 4.18 (AIME I 2005/15). Triangle ABC has BC = 20. The incircle of the triangle evenly trisects
√
the median AD. If the area of the triangle is m n where m and n are integers and n is not divisible by the
square of a prime, find m + n. Hints: 11 84 85

By the way, I’m sorry for all the hard problem here!

§4.3 Trigonometric Functions at Special Values

There are a few special angles for which you should know the values of the trigonometric functions, without
having to resort to a table or a calculator. These are summarized in the following table.

θ cos(θ) sin(θ)
0 1 0
√ √ √ √
π 6− 2 6+ 2
12 4 4
√ r √
π 5−1 5+ 5
10 4 8
p √ p √
π 2− 2 2+ 2
8 2 2
r √ √
π 5− 5 5+1
5 8 4
√
π 3 1
6 2 2
√ √
π 2 2
4 2 2
√
π 1 3
3 2 2
π
0 1
2
You should also be able to use reference angles along with these values to compute the values of the trigonometric
functions at related angles in the second, third and fourth quadrants. For example, the point associated with
t = 5π π
6 is directly across the unit circle from the point associated with 6 . (In this case we say that we are using

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π 5π
6 as a reference angle.) Thus the coordinates of the point associated with 6√ has the same y value and the
opposite x value of the point associated with π6 . Thus cos( 5π π
6 ) = − cos( 6 ) = − 23 , and sin( 5π π 1
6 ) = sin( 6 ) = 2 .
This especially useful for geometry problems in which the angle is given, and the angles are nice. Memorizing
special properties of certain triangles is extremely useful. One of the first things you should try when parts of a
triangle are given is to look for special angles.

Example 4.19 (AIME I 2005/7)

√
In quadrilateral ABCD, BC = 8, CD = 12, AD = 10, and m∠A = m∠B = 60◦ . Given that AB = p + q,
where p and q are positive integers, find p + q.

D
12 C

10 8

A B

Solution. Extend the lines to meet at E. This is a fairly standard trick, and has many useful results. In this
case, 4ABE is isosceles, so AE = BE. Now, if you know what we’re planning on doing, it’s time for the Law of
Cosines. Assuming AE = BE = x, we get that DE = x − 10 and CE = x − 8, so we get (as ∠AEB = 60◦ )
1
144 = 122 = CD2 = DE 2 +CE 2 −2·DE·CE cos ∠DEC = (x−10)2 +(x−8)2 −2·(x−10)(x−8)· = x2 −18x+84
2
√
We get two roots - x = 9 ± 141. Which one do we take?

√ √
We note that 9 − 141 is negative, so it’s 9 + 141. The answer is 9 + 141 = 150 .

Example 4.20 (AIME 1989/6)

Two skaters, Allie and Billie, are at points A and B, respectively, on a flat, frozen lake. The distance
between A and B is 100 meters. Allie leaves A and skates at a speed of 8 meters per second on a straight
line that makes a 60◦ angle with AB. At the same time Allie leaves A, Billie leaves B at a speed of 7 meters
per second and follows the straight path that produces the earliest possible meeting of the two skaters, given
their speeds. How many meters does Allie skate before meeting Billie?

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8t 7t

60◦
A 100 B

Solution. Well, this sort of is a d = rt problem. Of course we’re throwing in the Law of Cosines! We have that
as seen in the above diagram
49t2 = (7t)2 = (8t)2 + 1002 − 2 · 8t · 1002 cos 60◦ = 64t2 − 800t + 10000
This rearranges to
15t2 − 800t + 10000 = 0
which by the quadratic formula gives
100
t=, 20
3
Wait - there are two answers. How do we choose? Well, we must have the first intersection - so the answer is
8 · 2 = 160 . An alternative (that would work on a test) would be to use the fact AIME has integral answers.

Theorem 4.21 (Blanchet’s Theorem)

Let AD, BE, and CF be concurrent cevians in 4ABC. If AD ⊥ BC, show that ray AD bisects ∠EDF .

Proof. Note that

tan ∠ADE sin ∠ADE cos ∠ADF
= ·
tan ∠ADF sin ∠ADF cos ∠ADE
sin ∠ADE sin ∠F DB
= ·
sin ∠ADF sin ∠EDC
AE
sin ∠AED sin F DB
= AD
AF
·
AD sin ∠AF D
sin EDC
AE sin ∠CED sin ∠F DB
= · ·
AF sin ∠BF D sin ∠EDC
AE sin ∠CED sin ∠F DB
= · ·
AF sin ∠EDC sin ∠BF D
AE CD F B
= · ·
AF CE BD
AE CD F B
= · ·
CE BD AF
=1
by Ceva’s theorem, so ∠ADE = ∠ADF .

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Exercise 4.22 (AIME II 2004/1). A chord of a circle is perpendicular to a radius at the midpoint of the
radius. The ratio of the area of the larger of√ the two regions into which the chord divides the circle to the
aπ+b√ c
smaller can be expressed in the form dπ−e f
, where a, b, c, d, e, and f are positive integers, a and e are
relatively prime, and neither c nor f is divisible by the square of any prime. Find the remainder when the
product abcdef is divided by 1000. Hints: 9

Exercise 4.23 (AIME 1990/12). A regular 12-gon is inscribed in a circle of radius√ 12.
√ The√sum of the
lengths of all sides and diagonals of the 12-gon can be written in the form a + b 2 + c 3 + d 6, where a,
b, c, and d are positive integers. Find a + b + c + d. Hints: 89

Exercise 4.24 (1995 AIME/14). In a circle of radius 42, two chords of length 78 intersect at a point whose
distance from the center is 18. The two chords divide the interior of the circle into four regions. Two of
these regions are bordered by√segments of unequal lengths, and the area of either of them can be expressed
uniquely in the form mπ − n d, where m, n, and d are positive integers and d is not divisible by the square
of any prime number. Find m + n + d. Hints: 81 8 36

§4.4 Vector Geometry

Definition 4.25 (Vector) — A vector is a directed line segment. It can also be considered a quantity with
−−→
magnitude and direction. Every vector U V has a starting point U hx1 , y1 i and an endpoint V hx2 , y2 i.

Theorem 4.26 (Addition of Vectors)

~ 2 = k~v k2 + kwk
~ with angle θ formed by them, k~v + wk
For vectors ~v and w, ~ 2 + 2k~v kkwk
~ cos θ.

~v
w
~

~v + w
~

Theorem 4.27 (Multiplying Vectors by Constant)

For some constant c > 0, c~v increases the magnitude of ~v by c times in the same direction as ~v . If c < 0, c~v
increases the magnitude of ~v by c times in the opposite direction as ~v . If c = 0, the magnitude becomes 0
and there is no direction.

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Theorem 4.28 (Vector Identities)

For any vectors ~x, ~y , ~z, and real numbers a, b,

1. Commutative Property: ~x + ~y = ~y + ~x

2. Associative Property: (~x + ~y ) + ~z = ~x + (~y + ~z)

3. Additive Identity: There exists the zero vector ~0 such that ~x + ~0 = ~x

4. Additive Inverse: For each ~x, there is a vector ~y such that ~x + ~y = ~0

5. Unit Scalar Identity: 1~x = ~x

6. Associative in Scalar: (ab)~x = a(b~x)

7. Distributive Property of Vectors: a(~x + ~y ) = a~x + a~y

8. Distributive Property of Scalars: (a + b)~x = a~x + b~x

Definition 4.29 (Dot Product) — Consider two vectors a = ha1 , a2 , . . . , an i and b = hb1 , b2 , . . . , bn i in Rn .
The dot product is equal to the length of the projection (i.e. the distance from the origin to the foot of
the head of a to b) of a onto b times the length of b.

Theorem 4.30 (Magnitude of Dot Product)

Consider two vectors a = ha1 , a2 , . . . , an i and b = hb1 , b2 , . . . , bn i in Rn . The dot product is then

a · b = b · a = |a||b| cos θ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn ,

where θ is the angle formed by the two vectors.

Definition 4.31 (Cross Product) — The cross product between two vectors a and b in R3 is defined as
the vector whose length is equal to the area of the parallelogram spanned by a and b and whose direction is
in accordance with the right-hand rule.

Theorem 4.32 (Magnitude of Cross Product)

The magnitude of the cross product is

|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ,

where θ is the angle formed by the two vectors.

Vectors seem useless, but just take a look at this theorem by AoPS User A-Student. Thanks for helping
out!

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Theorem 4.33 (Vectorial Form of Ptolemy’s Theorem)

With points X, A, B, C, B 0 as defined in the diagram below,

~ × XC
XA ~ ~ · BA
BX ~ ~ · XC
XA ~ ~ × BA
BX ~ ~ × XC
XB ~
· + · = .
~ XC|
|XA|| ~ ~ BA|
|BX|| ~ ~ XC|
|XA|| ~ ~ BA|
|BX|| ~ ~ XC|
|XB|| ~

B0

X C

Proof. Four points X, A, B, C of the Euclidean plane are concyclic if and only if

XA · sin ∠BXC + XB · sin ∠CXA + XC · sin ∠AXB = 0.

We consider the reverse of this, we get:

If four points X, A, B, C of the Euclidean plane are concyclic, then

XA · sin ∠BXC + XB · sin ∠CXA + XC · sin ∠AXB = 0.

~ XB,
Let XA, ~ XC ~ be position vectors of the points A, B & C taking X as the origin.
Now, as per property of concyclic quadrilaterals,

∠AXC + ∠ABC = π

=⇒ ∠AXC + ∠ABX + ∠BXC = π

=⇒ ∠AXC + ∠ABX = π − ∠BXC.
=⇒ sin(∠AXC + ∠ABX) = sin(π − ∠BXC).
=⇒ sin(∠AXC + ∠ABX) = sin(∠BXC).
Expanding the angles as per sin(A+B) rule,

sin(∠AXC) cos(∠ABX) + cos(∠AXC) sin(∠ABX) = sin(∠BXC).

~ × XC
XA ~ ~ · BA
BX ~ ~ · XC
XA ~ ~ × BA
BX ~ ~ × XC
XB ~
=⇒ · + · = .
~ XC|
|XA|| ~ ~ BA|
|BX|| ~ ~ XC|
|XA|| ~ ~ BA|
|BX|| ~ ~ XC|
|XB|| ~

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Exercise 4.34. Show that a × b = −b × a. Hints: 31

Exercise 4.35. Show that |a|2 |b|2 = |a · b|2 + |a × b|2 . Hints: 10 75

Exercise 4.36. A ship is travelling at a speed of 4 m/s to the north. A boy on the ship travels to the
east at 3 m/s with respect to the ship. What speed does he travel at with respect to the sea (which is not
moving)? Hints: 83

Theorem 4.37 (Right Hand Rule)

The right hand rule is used to determine the direction of the cross product. One can see this by holding
one’s hands outward and together, palms up, with the fingers curled, and the thumb out-stretched. If the
curl of the fingers represents a movement from the first or x-axis to the second or y-axis, then the third or
z-axis can point along either thumb.

Theorem 4.38 (Triple Scalar Product)

The triple scalar product of three vectors a, b, c is defined as (a × b) · c. Geometrically, the triple scalar
product gives the signed volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b and c. It follows that

(a × b) · c = (c × a) · b = (b × c) · a.

Theorem 4.39 (Triple Vector Product)

The vector triple product of a, b, c is defined as the cross product of one vector, so that a × (b × c) =
b(a · c) − c(a · b), which can be remembered by the mnemonic ”BAC-CAB”.

While the above theorems are extremely useful, the only crucial piece (for the AIME) is the following:

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Theorem 4.40 (AIME Vectors)

Let θ be the angle between ~u and ~v . Then

~u · ~v = uv cos θ,

and
|~u × ~v | = uv sin θ.

Theorem 4.41 (Properties of Vectors)

Some geometric properties of vectors:

1. If and only if the dot product of two vectors is zero, then those vectors are orthogonal or perpendicular.
(The zero vector is orthogonal to every vector.)

2. If and only if the cross product of two vectors is zero (the zero vector), then those vectors are parallel.
They can point in the same direction or in opposite directions.

3. The cross product of ~u and ~v is always orthogonal to ~u and ~v . As long as ~u and ~v are not parallel,
there exists one unique axis perpendicular to both which ~u × ~v will lie on.

Example 4.42 (AMC 10 A 2012/21)

Let points A = (0, 0, 0), B = (1, 0, 0), C = (0, 2, 0), and D = (0, 0, 3). Points E, F , G, and H are midpoints
of line segments BD, AB, AC, and DC respectively. What is the area of EF GH?
√ √ √ √ √
(A) 2 (B) 2 3 5 (C) 3 4 5 (D) 3 (E) 2 3 7

Solution. Computing the points of EF GH gives E(0.5, 0, 1.5), F (0.5, 0, 0), G(0, 1, 0), H(0, 1, 1.5). The vector
EF is (0, 0, −1.5), while the vector HG is also (0, 0, −1.5), meaning the two sides EF and GH are parallel.
Similarly, the vector F G is (−0.5, 1, 0), while the vector EH is also (−0.5, 1, 0). Again, these are equal in both
magnitude and direction, so F G and EH are parallel. Thus, figure EF GH is a parallelogram.
Computation of vectors EF and HG is sufficient evidence that the figure is a parallelogram, since the vectors
are not only point in the same direction, but are of the same magnitude, but the other vector F G is needed to
find the angle between the sides.
Taking the dot product of vector EF and vector F G gives 0 · −0.5 + 0 · 1 + −1.5 · 0 = 0, which means the two
vectors are perpendicular. (Alternately, as above, note that vector EF goes directly down on the z-axis, while
vector F G has no z-component and lie completely in the xy plane.) Thus, the figure is a parallelogram with a
right angle, which makes it a rectangle. With the distance formula in three dimensions, we find that EF = 32
√ √
√
5 3 5 3 5
and F G = 2 , giving an area of 2 · 2 = (C) .
4

§4.5 Parameterization
Parameterization is extremely useful for changing to only one variable, especially for conic sections.

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Theorem 4.43 (Parameterizations of Conic Sections)

The following is the parametric equations for conic sections:

1. circle: x = sin θ, y = cos θ

2. ellipse: x = a sin θ, y = b cos θ

3. hyperbola: x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ

4. parabola: x = 2pt2 , y = 2pt

Note that the parameter for the parabola is t, because using an angle is mostly useless for parabolas.

Parameterization is also heavily influenced by complex numbers.

Theorem 4.44 (Polar Form of Conic Sections)

Let a focal point of a conic section lie at the origin. Then its polar form is
l
r= ,
1 − e cos θ
where e is the eccentricity, and l is a constant. If:

1. e = 0 : the equation is a circle

2. 0 < e < 1 : the equation is an ellipse

3. e = 1 : the equation is a parabola

4. e > 1 : the equation is a hyperbola

The parabola can also be determined by its trajectory:

Theorem 4.45 (Trajectory of a Parabola)

The trajectory of a parabola is given by
 x
x · tan θ 1 − ,
R
for constants θ and R.

Example 4.46 (AIME 1983/4)

√
A machine-shop cutting tool has the shape of a notched circle, as shown. The radius of the circle is 50 cm,
the length of AB is 6 cm and that of BC is 2 cm. The angle ABC is a right angle. Find the square of the
distance (in centimeters) from B to the center of the circle.

Solution. Draw segment OB with length x, and draw radius OQ such that OQ bisects chord AC at point
M
p . This also means that
√ OQ is perpendicular to √ AC. By the Pythagorean Theorem, we get that AC =
2 2
(BC)√+ (AB) = √ 2 10, and therefore AM = 10. Also by the Pythagorean theorem, we can find that
OM = 50 − 10 = 2 10.

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 √ 
2 2√ 10
Next, find ∠BAC = arctan 6 and ∠OAM = arctan 10
. Since ∠OAB = ∠OAM − ∠BAC, we get

1
∠OAB = arctan 2 − arctan
3
1
tan (∠OAB) = tan (arctan 2 − arctan )
3
By the subtraction formula for tan, we get

2 − 31
tan (∠OAB) =
1 + 2 · 13

tan (∠OAB) = 1
1
cos (∠OAB) = √
2
Finally, by the Law of Cosines on 4OAB, we get
√ 1
x2 = 50 + 36 − 2(6) 50 √
2

x2 = 026 .

Example 4.47
In acute angled triangle ABC, from a point D is on segment BC, draw perpendiculars DP and DQ to AB
and AC, respectively. Show that P Q is minimized when D is the foot of the altitude from A to BC.

Solution. Let E be the foot of the altitude from A to BC and let R and S be the feet of the altitudes
of AB and AC from E, respectively. I claim AP EDQ is cyclic. I will now prove this claim. Note that
∠AP D = ∠AED = ∠AQD = 90◦ . Thus, not only does the circle (AP EDQ) exist, but AD is the diameter. I
will now provide some motivation for the next result.

We note that at AE, AD is minimized. Because we are trying to prove P Q is minimized when D = E, it seems
that as D approaches E (i.e. AD becomes minimized), P Q is minimized. This of course implies some relation
between AD and P Q, motivating us to find the relation between these two.

Now that motivation is resolved, let us see how we can relate the two lengths. Let ∠P AD = α and ∠DAQ = β.
Then using trigonometric identities, we have

AP = AD cos α, P D = AD sin α,

AQ = AD cos β, QD = AD sin β.
Using Ptolemy’s Theorem on quadrilateral AP DQ, we get

AD · P Q = AP · QD + AQ · P D = AD cos α · AD sin β + AD cos β · AD sin α = AD2 sin(α + β),

and since α + β = ∠A, we have

P Q = AD sin ∠A.

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Thus, as AD decreases, so does P Q, implying that when D = E, P Q is minimized.

P Q
R
C
B E D

§4.6 Exercises

Exercise 4.48. Let D and E be the trisection points of segment AB, where D is between A and E.
Construct a circle using DE as diameter, and let C be a point on the circle. Find the value of

tan ∠ACD · tan ∠BCE.

Hints: 53 33

Exercise 4.49 (Bretschneider’s Formula). The area of quadrilateral ABCD is

r
∠A + ∠C
[ABCD] = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos2
2
where a, b, c, d are the sidelengths and 2s = a + b + c + d. Hints: 64 20 40

Exercise 4.50. Given that quadrilateral ABCD has in inscribed circle, show that
√
[ABCD] = abcd sin θ,
∠A+∠C
where a, b, c, d are the side lengths and θ = 2 . Hints: 42 38

Exercise 4.51. In 4ABC, ∠B = 3∠C. If AB = 10 and AC = 15, compute the length of BC. Hints: 103
52

Exercise 4.52. ARM L is a convex kite with A(0, 0), R(1, 3), and M (7, 2). Determine the coordinates of L.

Exercise 4.53 (AIME 2001/4). In triangle ABC, angles A and B measure 60 degrees and 45 degrees,
respectively. The bisector of angle A intersects BC at T , and AT = 24. The area of triangle ABC can be
√
written in the form a + b c, where a, b, and c are positive integers, and c is not divisible by the square of
any prime. Find a + b + c. Hints: 80

Exercise 4.54 (AIME I 2003/10). Triangle ABC is isosceles with AC = BC and ∠ACB = 106◦ . Point M
is in the interior of the triangle so that ∠M AC = 7◦ and ∠M CA = 23◦ . Find the number of degrees in
∠CM B. Hints: 96 99

Exercise 4.55 (AIME 1996/15). In parallelogram ABCD, let O be the intersection of diagonals AC and
BD. Angles CAB and DBC are each twice as large as angle DBA, and angle ACB is r times as large as
angle AOB. Find the greatest integer that does not exceed 1000r. Hints: 58 87 105

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§5 3-D Geometry
§5.1 More Vector Geometry
Vectors are very useful, especially for 3D geometry. Consider the distance between a point and a plane. We
can find the vector normal to the plane by taking the cross product of two linearly independent vectors lying
in the plane. We can then take any vector from a point on the plane to the point of interest and compute its
dot product with a unit vector in the direction of the normal. By projecting the arbitrary displacement vector
from the plane to the point onto the normal vector, we eliminate the ”sideways” portion of the displacement
and reduce it to its perpendicular part. The magnitude of the resulting value is the distance we wished to
determine.

Theorem 5.1 (Vector on Vector Projection)

Let
proj~b (~a)

be the projection of ~a onto ~b. Then

proj~b (~a) = a cos θb̂,

where θ is the angle between the two vectors and b̂ is the direction the projection of ~a onto ~b faces (in this
case, the direction is the same as ~b).

Let us turn to areas now.

Theorem 5.2 (Area-Sine Formula)

Let there exist a triangle ABC such that BC = a, AC = b, and ∠ACB = θ. Then the area of 4ABC is
1
ab sin θ.
2

Notice that this is exactly one half of the expression for the cross product of two vectors in terms of their
magnitudes and the angle between them. In the case that the angle involved is not easily determined, such as in
a three-dimensional situation, we can directly apply the cross product to vectors representing two sides of the
triangle to determine its area. This will eliminate the necessity to find the angle. Similarly, finding the area
of parallelogram is simply the cross product of the two vectors that determine it (also note that the area of a
parallelogram is simply twice of the triangle).
Now that we have dealt with distances and areas, let us see how we can generalize to volumes. The method is
very similar:

Theorem 5.3 (Volume of a Parallelepiped)

A parallelepiped (which is basically a shifted box [think 3D parallelogram]) is defined by three vectors
~a, ~b, ~c. Then the volume of the parallelepiped is

|~a × ~b| · ~c.

Note that half of this volume is the volume of the tetrahedron defined by ~a, ~b, ~c.

Vectors are also great for finding dihedral angles.

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Definition 5.4 (Dihedral Angle) — A dihedral angle is the angle formed by two intersecting planes.

Definition 5.5 (Normal Vector) — The normal vector, often simply called the ”normal,” to a surface is
a vector which is perpendicular to the surface at a given point.

Definition 5.6 (Unit Vector) — A unit vector is a vector of magnitude one. We say the unit vector of ~u
is û, and is used to show direction.

Theorem 5.7 (Unit Normal Vector Formula)

Let n̂P and n̂Q be the unit normal vectors of planes P and Q, respectively. Also, let p~1 and p~2 be vectors
in the plane P and let q~1 and q~2 be vectors in the plane Q. Then

p~1 × p~2
n̂P = ,
p1 p2
and
q~1 × q~2
n̂Q = .
q1 q2

Theorem 5.8 (Dihedral Angle Formula)

Let θ be the angle between two planes P and Q, and let n̂P and n̂Q be the unit normal vectors of P and Q,
respectively. Then
cos θ = n̂P · n̂Q .

We can try our hand at the following example:

Example 5.9 (AIME II 2016/14)

Equilateral 4ABC has side length 600. Points P and Q lie outside the plane of 4ABC and are on opposite
sides of the plane. Furthermore, P A = P B = P C, and QA = QB = QC, and the planes of 4P AB and
4QAB form a 120◦ dihedral angle (the angle between the two planes). There is a point O whose distance
from each of A, B, C, P, and Q is d. Find d.

§5.2 Exercises

Exercise 5.10. Let P Q be the line passing through the points P = (−1, 0, 3) and Q = (0, −2, −1).
Determine the shortest distance from P Q to the origin. Hints: 1

Exercise 5.11. A parallelpiped has a vertex at (1, 2, 3), and adjacent vertices (that form edges with this
vertex) at (3, 5, 7), (1, 6, −2), and (6, 3, 6). Find the volume of this parallelpiped. Hints: 57

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§6 Trigonometric Substitution
Trigonometry substitution is extremely useful for a variety of problems. Here are a few substitutions to
employ.

Theorem 6.1 (Weierstrauss Substitution)

Let t = tan x2 , where x ∈ (−π, π). Then
x t
sin =√ ,
2 1 + t2
and
x 1
cos +√ .
2 1 + t2
Similarly,
2t
sin x = ,
1 + t2
1 − t2
cos x = ,
1 + t2
and
2t
tan x = .
1 − t2

Theorem 6.2 (Trigonometric Triangle-Angle Condition)

Let α, β, γ be angles in the range (0, π). Then α, β, γ are angles of a triangle if and only if

α β β γ γ α
tan tan + tan tan + tan tan =,
2 2 2 2 2 2
or
α β γ α β γ
sin2 + sin2 + sin2 + 2 sin sin sin = 1.
2 2 2 2 2 2
The former is useful for expressions of the form ab + bc + ca = 1.

Theorem 6.3 (Triangle-Angle Substitution)

Let α, β, γ be angles of a triangle. Then
π−α π−β π−γ
A= ,B = ,C =
2 2 2
transforms the triangle into an acute triangle with angles A, B, C.

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Theorem 6.4 (ab + bc + ca = 1 Substitution)

Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that ab + bc + ca = 1. Then we can substitute
tan α tan β tan γ
a= ,b = ,c = ,
2 2 2
or
a = cot A, b = cot B, c = cot C,
where α, β, γ and A, B, C are angles of a triangle.

Theorem 6.5 (a + b + c = abc Substitution)

Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a + b + c = abc. Then we can substitute
α β γ
a = cot , b = cot , c = cot ,
2 2 2
or
a = tan A, b = tan B, c = tan C,
where α, β, γ are angles of a triangle.

Theorem 6.6 (a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc = 1 Substitution)

Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc = 1. Then we can substitute
α β γ
a = sin , b = sin , c = sin ,
2 2 2
or
a = cos A, b = cos B, c = cos C.

Example 6.7 (Darij Grinberg)

Let x, y, z be positive real numbers. Prove that
s
p p p (x + y)(y + z)(z + x)
x(y + z) + y(z + x) + z(x + y) ≥ 2 .
x+y+z

Solution. We can rewrite this inequality as

s
X x(x + y + z)
≥ 2.
cyc
(x + y)(y + z)

These values can be substituted for sin A, sin B, and sin C, so it suffices to prove
sin A + sin B + sin C ≥ 2,
where A, B, C are angles of an acute triangle (prove why this substitution is true!). Using Jordan’s Inequality,
we have
2α
≤ sin α ≤ α,
π

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and summing cyclically gives us the desired result.

Example 6.8 (HMMT)

√ p √
Find the minimum possible value of 58 − 42x + 149 − 140 1 − x2 where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
√
Solution. The 1 − x2 is an obvious indicator of trigonometric substiution. Thus, if we let
x = cos θ,
then p
1 − x2 = sin θ.
√
While 58 − 42x is rather innocent, 149 and 140 should indicate Law of Cosines. In particular,
149 = 72 + 102 ,
140 = 2 · 7 · 10.
If we turn our attention to 58 and 42, we have
58 = 32 + 72 ,
42 = 2 · 3 · 7.
√
Thus, if we have a triangle with side lengths 3 and 7, with angle θ between them, then 58 − 42x would be
the
p last side. Similarly, if we have a triangle with side lengths 7 and 10, with angle 90◦ − θ between them,
√
149 − 140 1 − x2 would be the last side. The θ and 90◦ − θ, paired with the common 7, inspires us to combine
these two triangles such that the angles of measure θ and 90◦ − θ become 90◦ , andp the two sides of length 7
√ √
become one side. Thus, we have a triangle with side lengths 3, 10, and 58 − 42x + 149 − 140 1 − x2 , with a
90-degree angle between 3 and 10. Thus,
q p p
√ √
58 − 42x + 149 − 140 1 − x2 ≥ 32 + 102 = 109 .

Theorem 6.9 (Trigonometric Inequalities)

Let A, B, C be angles of triangle ABC. Then

1. cos A + cos B + cos C ≤ sin A2 + sin B2 + sin C2 ≤ 3

2
√
3 3
2. sin A + sin B + sin C ≤ cos A2 + cos B2 + cos C2 ≤ 2

3. cos A cos B cos C ≤ sin A2 sin B2 sin C2 ≤ 1

8
√
3 3
4. sin A sin B sin C ≤ cos A2 cos B2 cos C2 ≤ 8
√
5. cot A2 + cot B2 + cot C2 ≥ 3 3
A B C 3
6. cos2 A + cos2 B + cos2 C ≥ sin2 2 + sin2 2 + sin2 2 ≥ 4
A B C 9
7. sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C ≤ cos2 2 + cos2 2 + cos2 2 ≤ 4
√
8. cot A + cot B + cot C ≥ tan A2 + tan B2 + tan C2 ≥ 3

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Theorem 6.10 (Well-Known Triangle Trigonometric Identities)

Let A, B, C be angles of triangle ABC. Then

1. cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin A2 sin B2 sin C2

2. sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos A2 cos B2 cos C2

3. sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C

4. sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C = 2 + 2 cos A cos B cos C

Theorem 6.11 (Well-Known Trigonometric Identities)

For arbitrary angles α, β, γ,
α+β β+γ γ+α
sin α + sin β + sin γ − sin(α + β + γ) = 4 sin sin sin ,
2 2 2
and
α+β β+α γ+α
cos α + cos β + cos γ + cos(α + β + γ) = 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2

§7 Worked Through Problems

Example 7.1 (AIME 1989/10)

Let a, b, c be the three sides of a triangle, and let α, β, γ, be the angles opposite them. If a2 + b2 = 1989c2 ,
find
cot γ
.
cot α + cot β

Solution. We can draw the altitude h to c, to get two right triangles. cot α + cot β = hc , from the definition of
c2
the cotangent. From the definition of area, h = 2A
c , so cot α + cot β = 2A .
Now we evaluate the numerator:
cos γ
cot γ =
sin γ
From the Law of Cosines and the sine area formula,

1988c2
cos γ =
2ab
2A
sin γ =
ab
cos γ 1988c2
cot γ = =
sin γ 4A
1988c2
cot γ 1988
Then cot α+cot β = 4A
c2
= 2 = 994 .
2A

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Example 7.2 (AIME II 2013/5)

√
In equilateral 4ABC let points D and E trisect BC. Then sin(∠DAE) can be expressed in the form a c b ,
where a and c are relatively prime positive integers, and b is an integer that is not divisible by the square of
any prime. Find a + b + c.

Solution. Without loss of generality, assume the triangle sides have length 3. Then the trisected side is partitioned
into segments of length 1, making your computation easier.
A

B D M E C
3
Let M be the midpoint of DE. Then ∆M CA is a 30-60-90 triangle with M C = , AC = 3 and
√ 2
3 3
AM = . Since the triangle ∆AM E is right, then we can find the length of AE by pythagorean the-
2
√ 1
orem, AE = 7. Therefore, since ∆AM E is a right triangle, we can easily find sin(∠EAM ) = √ and
√ 2 7
p 3 3
cos(∠EAM ) = 1 − sin(∠EAM )2 = √ . So we can use the double angle formula for sine, sin(∠EAD) =
√ 2 7
3 3
2 sin(∠EAM ) cos(∠EAM ) = . Therefore, a + b + c = 020 .
14

Example 7.3 (AIME 1994/10)

In triangle ABC, angle C is a right angle and the altitude from C, meets AB, at D. The lengths of the
sides of 4ABC, are integers, BD = 293 , , and cos B = m/n, where m and n are relatively prime positive
integers. Find m + n.

29 3
Solution. We will solve for cos B using 4CBD, which gives us cos B = BC . By the Pythagorean Theorem on
4CBD, we have BC − DC = (BC + DC)(BC − DC) = 29 . Trying out factors of 296 , we can either guess
2 2 6

and check or just guess to find that BC + DC = 294 and BC − DC = 292 (The other pairs give answers over
293 3
999). Adding these, we have 2BC = 294 + 292 and BC = 2922∗29
(292 +1)
58
= 842 29
= 421 , and our answer is 450 .

Example 7.4 (AIME 1996/10)

cos 96◦ + sin 96◦
Find the smallest positive integer solution to tan 19x◦ = .
cos 96◦ − sin 96◦

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Solution. Note that

cos 96◦ + sin 96◦
cos 96◦ − sin 96◦
sin 186◦ + sin 96◦
=
sin 186◦ − sin 96◦
sin (141◦ + 45◦ ) + sin (141◦ − 45◦ )
=
sin (141◦ + 45◦ ) − sin (141◦ − 45◦ )
2 sin 141◦ cos 45◦
= = tan 141◦ .
2 cos 141◦ sin 45◦
The period of the tangent function is 180◦ , and the tangent function is one-to-one over each period of its
domain.
Thus, 19x ≡ 141 (mod 180).
Since 192 ≡ 361 ≡ 1 (mod 180), multiplying both sides by 19 yields x ≡ 141 · 19 ≡ (140 + 1)(18 + 1) ≡
0 + 140 + 18 + 1 ≡ 159 (mod 180).
Therefore, the smallest positive solution is x = 159 .

Example 7.5 (AIME 1983/15)

The adjoining figure shows two intersecting chords in a circle, with B on minor arc AD. Suppose that the
radius of the circle is 5, that BC = 6, and that AD is bisected by BC. Suppose further that AD is the only
chord starting at A which is bisected by BC. It follows that the sine of the central angle of minor arc AB is
a rational number. If this number is expressed as a fraction m n in lowest terms, what is the product mn?

D
C

Solution. (Figure by AoPS User Adamz.)

A
B
N
P

D
O Q R M

Let A be any fixed point on circle O, and let AD be a chord of circle O. The locus of midpoints N of the chord
AD is a circle P , with diameter AO. Generally, the circle P can intersect the chord BC at two points, one
point, or they may not have a point of intersection. By the problem condition, however, the circle P is tangent
to BC at point N .

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√
Let M be the midpoint of the chord BC. From right triangle OM B, we have OM = OB 2 − BM 2 = 4.
This gives tan ∠BOM = BM 3
OM = 4 .
Notice that the distance OM equals P N + P O cos ∠AOM = r(1 + cos ∠AOM ), where r is the radius of circle
P.
Hence
OM 2OM 8 3
cos ∠AOM = −1= −1= −1=
r R 5 5
(where R represents the radius, 5, of the large circle given in the question). Therefore, since ∠AOM is clearly
acute, we see that √ √
1 − cos2 ∠AOM 52 − 32 4
tan ∠AOM = = =
cos ∠AOM 3 3
Next, notice that ∠AOB = ∠AOM − ∠BOM . We can therefore apply the subtraction formula for tan to obtain
4
tan ∠AOM − tan ∠BOM −3 7
tan ∠AOB = = 3 4 43 =
1 + tan ∠AOM · tan ∠BOM 1+ 3 · 4 24

7 7
It follows that sin ∠AOB = √
72 +242
= 25 , such that the answer is 7 · 25 = 175 .

Example 7.6 (AIME I 2003/11)

An angle x is chosen at random from the interval 0◦ < x < 90◦ . Let p be the probability that the numbers
sin2 x, cos2 x, and sin x cos x are not the lengths of the sides of a triangle. Given that p = d/n, where d is
the number of degrees in arctan m and m and n are positive integers with m + n < 1000, find m + n.

Solution. Note that the three expressions are symmetric with respect to interchanging sin and cos, and so the
probability is symmetric around 45◦ . Thus, take 0 < x < 45 so that sin x < cos x. Then cos2 x is the largest of
the three given expressions and those three lengths not forming a triangle is equivalent to a violation of the
triangle inequality

cos2 x > sin2 x + sin x cos x

This is equivalent to

cos2 x − sin2 x > sin x cos x

1
and, using some of our trigonometric identities, we can re-write this as cos 2x > 2 sin 2x. Since we’ve chosen
x ∈ (0, 45), cos 2x > 0 so
1
2 > tan 2x =⇒ x < arctan 2.
2
1


The probability that x lies in this range is 45 · 12 arctan 2 = arctan
90
2
so that m = 2, n = 90 and our answer is
092 .

Example 7.7 (AIME I 2003/12)

In convex quadrilateral ABCD, ∠A ∼ = ∠C, AB = CD = 180, and AD 6= BC. The perimeter of ABCD is
640. Find b1000 cos Ac. (The notation bxc means the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x.)

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Solution. By the Law of Cosines on 4ABD at angle A and on 4BCD at angle C (note ∠C = ∠A),

1802 + AD2 − 360 · AD cos A = 1802 + BC 2 − 360 · BC cos A

(AD2 − BC 2 ) = 360(AD − BC) cos A
(AD − BC)(AD + BC) = 360(AD − BC) cos A
(AD + BC) = 360 cos A
280 7
We know that AD + BC = 640 − 360 = 280. cos A = = = 0.777 . . .
360 9
b1000 cos Ac = 777 .

D
180

A 180 B

Example 7.8 (AIME I 2014/10)

A disk with radius 1 is externally tangent to a disk with radius 5. Let A be the point where the disks are
tangent, C be the center of the smaller disk, and E be the center of the larger disk. While the larger disk
remains fixed, the smaller disk is allowed to roll along the outside of the larger disk until the smaller disk
has turned through an angle of 360◦ . That is, if the center of the smaller disk has moved to the point D,
and the point on the smaller disk that began at A has now moved to point B, then AC is parallel to BD.
Then sin2 (∠BEA) = m n , where m and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n.

Solution. First, we determine how far the small circle goes. For the small circle to rotate completely around
the circumference, it must rotate 5 times (the circumference of the small circle is 2π while the larger one has a
circumference of 10π) plus the extra rotation the circle gets for rotating around the circle, for a total of 6 times.
Therefore, one rotation will bring point D 60◦ from C.
Now, draw 4DBE, and call ∠BED x, in degrees. We know that ED is 6, and BD is 1. Since EC||BD,
2
∠BDE = 60◦ . By the ◦
√ Law of Cosines, BE = 36 + 1 − 2 × 6 × 1 × cos 60 = 36 + 1 − 6 = 31, and since lengths
are positive, BE = 31. √ √
◦
By the Law of Sines, we know that sin1 x = sin 31 √60 = 93 . As x is clearly between 0 and 90◦ ,
sin
60◦ , so sin x = 31 62
p √
2 11 31
cos x is positive. As cos x = 1 − sin x, cos x = 62 .
√ √ √
Now we use the angle sum formula to find the sine of ∠BEA: sin 60◦ cos x + cos 60◦ sin x = 2
3 11 31
62 + 12 93
62 =
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
11 93+ 93 12 93 3 93
124 = 124 = 31 = 3 31
31
3
= 3√313 .
Finally, we square this to get 9×3 27
31 = 31 , so our answer is 27 + 31 = 058 .

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B
D
F

A C
E

Example 7.9 (AIME 1997/14)

Let v and w be distinct, randomly chosen roots of the equation z 1997 − 1 = 0. Let m
n be the probability that
p √
2 + 3 ≤ |v + w|, where m and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n.

Solution. We know that

z 1997 = 1 = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0).
By De Moivre’s Theorem, we find that (k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 1996})
   
2πk 2πk
z = cos + i sin .
1997 1997
2πm 2πn
Now, let v be the root corresponding to θ = 1997 , and let w be the root corresponding to θ = 1997 . The
magnitude of v + w is therefore:
s    2     2
2πm 2πn 2πm 2πn
cos + cos + sin + sin
1997 1997 1997 1997
s        
2πm 2πn 2πm 2πn
= 2 + 2 cos cos + 2 sin sin
1997 1997 1997 1997




√
2πm
We need cos 1997 2πn
cos 1997 2πm
+ sin 1997 2πn
sin 1997 ≥ 23 . The cosine difference identity simplifies that to

√
2πm
cos 1997 2πn
− 1997 ≥ 23 . Thus, |m − n| ≤ π6 · 1997 1997
2π = b 12 c = 166.
Therefore, m and n cannot be more than 166 away from each other. This means that for a given value of m,
there are 332 values for n that satisfy the inequality; 166 of them > m, and 166 of them < m. Since m and n
332 83
must be distinct, n can have 1996 possible values. Therefore, the probability is 1996 = 499 . The answer is then
499 + 83 = 582 .

Example 7.10 (AIME 1999/14)

Point P is located inside triangle ABC so that angles P AB, P BC, and P CA are all congruent. The sides of
the triangle have lengths AB = 13, BC = 14, and CA = 15, and the tangent of angle P AB is m/n, where
m and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n.

Solution. The following is the figure for this problem.

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15 14
P

A 13 B
Drop perpendiculars from P to the three sides of 4ABC and let them meet AB, BC, and CA at D, E, and F
respectively.
C

15 14
F
E
P

D
A 13 B
Let BE = x, CF = y, and AD = z. We have that

DP = z tan θ
EP = x tan θ
F P = y tan θ

We can then use the tool of calculating area in two ways

[ABC] = [P AB] + [P BC] + [P CA]

1 1 1
= (13)(z tan θ) + (14)(x tan θ) + (15)(y tan θ)
2 2 2
1
= tan θ(13z + 14x + 15y)
2
On the other hand,
p
[ABC] = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
√
= 21 · 6 · 7 · 8
= 84

We still need 13z + 14x + 15y though. We have all these right triangles and we haven’t even touched Pythagoras.
So we give it a shot:

x2 + x2 tan2 θ = z 2 tan2 θ + (13 − z)2 (1)

z 2 + z 2 tan2 θ = y 2 tan2 θ + (15 − y)2 (2)
2 2 2 2 2 2
y + y tan θ = x tan θ + (14 − x) (3)

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Adding (1) + (2) + (3) gives

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = (14 − x)2 + (15 − y)2 + (13 − z)2

⇒ 13z + 14x + 15y = 295

Recall that we found that [ABC] = 12 tan θ(13z + 14x + 15y) = 84. Plugging in 13z + 14x + 15y = 295, we get
tan θ = 168
295 , giving us 463 for an answer.

Example 7.11 (AIME I 2007/12)

In isosceles triangle 4ABC, A is located at the origin and B is located at (20, 0). Point C is in the first
quadrant with AC = BC and angle BAC = 75◦ . If triangle ABC is rotated counterclockwise about point
A until the image of C lies on the
√ positive
√ y-axis,
√ the area of the region common to the original and the
rotated triangle is in the form p 2 + q 3 + r 6 + s, where p, q, r, s are integers. Find p−q+r−s
2 .

Solution. Let the new triangle be 4AB 0 C 0 (A, the origin, is a vertex of both triangles). Let B 0 C 0 intersect with
AC at point D, BC intersect with B 0 C 0 at E, and BC intersect with AB 0 at F . The region common to both
triangles is the quadrilateral ADEF . Notice that [ADEF ] = [4ADB 0 ] − [4EF B 0 ], where we let [. . .] denote
area.
To find [4ADB 0 ]: Since ∠B 0 AC 0 and ∠BAC both have measures 75◦ , both of their complements are 15◦ ,
and ∠DAB 0 = 90 − 2(15) = 60◦ . We know that ∠DB 0 A = 75◦ , so ∠ADB 0 = 180 − 60 − 75 = 45◦ .
Thus 4ADB 0 is a 45 − 60 − 754. It can be solved by drawing an altitude splitting the 75◦ angle into 30◦ and
◦
45 angles, forming a 30 − 60 − 90 right triangle and a 45 − 45 − 90 isosceles right triangle.
0
√ Since we know that
AB = 20, the base of the 30 − 60 − 90 triangle is 10, the base of the 45 − 45 − 90 is 10 3, and their common
√ √ √ √
height is 10 3. Thus, the total area of [4ADB 0 ] = 21 (10 3)(10 3 + 10) = 150 + 50 3 .
To find [4EF B 0 ]: Since 4AF B is also √
a 15√−75 − 90 triangle,
2+ 6
√ √
AF = 20 sin 75 = 20 sin(30 + 45) = 20 4 = 5 2 + 5 6 and
√ √
F B 0 = AB 0 − AF = 20 − 5 2 − 5 6 Since [4EF B 0 ] = 12 (F B 0 · EF ) = 12 (F B 0 )(F B 0 tan 75◦ ). With some
horrendous algebra, we can calculate
1 √ √
[4EF B 0 ] = tan(30 + 45) · (20 − 5 2 − 5 6)2
2 !
√1 + 1  √ √ √ √ √ √ 
3
= 25 8 − 2 2 − 2 6 − 2 2 + 1 + 3 − 2 6 + 3 + 3
1 − √13
√ √ √ √
= 25(2 + 3)(12 − 4 2 − 4 6 + 2 3)
√ √ √
[4EF B 0 ] = −500 2 + 400 3 − 300 6 + 750 .

To finish,

[ADEF ] = [4ADB 0 ] − [4EF B 0 ]

 √   √ √ √ 
= 150 + 50 3 − −500 2 + 400 3 − 300 6 + 750
√ √ √
= 500 2 − 350 3 + 300 6 − 600

p−q+r−s 500+350+300+600 1750

Hence, 2 = 2 = 2 = 875 .

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Example 7.12 (AIME I 2012/12)

Let 4ABC be a right triangle with right angle at C. Let D and E be points on AB√with D between A and
m p
E such that CD and CE trisect ∠C. If DE 8
BE = 15 , then tan B can be written as n , where m and n are
relatively prime positive integers, and p is a positive integer not divisible by the square of any prime. Find
m + n + p.

Solution. Without loss of generality, set CB = 1. Then, by the Angle Bisector Theorem on triangle DCB, we
8 64 8
have CD = 15 . We apply the Law of Cosines to triangle DCB to get 1 + 225 − 15 = BD2 , which we can simplify
13
to get BD = 15 .
1+ 169 64
− 225
Now, we have cos ∠B = 225
26 by another application of the Law of Cosines to triangle DCB, so
15 q √ √
11 121 4 3 4 3
cos ∠B = 13 . In addition, sin ∠B = 1− 169 = 13 , so tan ∠B = 11 .
Our final answer is 4 + 3 + 11 = 018 .

Example 7.13 (AIME II 2014/12)

Suppose that the angles of 4ABC satisfy cos(3A) + cos(3B) + cos(3C) = 1. Two sides of the triangle have
lengths 10 and 13. There is a positive integer m so that the maximum possible length for the remaining
√
side of 4ABC is m. Find m.

Solution. Note that cos 3C = − cos (3A + 3B). Thus, our expression is of the form cos 3A + cos 3B −
cos (3A + 3B) = 1. Let cos 3A = x and cos 3B = y. √ p
2 2
Using
√ the fact
p that cos(3A + √ 3B) =pcos 3A cos 3B − sin 3A sin 3B = xy − 1 − x 1 − y , we get x + y −
xy + 1 − x2 1 − y 2 = 1, or 1 − x2 1 − y 2 = xy − x − y + 1 = (x − 1)(y − 1).
Squaring both sides, we get (1−x2 )(1−y 2 ) = [(x−1)(y −1)]2 . Cancelling factors, (1+x)(1+y) = (1−x)(1−y).
Notice here that we cancelled out one factor of (x-1) and (y-1), which implies that (x-1) and (y-1) were not 0.
If indeed they were 0 though, we would have cos(3A) − 1 = 0, cos(3A) = 1
For this we could say that A must be 120 degrees for this to work. This is one case. The B case follows in
the same way, where B must be equal to 120 degrees. This doesn’t change the overall solution though, as then
the other angles are irrelevant (this is the largest angle, implying that this will have the longest side and so we
would want to have the 120 degreee angle opposite of the unknown side).
Expanding, 1 + x + y + xy = 1 − x − y + xy → x + y = −x − y.
Simplification leads to x + y = 0.
Therefore, cos(3C) = 1. So ∠C could be 0◦ or 120◦ . We eliminate 0◦ and use law of cosines to get our answer:

m = 102 + 132 − 2 · 10 · 13 cos ∠C

 
1 ◦
→ m = 269 − 260 cos 120 = 269 − 260 -
2
→ m = 269 + 130 = 399 .

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Example 7.14 (AIME I 2011/14)

Let A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 be a regular octagon. Let M1 , M3 , M5 , and M7 be the midpoints of sides A1 A2 ,
A3 A4 , A5 A6 , and A7 A8 , respectively. For i = 1, 3, 5, 7, ray Ri is constructed from Mi towards the interior
of the octagon such that R1 ⊥ R3 , R3 ⊥ R5 , R5 ⊥ R7 , and R7 ⊥ R1 . Pairs of rays R1 and R3 , R3 and R5 ,
R5 and R7 , and R7 and R1 meet at B1 , B3 , B5 , B7 respectively. If B1 B3 = A1 A2 , then cos 2∠A3 M3 B1 can
√
be written in the form m − n, where m and n are positive integers. Find m + n.

Solution. Let θ = ∠M1 M3 B1 . Thus we have that cos 2∠A3 M3 B1 = cos 2θ + π2 = − sin 2θ.
Since A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 is a regular octagon and B1 B3 = A1 A2 , let k = A1 A2 = A2 A3 = B1 B3 .
Extend A1 A2 and A3 A4 until they intersect. Denote their intersection
√ as I1 . Through similar triangles and
k
the 45 − 45 − 90 triangles formed, we find that M1 M3 = 2 (2 + 2).
We also have that4M7 B7 M1 = 4M1 B1 M3 through ASA congruence (∠B7 M7 M1 = ∠B1 M1 M3 , M7 M1 =
M1 M3 , ∠B7 M1 M7 = ∠B1 M3 M1 ). Therefore, we may let n = M1 B7 = M3 B1 .
n+k n√
Thus, we have that sin θ = k (2+ √
2)
and that cos θ = k (2+ 2)
. Therefore sin θ − cos θ = k (2+k √2) = 2+2√2 =
√ 2 2 2
2 − 2. √ √
Squaring gives that sin2 θ − 2 sin θ cos θ + cos2 θ = 6 − 4 2 and consequently that −2 sin θ cos θ = 5 − 4 2 =
− sin 2θ through the identities sin2 θ + cos2 θ √
= 1 and sin
√ 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ.
Thus we have that cos 2∠A3 M3 B1 = 5 − 4 2 = 5 − 32. Therefore m + n = 5 + 32 = 037 .

Example 7.15 (AIME II 2013/15)

Let A, B, C be angles of an acute triangle with
15
cos2 A + cos2 B + 2 sin A sin B cos C = and
8
14
cos2 B + cos2 C + 2 sin B sin C cos A =
9
There are positive integers p, q, r, and s for which
√
2 2 p−q r
cos C + cos A + 2 sin C sin A cos B = ,
s
where p + q and s are relatively prime and r is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find p + q + r + s.

Solution. Let’s draw the triangle. Since the problem only deals with angles, we can go ahead and set one of the
sides to a convenient value. Let BC = sin A.
By the Law of Sines, we must have CA = sin B and AB = sin C.
Now let us analyze the given:

cos2 A + cos2 B + 2 sin A sin B cos C = 1 − sin2 A + 1 − sin2 B + 2 sin A sin B cos C
= 2 − (sin2 A + sin2 B − 2 sin A sin B cos C)

Now we can use the Law of Cosines to simplify this:

= 2 − sin2 C
Therefore: r r
1 7
sin C = , cos C = .
8 8

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Similarly, r r
4 5
sin A = , cos A = .
9 9
Note that the desired value is equivalent to 2 − sin2 B, which is 2 − sin2 (A + C). All that
√ remains is to use the
111 − 4 35
sine addition formula and, after a few minor computations, we obtain a result of . Thus, the answer
72
is 111 + 4 + 35 + 72 = 222 .
Note that the problem has a flaw because cos B < 0 which contradicts with the statement that it’s an acute
triangle. Would be more accurate to state that A and C are smaller than 90. Also note that the identity
cos2 A + cos2 B + cos2 C + 2 cos A cos B cos C = 1 would have easily solved the problem.

§8 Parting Words and Final Problems

So with this, you should be able to solve almost any AIME Problem on trigonometry and its applications. We
hope this document helped you learn a bit about how to use trigonometry in all kinds of contexts, even ones
that aren’t obviously apparent. In addition, we hope that this will boost your geometry skills, as trigonometry
is very commonly used to solve problems. Any suggestion would be extremely helpful, whether it would be
problem suggestions, mistakes we made, or stuff we should explain better. Here’s a final problem set that should
incorporate (almost) every AIME Problem which requires trigonometry (that hasn’t been solved above):
Problem 8.1. Evaluate sin( 7π
6 ). Hints: 104

Problem 8.2. Evaluate tan( −3π

4 ). Hints: 4

Problem 8.3. Solve sin(x) + cos(x) = 0 for x. Hints: 7

Problem 8.4. Solve 2 cos(2x) + 1 = 0 for x. Hints: 34
Problem 8.5 (CMIMC 2018/7). Compute the value of
2017

X 5 + cos kπ
1009
kπ

.
k=0
26 + 10 cos 1009
Hints: 13 5

Problem 8.6 (HMMT Guts 2014/31). Evaluate

X
1007 
kπ
2014
cos .
1007
k=1

Hints: 101 17

Problem 8.7. Consider a rectangle ABCD such that side AB has length n and side BC has length m. A circle
is drawn with center E at the midpoint of side BC such that it is tangent to the diagonal AC. Determine the
radius of this circle in terms of n and m. Hints: 73 106
Problem 8.8. Find the number of intersections of the parabola x2 = 2p(y + p2 ) and the line x cos θ + y sin θ =
p sin θ. Hints: 30 50 3
Problem 8.9. For a 6= b,
a2 sin θ + a cos θ − 1 = 0,
b2 sin θ + b cos θ − 1 = 0.
Let l be the line determined by (a, a2 ) and (b, b2 ). Find the number of intersections of l and the unit circle.
Hints: 14 16 25

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Problem 8.10. Let ABC be a triangle with inradius r and circumradius R. Show that

1. 4 sin A sin B sin C = sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C.

2. if sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C = 2 then ABC is a right triangle.

3. if ABC is a cute then 2 cos A cos B cos C + cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C = −1.

4. [ABC] = 2R2 sin A sin B sin C.

abc
5. a cos A + b cos B + c cos C = 2R .

6. r = 4R sin A2 sin B2 sin C2 .

a+b+c
7. a cos B + b cos C + c cos A = 2 .

Hints: 29

Problem 8.11. Find the dihedral angle between adjacent faces of a:

1. regular tetrahedron,

2. regular octahedron,

3. regular dodecahedron, and

4. regular icosahedron.

Hints: 45

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§A Appendix A: List of Theorems and Definitions

List of Theorems

2.13 Theorem - Trigonometric Properties 9

2.17 Theorem - Bounds of sin θ and cos θ 14

2.21 Theorem - Periods of Trigonometric Functions 15

2.22 Theorem - Even-Odd Identities 15

2.23 Theorem - Pythagorean Identities 15

2.26 Theorem - Addition-Subtraction Identities 17

2.29 Theorem - Double Angle Identities 18

2.33 Theorem - Half Angle Identities 19

2.35 Theorem - Sum to Product Identities 19

2.40 Theorem - Potpourri 20

3.2 Theorem - Complex Number Multiplication and Addition 22

3.6 Theorem - Euler’s Theorem 23

3.8 Theorem - Properties of Complex Numbers 23

3.12 Theorem - De Moivre’s Theorem 23

3.13 Theorem - Complex Form of Trigonometric Functions 23

3.15 Theorem - Roots of Unity 24

3.19 Theorem - Vieta’s Formulas in Roots of Unity 25

3.20 Theorem - Complex Trigonometric Products 25

3.22 Theorem - Triple Angle Trig Theorem 26

4.1 Theorem - Trigonometric Laws 29

4.2 Theorem - Extended Law of Sines 29

4.3 Theorem - Ratio Lemma 30

4.4 Theorem - Trig Ceva 30

4.5 Theorem - Quadratic Formula of Trigonometry 30

4.6 Theorem - Trigonometric Form of Ptolemy’s Theorem 30

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4.21 Theorem - Blanchet’s Theorem 40

4.26 Theorem - Addition of Vectors 41

4.27 Theorem - Multiplying Vectors by Constant 41

4.28 Theorem - Vector Identities 42

4.30 Theorem - Magnitude of Dot Product 42

4.32 Theorem - Magnitude of Cross Product 42

4.33 Theorem - Vectorial Form of Ptolemy’s Theorem 43

4.37 Theorem - Right Hand Rule 44

4.38 Theorem - Triple Scalar Product 44

4.39 Theorem - Triple Vector Product 44

4.40 Theorem - AIME Vectors 45

4.41 Theorem - Properties of Vectors 45

4.43 Theorem - Parameterizations of Conic Sections 46

4.44 Theorem - Polar Form of Conic Sections 46

4.45 Theorem - Trajectory of a Parabola 46

5.1 Theorem - Vector on Vector Projection 49

5.2 Theorem - Area-Sine Formula 49

5.3 Theorem - Volume of a Parallelepiped 49

5.7 Theorem - Unit Normal Vector Formula 50

5.8 Theorem - Dihedral Angle Formula 50

6.1 Theorem - Weierstrauss Substitution 51

6.2 Theorem - Trigonometric Triangle-Angle Condition 51

6.3 Theorem - Triangle-Angle Substitution 51

6.4 Theorem - ab + bc + ca = 1 Substitution 52

6.5 Theorem - a + b + c = abc Substitution 52

6.6 Theorem - a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc = 1 Substitution 52

6.9 Theorem - Trigonometric Inequalities 53

6.10 Theorem - Well-Known Triangle Trigonometric Identities 54

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6.11 Theorem - Well-Known Trigonometric Identities 54

List of Definitions

2.4 Definition - Hypotenuse 6

2.5 Definition - Leg 6

2.6 Definition - Sine 6

2.7 Definition - Cosine 6

2.8 Definition - Tangent 7

2.9 Definition - SOH-CAH-TOA 8

2.10 Definition 8

3.1 Definition - Complex Numbers 22

3.7 Definition - Polar Complex Numbers 23

3.14 Definition - Root of Unity 24

4.25 Definition - Vector 41

4.29 Definition - Dot Product 42

4.31 Definition - Cross Product 42

5.4 Definition - Dihedral Angle 50

5.5 Definition - Normal Vector 50

5.6 Definition - Unit Vector 50

§B Appendix B: Hints
1. Without vectors, simply calculate the lengths of the sides of triangle P QO, where O is the origin. This is easily
done by 3D Pythagorean Theorem. With vectors, calculate the normal vector.
2. Try to factor the given expression. Maybe the form at the end will help you a bit?
p
3. We get y = 1±cos θ . Isn’t that cool?
4. Find tan π4 . What does this have to do with what we want?
πk
5. The value from the last hint is θ = 1009 . Now try to complete the square on part of the denominator (exclude sin2 θ).
If you would like the full solution, look here.
1
6. 2 ab sin C works for triangles - does a similar thing work for quadrilaterals (using the diagonals)?
7. We either have tan x = −1, or cos x = 0. Why?
8. Your answer will come from sector − triangle − triangle. But can you find special properties of these triangles?
9. Try to find 30 − 60 − 90 triangles.

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10. This looks suspiciously like Pythagorean Theorem, and this is in a trigonometry handout. What could this mean?
11. Most of the work is using power of a point. Can you find two points that have the same power? Can you then find
AB > AC and AC?
π
12. Can you evaluate one of them very easily? Also, try to rewrite such that all the cos terms are less than 2.

13. 26 isn’t a nice number. What about 25 + cos2 θ + sin2 θ? What θ will make this good?
14. Subtraction seems nice.
15. This is a rather direct application of complex numbers. I’ll leave you to it, in order to not spoil anything.
16. What is the slope of the line?
πk

1 k
17. Note that cos 1007 = 2 (ω + ω −k ). Now bash with sums. The full solution is located here.
18. Try to graph it and use the Bounds of sin θ and cos θ (specifically sin θ).
19. Consider the cases x > 1, x < 1, and x = 1 all separately. Try to find patterns in the case x > 1.
20. BD is a good candidate for the Law of Cosines.
21. Hey! You know a lot about the properties of sine! Simplify your expression into something manageable. Then
compute using basic trigonometric values.
22. Note that if a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 , this rearranges to 3ab(a + b) = 0. What can you take a and b as? What can you
conclude? You should have 3 cases - just solve all of them!
23. For the first three, substitute them into the Addition-Subtraction Identities, with α = β. The last three immediately
follow from their definitions as reciprocals.
24. Try to substitute x = i instead.
25. The slope was a + b, and we got that from the first hint as − tan θ. Now intersect it with x2 + y 2 = 1.
26. Using the above diagram, we can see that cos(α + β) = EB = CB − CE = CB − AF .
27. Have you considered complex yet? Roots of Unity!
28. Try using the exponential form (ex ). If you want a full proof, look here.
29. All I’ll say is refer to Trigonometric Substitution, and good luck.
30. Find x in terms of y, p, and θ, then substitute into the first equation.
31. Apply the Magnitude of Cross Product theorem.
32. This looks like a partial decomposition problem - there is sin in the denominator so which trig function do you think
of? There are two possible answers.
33.
34. Find cos 2x. What does this tell us about 2x?
35. Consider the first two and last two terms separately. Use the Sum to Product Identities on each of them.
36. As said before, don’t wait for some magic. Heron’s formula does the trick.
37. Try to assume z = a = bi and cross multiply. Separate the real and imaginary parts as well.
38. Try using Bretschneider’s Formula. For those that have given up, I believe the full proof is in here. You can also
search up “the area of a tangential quadrilateral”.
39. Even though things don’t work out as you imagine, use the facts in Potpourri to get a lot of cancellation.
40. Try to simply factor and reduce as much as possible.
41. There’s a lot of symmetry going on, and 101 seems like a random number. What if we tried a simpler case, where
101 was replaced with 2 or 3? The result follows pretty fast from Engineer’s Induction. See if you can prove it for all
n, however.

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42. You may need to use Pitot’s Theorem.

43. The shoelace formula is one of the best ways to find the area.
44. Applying a few basic trigonometric identities will get you far in this question. Don’t think to hard about it, it’s just
relating sin and cos.
45. Just bash with the Dihedral Angle Formula.
46. Try to divide by cos2 θ. It would help, especially to get an equation all in terms of tan θ (use section 3 of my
Polynomials in the AIME Handout to finish the problem).
47. The cos3 is annoying - try to start with Sum to Product Identities on cos 3x + cos 5x. What is the result? How does
it relate to what you have in the problem.
48. It’s begging for trigonometry, but it’s not very obvious how to calculate this. Try to assign arc lengths.
49. Try to use our bounds on sin θ and cos θ instead of rederiving them.
50. Remember that p is a constant. Find y using the quadratic formula.
51. Try to let tan ∠ABC = x. What can you get?
52. You probably know ∠A. Law of Cosines should finish it off.
53. Choosing a nice point can give you the answer, but not the proof. Perhaps trigonometric bashing will help - if a
nicer proof is what you desire, go to the next hint. If you are okay with a little bash, try Ratio Lemma.
54. Just use the Double Angle Identities with α = 12 θ.
55. Find a cubic in terms of sin 18◦ . Can you find an easy root (see my Polynomials in the AIME Handout and section
2)? Note that this root is not sin 18◦ .
56. A non-trigonometric way to attempt this problem is to realize the pattern for equilateral triangles, squares, regular
pentagons, etc. With this knowledge, it may help in a trigonometric proof.
57. Use the formula (Volume of a Parallelepiped) given above.
58. Try to write down as many Law of Sines equations as possible. Can you combine some such that (even though it
looks very contrived) the only term is ∠DBA.
59. I suggest Polar Complex Numbers.
60. It helps if you know Newtons’ Sums (see my Polynomials in the AIME Handout and section 4). Otherwise, use the
same strategy as in the above problem, by finding cos2 x sin2 x.
61. The identity x2 + y 2 = (x + y)2 − 2xy comes in useful, with x = sin t and y = cos t. You can get a system of equations,
and try to solve it.
62. Similar triangles help, and try to use tan ∠BEF .
63. Try to expand and factor. Remember 107 is prime!
64. Use the Law of Cosines and 21 ab sin C to get [ABCD] in terms of a, b, c, d, ∠A, ∠C.
65. For both of the trig functions, write them with a common denominator. Which one seems the easiest to use (maybe
Addition-Subtraction Identities can help)?
π
66. Use the definition to derive the general formula, then plug in 6.

67. Use the Law of Sines (extended version) to find AC and BD of any quadrilateral. Can you finish off with the area
(you can guess - it’s most likely symmetric).
68. Try to let the angle between AB and the x-axis be θ. Use trig functions to find the value of θ and the rest of the
coordinates.
69. Consider the graph below, as well as the domain of a tangent graph.
70. Use that Double Angle Identities to write sin 2θ is in form of sin θ and cos θ. Does this look familiar?

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2πi
71. What section is this again? That’s right use complex numbers! Specifically, ω = e 90 . The solution is available here.

72. Like the last example, look at the unit circle below.
73. Let the circle be tangent to AC at F . What is EF in terms of EC and ∠ACB?
74. I suggest Polar Complex Numbers.
75. Look back at the definitions.
76. There is obviously a pattern between a, b, and c. What happens when we add up the angles?
1
77. Remember, sometimes the substitution y = x + x helps.
78. I suggest to let zk = xk + (mxk + b)i where the equation of line L is y = mx + b. Now solve for m.
79. Use w = a + bi and z = c + di and use the definition.
80. You could fool around with the Law of Sines, but it seems easy enough to just drop perpendiculars.
81. Try to draw in the feet of the perpendiculars as well as the center to the intersection point.
82. Try to factor P (x). Maybe find a few roots?
83. This was added just to make sure the reader understood vectors. Well, do you? Think of how adding vectors works.

84. Try to use the Law of Cosines on 4ADC and 4ABC. Find the length of the median.
85. Don’t look for some smart trig identity - Heron’s formula.
86. Don’t use the diagrams - use the definition of Tangent. Once you get a nasty expression in terms of sin α, sin β, cos α, cos β,
try to divide both the numerator and denominator by cos α cos β.
87. Maybe you can work with something like 2∠DBA? Write a cubic in cos 2∠DBA.
88. You’ll get a quadratic - which you can hopefully solve for sin x + cos x and then solve for sin x cos x. Can you find
sin 2x from the Double Angle Identities? Can this help you find what x is?
89. There are 6 different cases you should have - remember that the Law of Sines (or alernatively drawing radii) will
make your life much easier.
90. Refer to AIME 1995/7 to see the same method used to solve this problem.
91. It typically helps to draw a diagram. Draw one! Can you make inferences about y-coordinates?
92. Look at the unit circles below for a bit of intuition.
93. It’s on similar lines to the previous problem - use Double Angle Identities and Addition-Subtraction Identities to
break down the problem into sin x, cos x.
94. Try relating 36◦ and 54◦ by some of the identities in the Potpourri.
95. Just because the question said to bound these functions does not mean they have a bound. Think about the graphs
of the functions.
96. There’s a fancy construction solution - but use the law of Sines should get you pretty far. Alternatively, Trig Ceva
could work.
97. Try using the Double Angle Identities by multiplying by sin π9 .
98. Rearrange the position of the chords to form a triangle. Then, use trigonometry!
99. Sometimes expanding the sum/difference of angles helps a lot.
100. Like the last example, use the definition to derive the general formula, then plug in 225◦ .
2πi
101. Try roots of unity, with ω = e 2014 .
102. Try to see if a direct application of the roots of unity helps here.

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103. Seems so perfect for the Law of Sines. Find ∠B and ∠C.
104. Find sin π6 . What does this have to do with what we want?
105. To finish, just factor the cubic! It should be a familiar angle.
106. Now calculate ∠ABC in terms of m and n. Use 4ABC.

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 100 Geometry Problems: Bridging the Gap from AIME to USAMO
David Altizio
August 30, 2014

Abstract
This is a collection of one-hundred geometry problems from all around the globe designed for bridging the
gap between computational geometry and proof geometry. Problems start middle-AMC level and go all the way
to early IMO Shortlist level. As there are computational and proof problems mixed in with each other, relative
difficulties may not be exact, so feel free to skip around. Enjoy!1

1. [MAΘ ????] In the figure shown below, circle B is tangent to circle A at X, circle C is tangent to circle A at
Y , and circles B and C are tangent to each other. If AB = 6, AC = 5, and BC = 9, what is AX?

C
X
B
A

2. [AHSME ????] In triangle ABC, AC = CD and ∠CAB − ∠ABC = 30◦ . What is the measure of ∠BAD?

A B

3. [AMC 10A 2004] Square ABCD has side length 2. A semicircle with diameter AB is constructed inside the
square, and the tangent to the semicircle from C intersects side AD at E. What is the length of CE?

D C

E
A B

4. [AMC 10B 2011] Rectangle ABCD has AB = 6 and BC = 3. Point M is chosen on side AB so that
∠AM D = ∠CM D. What is the degree measure of ∠AM D?
1 This is the second version of the PDF. It fixes a few typoes and inaccuracies found in the first version.

1
100 Geometry Problems David Altizio Page 2

5. [AIME 2011] On square ABCD, point E lies on side AD and point F lies on side BC, so that BE = EF =
F D = 30. Find the area of the square.
6. Points A, B, and C are situated in the plane such that ∠ABC = 90◦ . Let D be an arbitrary point on AB,
and let E be the foot of the perpendicular from D to AC. Prove that ∠DBE = ∠DCE.
7. [AMC 10B 2012] Four distinct points are arranged in a plane so that the segments connecting them have
lengths a, a, a, a, 2a, and b. What is the ratio of b to a?
8. [Britain 2010] Let ABC be a triangle with ∠CAB a right angle. The point L lies on the side BC between B
and C. The circle BAL meets the line AC again at M and the circle CAL meets the line AB again at N .
Prove that L, M , and N lie on a straight line.

9. [OMO 2014] Let ABC be a triangle with incenter I and AB = 1400, AC = 1800, BC = 2014. The circle
centered at I passing through A intersects line BC at two points X and Y . Compute the length XY .
10. [India RMO 2014] Let ABC be an isosceles triangle with AB = AC and let Γ denote its circumcircle. A point
D is on arc AB of Γ not containing C. A point E is on arc AC of Γ not containing B. If AD = CE prove
that BE is parallel to AD.

11. A closed planar shape is said to be equiable if the numerical values of its perimeter and area are the same.
For example, a square with side length 4 is equiable since its perimeter and area are both 16. Show that any
closed shape in the plane can be dilated to become equiable. (A dilation is an affine transformation in which
a shape is stretched or shrunk. In other words, if A is a dilated version of B then A is similar to B.)
12. [David Altizio] Triangle AEF is a right triangle with AE = 4 and EF = 3. The triangle is inscribed inside
square ABCD as shown. What is the area of the square?

B E C
F

A D

13. Points A and B are located on circle Γ, and point C is an arbitrary point in the interior of Γ. Extend AC
and BC past C so that they hit Γ at M and N respectively. Let X denote the foot of the perpendicular from
M to BN , and let Y denote the foot of the perpendicular from N to AM . Prove that AB k XY .
14. [AIME 2007] Square ABCD has side length 13, and points E and F are exterior to the square such that
BE = DF = 5 and AE = CF = 12. Find EF 2 .
15. Let Γ be the circumcircle of 4ABC, and let D, E, F be the midpoints of arcs AB, BC, CA respectively. Prove
that DF ⊥ AE.
16. [AIME 1984] In tetrahedron ABCD, edge AB has length 3 cm. The area of face ABC is 15 cm2 and the area
of face ABD is 12 cm2 . These two faces meet each other at a 30◦ angle. Find the volume of the tetrahedron
in cm3 .
17. Let P1 P2 P3 P4 be a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle with diameter of length D, and let X be the intersection
of its diagonals. If P1 P3 ⊥ P2 P4 prove that

D2 = XP12 + XP22 + XP32 + XP42 .

18. [iTest 2008] Two perpendicular planes intersect a sphere in two circles. These circles intersect in two points,
A and B, such that AB = 42. If the radii of the two circles are 54 and 66, find R2 , where R is the radius of
the sphere.
100 Geometry Problems David Altizio Page 3

19. [AIME 2008] In trapezoid ABCD with BC k AD, let BC = 1000 and AD = 2008. Let ∠A = 37◦ , ∠D = 53◦ ,
and M and N be the midpoints of BC and AD, respectively. Find the length M N .
20. [Sharygin 2014] Let ABC be an isosceles triangle with base AB. Line ` touches its circumcircle at point B.
Let CD be a perpendicular from C to `, and AE, BF be the altitudes of ABC. Prove that D, E, F are
collinear.

21. [Purple Comet 2013] Two concentric circles have radii 1 and 4. Six congruent circles form a ring where each
of the six circles is tangent to the two circles adjacent to it as shown. The three lightly shaded circles are
internally tangent to the circle with radius 4 while the three darkly shaded circles√ are externally tangent to
the circle with radius 1. The radius of the six congruent circles can be written k+n m , where k, m, and n are
integers with k and n relatively prime. Find k + m + n.

22. Let A, B, C, and D be points in the plane such that ∠BAC = ∠CBD. Prove that the circumcircle of 4ABC
is tangent to BD.
23. [Britain 1995] Triangle ABC has a right angle at C. The internal bisectors of angles BAC and ABC meet
BC and CA at P and Q respectively. The points M and N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P and Q
to AB. Find angle M CN .
24. Let ABCD be a parallelogram with ∠A obtuse, and let M and N be the feet of the perpendiculars from A
to sides BC and CD. Prove that 4M AN ∼ 4ABC.
25. For a given triangle 4ABC, let H denote its orthocenter and O its circumcenter.

(a) Prove that ∠HAB = ∠OAC.2

(b) Prove that ∠HAO = |∠B − ∠C|.

26. Suppose P, A, B, C, and D are points in the plane such that 4P AB ∼ 4P CD. Prove that 4P AC ∼ 4P BD.
27. [AMC 12A 2012] Circle C1 has its center O lying on circle C2 . The two circles meet at X and Y . Point Z in
the exterior of C1 lies on circle C2 and XZ = 13, OZ = 11, and Y Z = 7. What is the radius of circle C1 ?
28. Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral with no two sides parallel. Lines AD and BC (extended) meet at K, and
AB and CD (extended) meet at M. The angle bisector of ∠DKC intersects CD and AB at points E and F,
respectively; the angle bisector of ∠CM B intersects BC and AD at points G and H, respectively. Prove that
quadrilateral EGF H is a rhombus.

29. [David Altizio] In 4ABC, AB = 13, AC = 14, and BC = 15. Let M denote the midpoint of AC. Point P
is placed on line segment BM such that AP ⊥ P C. Suppose that p, q, and r are positive integers
√
with p and
p q
r relatively prime and q squarefree such that the area of 4AP C can be written in the form r . What is
p + q + r?

30. [All-Russian MO 2013] Acute-angled triangle ABC is inscribed into circle Ω. Lines tangent to Ω at B and C
intersect at P . Points D and E are on AB and AC such that P D and P E are perpendicular to AB and AC
respectively. Prove that the orthocenter of triangle ADE is the midpoint of BC.
2 As a result of this equality condition, lines AH and AO are said to be isogonal conjugates, i.e. reflections across the A-angle bisector.
100 Geometry Problems David Altizio Page 4

31. For an acute triangle 4ABC with orthocenter H, let HA be the foot of the altitude from A to BC, and define
HB and HC similarly. Show that H is the incenter of 4HA HB HC .
32. [AMC 10A 2013] In 4ABC, AB = 86, and AC = 97. A circle with center A and radius AB intersects BC at
points B and X. Moreover BX and CX have integer lengths. What is BC?
33. [APMO 2010] Let ABC be a triangle with ∠BAC 6= 90◦ . Let O be the circumcenter of the triangle ABC
and Γ be the circumcircle of the triangle BOC. Suppose that Γ intersects the line segment AB at P different
from B, and the line segment AC at Q different from C. Let ON be the diameter of the circle Γ. Prove that
the quadrilateral AP N Q is a parallelogram.
34. [AMC 10A 2013] A unit square is rotated 45◦ about its center. What is the area of the region swept out by
the interior of the square?
35. [Canada 1986] A chord ST of constant length slides around a semicircle with diameter AB. M is the midpoint
of ST and P is the foot of the perpendicular from S to AB. Prove that angle SP M is constant for all positions
of ST .
36. [Sharygin 2012] On side AC of triangle ABC an arbitrary point is selected D. The tangent in D to the
circumcircle of triangle BDC meets AB in point C1 ; point A1 is defined similarly. Prove that A1 C1 k AC.
37. [AMC 10B 2013] In triangle ABC, AB = 13, BC = 14, and CA = 15. Distinct points D, E, and F lie on
segments BC, CA, and DE, respectively, such that AD ⊥ BC, DE ⊥ AC, and AF ⊥ BF . The length of
segment DF can be written as m
n , where m and n are relatively prime positive integers. What is m + n?

38. [Mandelbrot] In triangle ABC, AB = 5, AC = 6, and BC = 7. If point X is chosen on BC so that the sum
of the areas of the circumcircles of triangles AXB and AXC is minimized, then determine BX.
39. [Sharygin 2014] Given a rectangle ABCD. Two perpendicular lines pass through point B. One of them meets
segment AD at point K, and the second one meets the extension of side CD at point L. Let F be the common
point of KL and AC. Prove that BF ⊥ KL.
C

40. [AIME Unused] In the figure, ABC is a triangle

and AB = 30 is a diameter of the circle. If AD =
AC/3 and BE = BC/4, then what is the area of D
E
the triangle?
A B

41. [MOSP 1995] An interior point P is chosen in the rectangle ABCD such that ∠AP D + ∠BP C = 180◦ . Find
the sum of the angles ∠DAP and ∠BAP .
42. Let ABC be a triangle and P , Q, R points on the sides AB, BC, and CA respectively. Prove that the circum-
circles of 4AQR, 4BRP , and 4CP Q intersect in a common point. This point is named the Miquel point of
the configuration.
43. [AIME 2013] Let 4P QR be a triangle with ∠P = 75◦ and ∠Q = 60◦ . A regular hexagon ABCDEF with side
length 1 is drawn inside 4P QR so that side AB lies on P Q, side CD lies on QR, and one of the remaining
RP . There are positive integers a, b, c, and d such that the area of 4P QR can be expressed
vertices lies on √
in the form a+bd c , where a and d are relatively prime and c is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find
a + b + c + d.
44. [“Fact 5”] Let Γ be the circumcircle of an arbitrary triangle 4ABC. Furthermore, denote I its incenter and
M the midpoint of minor arc BC.
d Prove that M is the circumcenter of 4BIC.

45. [AIME 2001] In triangle ABC, angles A and B measure 60 degrees and 45 degrees, respectively. The bisector √
of angle A intersects BC at T , and AT = 24. The area of triangle ABC can be written in the form a + b c,
where a, b, and c are positive integers, and c is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find a + b + c.
100 Geometry Problems David Altizio Page 5

46. Let O be the circumcenter of a triangle ABC with AB > AC. Define M as the midpoint of BC, D the foot
of the altitude from A, and E the point on line AO such that BE ⊥ AO. Prove that M D = M E.
47. [India RMO 2008] Let ABC be an acute angled triangle; let D, F be the midpoints of BC, AB respectively.
Let the perpendicular from F to AC and the perpendicular from B to BC meet at N . Prove that N D is
equal in length to the circumradius of 4ABC.
48. [Sharygin 2012] Let ABC be a triangle, and let M be the midpoint of side BC. Point P is the foot of the
altitude from B to the perpendicular bisector of segment AC. Suppose that lines P M and AB intersect at
point Q. Prove that triangle QP B is isosceles.
49. [ELMO SL 2013] Let ABC be a triangle with incenter I. Let U , V and W be the intersections of the angle
bisectors of angles A, B, and C with the incircle, so that V lies between B and I, and similarly with U and
W . Let X, Y , and Z be the points of tangency of the incircle of triangle ABC with BC, AC, and AB,
respectively. Let triangle U V W be the David Yang triangle of ABC and let XY Z be the Scott Wu triangle
of ABC. Prove that the David Yang and Scott Wu triangles of a triangle are congruent if and only if ABC
is equilateral.
50. [AIME 2001] Triangle ABC has AB = 21, AC = 22, and BC = 20. Points D and E are located on AB and
AC, respectively, such that DE is parallel to BC and contains the center of the inscribed circle of triangle
ABC. Then DE = m/n, where m and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n.
51. Inscribe equilateral triangle ABC inside a circle. Pick a point P on arc BC, and let AP intersect BC at Q.
Prove that
1 1 1
= + .
PQ PB PC
52. [Sharygin 2012] Let BM be the median of right-angled triangle ABC(∠B = 90◦ ). The incircle of triangle
ABM touches sides AB, AM in points A1 , A2 ; points C1 , C2 are defined similarly. Prove that lines A1 A2 and
C1 C2 meet on the bisector of angle ABC.
53. [IMSA] Let ω be a circle centered at point O. Lines AB and AC are tangent to ω at points B and C
respectively. On line segment BC a point X is chosen, and ` is the line that passes through X perpendicular
to XO. Let ` intersect AB and BC (or their extensions) at points K and L respectively. Prove that X is the
midpoint of segment KL.
54. [Sharygin 2008] Quadrilateral ABCD is circumscribed around a circle with center I. Prove that the projections
of points B and D to the lines IA and IC lie on a single circle.
55. [HMMT] Let ABCD be an isosceles trapezoid such that AB = 10, BC = 15, CD = 28, and DA = 15. There
is a point E such that 4AED and 4AEB have the same area and such that EC is minimal. Find EC.
56. [Canada 2008] ABCD is a convex quadrilateral for which AB is the longest side. Points M and N are located
on sides AB and BC respectively, so that each of the segments AN and CM divides the quadrilateral into
two parts of equal area. Prove that the segment M N bisects the diagonal BD.
57. [India RMO 2011] Let ABC be an acute angled scalene triangle with circumcentre O and orthocentre H. If
M is the midpoint of BC, then show that AO and HM intersect on the circumcircle of ABC.
58. [Sharygin 2009] Let ABC be a triangle. Points M , N are the projections of B and C to the bisectors of angles
C and B respectively. Prove that line M N intersects sides AC and AB in their points of contact with the
incircle of ABC.
59. [PUMaC 2010] In the following diagram, a semicircle is folded along a chord AN and intersects its diameter
M N at B. Suppose M B : BN = 2 : 3 and M N = 10. If AN = x, find x2 .

M B N
100 Geometry Problems David Altizio Page 6

60. [BAMO 2001] Let JHIZ be a rectangle, and let A and C be points on sides ZI and ZJ, respectively. The
perpendicular from A to CH intersects line HI in X, and the perpendicular from C to AH intersects line
HJ in Y . Prove that X, Y , and Z are collinear.
61. Let ABC be a triangle, and let D be a point on BC. Suppose O1 and O2 are the centers of the circles that
circumscribe 4ABD and 4ACD respectively. Prove that 4AO1 O2 ∼ 4ABC.

62. [Ray Li] In triangle ABC, AB = 36, BC = 40, CA = 44. The bisector of angle A meet BC at D and the
circumcircle at E different from A. Calculate the value of DE 2 .
63. [APMO 2007] Let ABC be an acute angled triangle with ∠BAC = 60◦ and AB > AC. Let I be the incenter
and H the orthocenter of the triangle ABC. Prove that 2∠AHI = 3∠ABC.

64. [Brazil 2008] Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral and r and s the lines obtained reflecting AB with respect
to the internal bisectors of ∠CAD and ∠CBD, respectively. If P is the intersection of r and s and O is the
center of the circumscribed circle of ABCD, prove that OP is perpendicular to CD.
65. [AIME 1986] In 4ABC, AB = 425, BC = 450, and AC = 510. An interior point P is then drawn, and
segments are drawn through P parallel to the sides of the triangle. If these three segments are of an equal
length d, find d.
66. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral, and define P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , P5 , and P6 to be the midpoints of line segments
AB, BC, CD, DA, AC, and BD respectively. Prove that lines P1 P3 , P2 P4 , and P5 P6 all intersect in a single
point.
67. [PUMaC 2013] An equilateral triangle is given. A point lies on the incircle of this triangle. If the smallest two
distances from the√point to the sides of the triangle is 1 and 4, the sidelength of this equilateral triangle can
be expressed as a c b where (a, c) = 1 and b is not divisible by the square of an integer greater than 1. Find
a + b + c.
68. [IberoAmerican 2012] Let ABC be a triangle, P and Q the intersections of the parallel line to BC that passes
through A with the external angle bisectors of angles B and C, respectively. The perpendicular to BP at P
and the perpendicular to CQ at Q meet at R. Let I be the incenter of ABC. Show that AI = AR.
69. [Mexico 2012] Let C1 be a circumference with center O, P a point on it and ` the line tangent to C1 at P .
Consider a point Q on ` different from P , and let C2 be the circumference passing through O, P and Q.
Segment OQ cuts C1 at S and line P S cuts C2 at a point R diffferent from P . If r1 and r2 are the radii of C1
and C2 respectively, Prove
PS r1
= .
SR r2
70. [AMC 12B 2008] Let ABCD be a trapezoid with AB k CD, AB = 11, BC = 5, CD = 19, and DA = 7.
Bisectors of ∠A and ∠D meet at P , and bisectors of ∠B and ∠C meet at Q. What is the area of hexagon
ABQCDP ?
71. [Sharygin 2010] Suppose X and Y are the common points of two circles ω1 and ω2 . The third circle ω is
internally tangent to ω1 and ω2 in P and Q respectively. Segment XY intersects ω in points M and N . Rays
P M and P N intersect ω1 in points A and D; rays QM and QN intersect ω2 in points B and C respectively.
Prove that AB = CD.
72. [Italy TST 2001] The diagonals AC and BD of a convex quadrilateral ABCD intersect at point M . The
bisector of ∠ACD meets the ray BA at K. Given that

M A · M C + M A · CD = M B · M D,

prove that ∠BKC = ∠CDB.

73. [Sharygin 2012] In acute triangle ABC inscribed in circle ω, let A0 be the projection of A onto BC and B 0 , C 0
the projections of A0 onto AC, AB respectively. Line B 0 C 0 intersects ω at X and Y and line AA0 intersects ω
for the second time at D. Prove that A0 is the incenter of triangle XY D.
100 Geometry Problems David Altizio Page 7

74. Let P, Q, R be arbitary points on the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of triangle ABC. Prove that the circum-
centers of triangles AQR, BRP, CP Q form a triangle similar to triangle ABC.
√
75. [Mandelbrot 2008] Triangle ABC has sides of length AB = 41, AC = 5, and BC = 8. Let O be the center
of the circumcircle of 4ABC, and let A0 be the point diametrically opposite A with respect to circle O.
Determine the area of 4A0 BC.

76. [AIME 2008] In triangle ABC, AB = AC = 100, and BC = 56. Circle P has radius 16 and is tangent to AC
and BC. Circle Q is externally tangent to P and is tangent to AB and BC.
√ No point of circle Q lies outside
of 4ABC. The radius of circle Q can be expressed in the form m − n k, where m, n, and k are positive
integers and k is the product of distinct primes. Find m + nk.
77. Let P, A, B, C, D be points in the plane such that 4P AB ∼ 4P CD, and let M and N be the midpoints of
AC and BD respectively. Show that 4P AB ∼ 4P M N ∼ 4P CD.
78. [AIME 2002] In triangle ABC the medians AD and CE have lengths 18 and 27, respectively,
√ and AB = 24.
Extend CE to intersect the circumcircle of ABC at F . The area of triangle AF B is m n, where m and n
are positive integers and n is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find m + n.
79. [USAMO 1999] Let ABCD be an isosceles trapezoid with AB k CD. The inscribed circle ω of triangle BCD
meets CD at E. Let F be a point on the (internal) angle bisector of ∠DAC such that EF ⊥ CD. Let the
circumscribed circle of triangle ACF meet line CD at C and G. Prove that the triangle AF G is isosceles.
80. [IMO 2000] Two circles G1 and G2 intersect at two points M and N . Let AB be the line tangent to these
circles at A and B, respectively, so that M lies closer to AB than N . Let CD be the line parallel to AB and
passing through the point M , with C on G1 and D on G2 . Lines AC and BD meet at E; lines AN and CD
meet at P ; lines BN and CD meet at Q. Show that EP = EQ.
81. [AIME 2008] Let AB be a diameter of circle ω. Extend AB through A to C. Point T lies on ω so that line
CT is tangent to ω. Point P is the foot of the perpendicular from A to line CT . Suppose AB = 18, and let
m denote the maximum possible length of segment BP . Find m2 .
82. [IberoAmerican 2003] Let C and D be two points on the semicircle with diameter AB such that B and C are
on distinct sides of the line AD. Denote by M , N and P the midpoints of AC, BD and CD respectively.
Let OA and OB the circumcentres of the triangles ACP and BDP . Show that the lines OA OB and M N are
parallel.
83. [AIME 2009] In triangle ABC, AB = 10, BC = 14, and CA = 16. Let D be a point in the interior of BC.
Let IB and IC denote the incenters of triangles ABD and ACD, respectively. The circumcircles of triangles
BIB D and CIC D√meet at distinct points P and D. The maximum possible area of 4BP C can be expressed
in the form a − b c, where a, b, and c are positive integers and c is not divisible by the square of any prime.
Find a + b + c.
84. [IMO 2014] Let P and Q be on segment BC of an acute triangle ABC such that ∠P AB = ∠BCA and
∠CAQ = ∠ABC. Let M and N be the points on AP and AQ, respectively, such that P is the midpoint
of AM and Q is the midpoint of AN . Prove that the intersection of BM and CN is on the circumcircle of
triangle ABC.
85. [AIME 2005] Triangle ABC √ has BC = 20. The incircle of the triangle evenly trisects the median AD. If the
area of the triangle is m n where m and n are integers and n is not divisible by the square of a prime, find
m + n.

86. [Japanese Theorem] Let A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 be arbitrary points on circle ω in that order. For each positive integer
1 ≤ k ≤ 4, define Ik to be the incenter of 4Ak Ak+1 Ak+2 , where indeces are taken modulo 4 (so that A5 = A1 ,
etc.). Show that I1 I2 I3 I4 is a rectangle.
87. [Iran 2007] Two circles C, D are exterior tangent to each other at point P . Point A is in the circle C. We
draw 2 tangents AM, AN from A to the circle D (M ,N are the tangency points). The second meet points of
AM, AN with C are E, F , respectively. Prove that P E ME
P F = NF .
100 Geometry Problems David Altizio Page 8

88. [Sharygin 2009] Let CL be a bisector of triangle ABC. Points A1 and B1 are the reflections of A and B in
CL, points A2 and B2 are the reflections of A and B in L. Let O1 and O2 be the circumcenters of triangles
AB1 B2 and BA1 A2 respectively. Prove that angles O1 CA and O2 CB are equal.
89. [IMO 1990] Chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point E inside the circle. Let M be an interior point
←→
of the segment EB. The tangent line at E to the circle through D, E, and M intersects the lines BC and
←→
AC at F and G, respectively. If AM/AB = t, find EG/EF in terms of t.
90. [All-Russian MO 2001] Let the circle ω1 be internally tangent to another circle ω2 at N . Take a point K on
ω1 and draw a tangent AB which intersects ω2 at A and B. Let M be the midpoint of the arc AB which is
on the opposite side of N . Prove that the circumradius of 4KBM does not depend on the choice of K.
91. [USAJMO 2011] Points A, B, C, D, E lie on a circle ω and point P lies outside the circle. The given points
are such that (i) lines P B and P D are tangent to ω, (ii) P , A, C are collinear, and (iii) DE k AC. Prove
that BE bisects AC.
92. [Iran 2011] Let ABC be a triangle and denote its circumcircle centered at O by ω. Points M and N lie on
sides AB and AC respectively. The circumcircle of triangle AM N intersects ω for the second time at Q. Let
P be the intersection point of M N and BC. Prove that P Q is tangent to ω if and only if OM = ON .
93. [ISL 2007] Denote by M midpoint of side BC in an isosceles triangle 4ABC with AC = AB. Take a point
X on a smaller arc M
d A of the circumcircle of triangle 4ABM . Denote by T point inside of angle BM A such
that ∠T M X = 90 and T X = BX. Prove that ∠M T B − ∠CT M does not depend on the choice of X.
94. [Italy TST 2005] The circle Γ and the line ` have no common points. Let AB be the diameter of Γ perpendicular
to `, with B closer to ` than A. An arbitrary point C 6= A, B is chosen on Γ. The line AC intersects ` at D.
The line DE is tangent to Γ at E, with B and E on the same side of AC. Let BE intersect ` at F , and let
AF intersect Γ at G 6= A. Let H be the reflection of G in AB. Show that F, C, and H are collinear.
95. Let Ω be the circumcircle of a triangle ABC. A circle ω with center O passes through B and C and meets
the segments AC and AB again at D and E respectively. Let P 6= A be the point at which the circumcircle
of 4ADE meets Ω. Prove that AP ⊥ P O.
96. [All-Russian MO 2008] A circle ω with center O is tangent to the rays of an angle BAC at B and C. Point
Q is taken inside the angle BAC. Assume that point P on the segment AQ is such that AQ ⊥ OP . The line
OP intersects the circumcircles ω1 and ω2 of triangles BP Q and CP Q again at points M and N . Prove that
OM = ON .
97. [OMO 2014] Let AXY BZ be a convex pentagon inscribed in a circle with diameter AB. The tangent to
the circle at Y intersects lines BX and BZ at L and K, respectively. Suppose that AY bisects ∠LAZ and
AY = Y Z. If the minimum possible value of
 2
AK AL
+
AX AB
m
√
can be written as n + k, where m, n and k are positive integers with gcd(m, n) = 1, compute m+10n+100k.
98. [ISL 2006] Consider a convex pentagon ABCDE such that
∠BAC = ∠CAD = ∠DAE, ∠ABC = ∠ACD = ∠ADE.
Let P be the point of intersection of the lines BD and CE. Prove that the line AP passes through the
midpoint of the side CD.
99. [ISL 2011] Let A1 A2 A3 A4 be a non-cyclic quadrilateral. Let O1 and r1 be the circumcentre and the circum-
radius of the triangle A2 A3 A4 . Define O2 , O3 , O4 and r2 , r3 , r4 in a similar way. Prove that
1 1 1 1
+ + + = 0.
O1 A21 − r12 O2 A22 − r22 O3 A23 − r32 O4 A24 − r42

100. [USAMO 2008] Let ABC be an acute, scalene triangle, and let M , N , and P be the midpoints of BC, CA,
and AB, respectively. Let the perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC intersect ray AM in points D and E
respectively, and let lines BD and CE intersect in point F , inside of triangle ABC. Prove that points A, N ,
F , and P all lie on one circle.
 Practice in AIME Geometry
Zilu Pan and Tristan Pollner
June 24, 2014

1 Introduction
Skill in geometry is essential to success on the AIME and contest math in general. Fortunately, getting
better at geometry (whether computional or proof-based) is really only a question of practice as there is
little prerequisite material. Today we will quickly cover basic theorems and strategies and then focus on
solving AIME problems. In later sessions we will focus more on beginning olympiad (i.e. proof-based)
geometry.

2 The Basics
In roughly decreasing order of importance.
1. Similar Triangles: Two similar triangles have congruent angles and proportional side lengths. Finding
similar triangles is essential in Mathcounts, AMC, AIME, and Olympiads - always be on the lookout.
Prove two triangles are similar using SSS, SAS, or AA.

2. Power of a Point: Let P be a point and ω a circle in the plane. If one line through P intersects ω at
A and B, and another line intersects ω at C and D, (P A)(P B) = (P C)(P D). (Note : This actually
is just similar triangles - make sure you see why.)
3. Length/Area Relations: If K is the area of 4ABC, then

1 1 p abc
K= bh = ab sin C = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) = rs =
2 2 4R

4. Law of Cosines:
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
Think of this if you see angles in a triangle that are multiples of 30◦ .

5. Extended Law of Sines:

a b c
= = = 2R
sin A sin B sin C
6. Criteria for Cyclic Quadrilaterals: It is essential to know certain properties of quadrilaterals that can
be inscribed in circles for olympiads, and it can also be useful on the AIME.
• Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180 degrees.
• Pairs of inscribed angles (such as 6 ABD and 6 ACD) are equal.
• Power of a Point relations hold.

Proving any of these criteria for any quadrilateral proves that the quadrilateral is cyclic and results in
the other properties being true (this can give useful information on many angles).
7. Ptolemy’s Theorem (for cyclic quadrilaterals): If the vertices of a cyclic quadrilateral are A, B, C, D
(in order!), then
(AB)(CD) + (AD)(BC) = (AC)(BD)

8. Stewart’s Theorem : A man and his dad put a bomb in the sink: man + dad = bmb + cnc. This is
essentially law of cosines twice (why?), but in a very nice format.

1
 Epsilon Summer Series Class 1

9. Brahmagupta’s Formula: For a cyclic quadrilateral with sides of length a, b, c, d, semiperimeter s, and
area K p
K = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)
This is a generalization of Heron’s formula.
10. Mass Points or Barycentric Coordinates (also called areal coordinates): We will not cover either today
due to time, but I suggest you look into these if you have time over the summer. I prefer the latter as
it is more general and can apply to olympiads.
With this you have the prerequisite knowledge to solve any AIME geometry problem, up to #15. Of
course, this is easier said than done. It is important that you practice as much as possible, and know some
general guidelines.

3 Strategies
1. Draw an accurate diagram. This is perhaps the most important strategy out of all presented. On the
AIME you have 3 hours, so make sure to bring a ruler and compass and draw full-scale diagrams using
the entire page. Multiple colors can also help on complicated diagrams.
2. Don’t stare. When starting a geometry problem, it is best to dive right into it. Assign variables and
draw lines - don’t just hope something will pop out.

3. ”Bash” moderately. Most AIME problems will have a nice solution, but this is not always the case.
I reccomend you only ”bash” if you see a clear path to the solution that will take 20 minutes or less.
Coordinates are rarely useful, but there have been a few cases where they have killed a problem. Clues
to look at trig are angles that are multiples of 15◦ . The important thing to remember here is to not
bash stupidly.

4. Use all the information in the problem statement. If you have partial progress, look which length or
part of the configuration has not been used yet, and then incorporate it.
5. For the somewhat rare 3-d problems, look at relevant cross-sections. For hard problems, you will have
to take more than one.

6. If you have parallel lines, look for similar triangles. If you don’t have parallel lines, think about adding
some.
7. Rarely, the committee will propose a problem that is more general than it needs to be. For example,
the problem might be about any parallelogram but there is nothing that prevents it from being a simple
square. If the problem is of this type, you may assume a less general but simpler configuration, which
can greatly simplify the solution. Just be careful that with this ”assuming” you do not contradict the
problem statement.

2
 Epsilon Summer Series Class 1

4 Problems
Point values are given after the problem depending on their placement on AIME. The AIME writers are not
perfect however, and some later problems are somewhat simple while some earlier problems have proven to
be much harder than expected (#4).

1. On square ABCD, point E lies on side AD and point F lies on side BC, so that BE = EF = F D = 30.
Find the area of square ABCD. [2]
2. Square AIM E has sides of length 10 units. Isosceles triangle GEM has base EM , and the area
common to triangle GEM and square AIM E is 80 square units. Find the length of the altitude to
EM in 4GEM . [2]

3. A circle with diameter P Q of length 10 is internally tangent at P to a circle of radius 20. Square
ABCD is constructed with A and B on the larger circle, CD tangent at Q to the smaller √ circle, and
the smaller circle outside ABCD. The length of AB can be written in the form m + n, where m
and n are integers. Find m + n. [2]
4. In triangle ABC, AB = 125, AC = 117, and BC = 120. The angle bisector of angle A intersects BC
at point L, and the angle bisector of angle B intersects AC at point K. Let M and N be the feet of
the perpendiculars from C to BK and AL, respectively. Find M N . [4]
5. One base of a trapezoid is 100 units longer than the other base. The segment that joins the midpoints
of the legs divides the trapezoid into two regions whose areas are in the ratio 2 : 3. Find the sum of
the lengths of the two bases. [6]

6. Circles C1 and C2 are externally tangent, and they are both internally tangent to circle C3 . The radii
of C1 and C2 are 4 and 10, respectively, and the centers of the three circles are all collinear. A chord
√
of C3 is also a common external tangent of C1 and C2 . Given that the length of the chord is mp n
where m, n, and p are positive integers, m and p are relatively prime, and n is not divisible by the
square of any prime, find m + n + p. [8]

7. A paper equilateral triangle ABC has side length 12. The paper triangle is folded so that vertex A
touches a point on side BC a distance 9 from √
point B. The length of the line segment along which
m p
the triangle is folded can be written as n , where m, n, and p are positive integers, m and n are
relatively prime, and p is not divisible by the square of any prime. Find m + n + p. [9]

8. Let ABCDEF be a regular hexagon. Let G, H, I, J, K, and L be the midpoints of sides AB,
BC, CD, DE, EF , and AF , respectively. The segments AH, BI, CJ, DK, EL, and F G bound a
smaller regular hexagon. Let the ratio of the area of the smaller hexagon to the area of ABCDEF be
expressed as a fraction m
n where m and n are relatively prime positive integers. Find m + n. [9]

9. Let 4P QR be a triangle with 6 P = 75◦ and 6 Q = 60◦ . A regular hexagon ABCDEF with side
length 1 is drawn inside 4P QR so that side AB lies on P Q, side CD lies on QR, and one of the
remaining vertices lies on RP . There
√
are positive integers a, b, c, and d such that the area of 4P QR
a+b c
can be expressed in the form d , where a and d are relatively prime, and c is not divisible by the
square of any prime. Find a + b + c + d. [12]

10. In 4ABC with AB = 12, BC = 13, and AC = 15, let M be a point on AC such that the incircles
of 4ABM and 4BCM have equal radii. Let p and q be positive relatively prime integers such that
AM p
CM = q . Find p + q. [15]