Unit 4

Cellular Respiration

Chemical process

Release of energy

From energy-rich fuel

In present of O2

H 2O & CO2 as waste products

Breathing / Ventilation

Mechanical process

Bring source O2

In contact with surface for gaseous exchange

Taking oxygen from lungs and releasing carbon dioxide to lungs

Gaseous exchange

Physical process

Takes place by means of diffusion

Exchange of O2 & CO2

Between lungs & blood

Blood & tissue

 Without oxygen
- cells cannot provide energy required for
life
 Oxygen
- cannot be stored
- need continuous oxygen supply
 Carbon dioxide
- by-product of cellular respiration
- if accumulates in cell
- damage
 Oxygen
- from external atmosphere
- passes through branching network of
tubes
- each tube ends in thin-walled air sac
- alveolus
- surrounded by blood capillaries
- O2 diffuse into capillaries
- carried to cells
 Carbon dioxide
- diffuse from the cells into the blood
capillaries
- surrounding the alveoli
- diffuses into the alveoli
- is breath out of lungs to outside
 Must be thin
 Must be moist
 Must be large in relation to size of body
 Must be well protected
 Gas exchange is enhanced by transport/
blood system
 Gas exchange also enhanced by presence of
ventilation/ breathing mechanism
 Nr of air sacs
- alveoli
- in lungs
- provides large surface area
- walls consist of single layer
- thin-walled
- flattened sqamous epithelial cells
 Lining of alveoli
- kept moist
- thin film of moisture
 Alveoli
- rich supply of capillaries
- efficient transport system
 Efficient breathing system
- muscles and ribs
 Thoracic cage
- bones and muscles
- protects lungs
 Nostrils and nasal passages
- 2 nostrils lead into nasal cavity
- nasal cavity
- separated from each other
- vertical septum
- 3 turbinate bones
- spongy
- divide nasal passage into 3
passages
 Nostrils
- lined with hair
- remove dust from inhaled air
 Nasal passages
- lined with moist columnar epithelium
-very sensitive to any touch
- cause strong sneeze reflex
- get rid of solid irritants
- walls – many blood capillaries
- dust & other particles
- trapped by mucous
- secreted by columnar epithelium
 Air move from nasal passage to
- pharynx ( throat passage)
- trachea (windpipe)
 Pharynx
- leads to esophagus
- crumbs & liquids
 Opening of trachea - glottis
– closed with valve
- epiglottis
- very effective
- choke
- when swallow
 in cartilaginous voice box
- are 2 bands of elastic cartilage
separated by slit
- vibrate when air flows over them
- controlling volume of air
- sound of different tones & loudness
can be produced
- sounds shaped by – tongue
- lips
- teeth
- throat
- inflammation – cause swelling
- prevents them
moving freely
 lined with mucous membrane
 ciliated epithelium
 mucous membrane trapped dust & other
particles
 cilia expel mucous by
 wave-like movement to pharynx
 where it is swallowed
 all particles go stomach
 any pathogens will be killed
 Trachea wall
-involuntary muscles
- narrow or widen tube
- reason some people can’t breath
- tense / asthmatic attack (asthma pump)
 Held open by
- C-shaped cartilage rings
- Openings to back
- Allows esophagus(gullet) to expand
- As food moves down
- Without putting 2 much pressure on
trachea
 Trachea – divide into L & R bronchus
- lead to L & R lungs respectively
 - Bronchi – lined mucous membrane
- have cartilage rings keep them
open
- cartilage rings – circular
- no pressure
- Inside lungs bronchus
– divides into bronchioli
- initially – 3 to R lung
- 2 to L lung
 divides further
 cartilage support disappears gradually
 each bronchiolus
– lead to narrower alveolar tubes
- end in small lung
sacs (alveoli)
 External
 2 lungs
 Situated in thoracic cavity
 Space between 2 lungs – mediastinum
- where the found
 spongy
 reddish-pink in colour
 enclosed by ║membrane – pleura
 secretes fluid between 2 layers
- pleural fluid decrease friction during
breathing
 R lung slightly shorter
- wider then L lung
 R lung consists of 3 lobes
 L lung has 2 lobes
 Bottom part lung
- rest on diaphragm
 dome-shaped muscular plate
 separates thoracic cavity from abdominal
cavity
 slightly pushed up on R hand side by liver
 Alveolar tubes- end in group of all lung sacs
- alveoli -
- Group alveoli - infundibulum
- Walls of alveolus
– consist single layer of
squamous epithelium
- forms thin surface
- gaseous exchange takes place
 shaped around infundibulum
- like a basket
- brings each alveolus into contact
with transport medium of gases
- walls capillary blood vessels
- consist single layer
squamous epithelium
- air in lungs
- separated from blood in blood vessels
- thin layer consisting 2 flat cells only
 The pulmonary artery enters lungs from the
heart
 Finally
- gives rise to capillaries
- around walls of alveoli
 Capillaries later unite & join
- form pulmonary vein
- leaves lungs & enters
 Lungs receive – deoxygenated blood
- from R ventricle of
- via pulmonary artery
- with branch of each lung
 Pulmonary arteries
↓
arteries
↓
arterioles
↓
capillary network around alveoli
↓
gaseous exchange take place
 Capillary blood vessels
- unite from venules
- ↑ thicker veins
 Oxygenated blood
- flows to L-atrium of
- via pulmonary vein
 Breathing Muscles
- NB muscles used inhalation
- diaphragm
- external and internal intercostal muscles
- contract during inhalation – active
process
- abdominal muscle
 Exhalation – passive process
- entails relaxation
- diaphragm & external intercostal muscles
- sometime expel air with force
( cough/laugh)
- abdominal & internal intercostal muscles
contract
- force exhalation – active process
 Air sucked into lungs
 Inter-pleural pressure
- lower than air pressure outside body
 Achieved as follow
- external intercostal muscles
contract
- lift ribcage up to outside
- same time diaphragm contracts
- become flatter
- thoracic cavity enlarge
- Inter-pleural pressure decrease
-air sucked into lungs via air passage
 Lungs are elastic
- when filled with air
- expand to fill enlarged chest cavity
 Increasing Inter-pleural pressure
 Force air from lungs
 External intercostal muscles relaxed
 Ribcage return to original position
 Pressure exerted on lungs
 Diaphragm relaxes
 Becomes convex again
 Volume of thoracic cavity ↓
 Inter-pleural pressure ↑
 Air forced out through air passages
 Contraction of abdominal muscles
 Intestines are pushed upwards against
diaphragm
 Diaphragm pushed upwards even more
 Intercostal muscles contract to
 Bring ribs even closer to one another
 Exert more pressure on lungs
 Air forced out of lungs
 Assisted by circulatory system
 Oxygen
- mainly in form of oxyhemoglobin (98%)
- a small proportion dissolved in blood
plasma (1,5%)
 Carbon dioxide
- mainly as bicarbonate ions (70%)
- as carbaminohaemoglobin (23%)
- dissolved in the blood plasma (7%)
 During inhalation
- alveolus has ↑[O2] and ↓[ CO2]
- blood capillaries around alveolus
- ↓[O2] and ↑[ CO2]
 Oxygen dissolves in moisture in wall of
alveolus
 Gas diffuse into blood capillary
- thin single layer endothelium
 Oxygen picked up by haemoglobin
- transported by blood
 Carbon dioxide
- from blood capillary
- diffuses in opposite direction into
alveolus
 External gaseous exchange
 Internal gaseous exchange
 Blood arrive at tissue via arteries
- ↑[O2] and ↓[ CO2]
 Cells of the tissues
- ↓[O2] and ↑[ CO2]
 Oxyhaemoglobin spilts into
- oxygen & haemoglobin
 Oxygen diffuse through capillary walls
- into tissue fluid
- then into the cells

 Carbon dioxide
- diffuse from cells
- into tissue fluid
- into blood capillaries
 Is in the medulla oblongata
 Where the breathing tempo is determined
 O2 need not always the same
 More active – higher E needs
- leads to faster breathing
- get O2 to cell for cellular
respiration
 Breathing reflex action – no real control over
tempo
- how deeply you inhale
 Body E needs ↑
- exercise done
- tempo of cellular respiration ↑
- to release more E
- muscle cells needs more O2
 Respiration tempo ↑
- more CO2 is release in muscles
- CO2 dissolves in water form carbonic
acid
 CO2 levels in blood affect the pH of blood
- have affect on metabolic processes
 CO2
- is one of the end products of cellular
respiration
- dissolves in water forming carbonic acid
- more carbon dioxide in the blood
- make more acidic
 Change in pH influence enzymes activity
 High concentration of CO2
- lead to formation of carbonic acid
- pH of the blood drop
- become more acidic
 Chemoreceptors in carotid artery
- are stimulated by drop in pH
 Impulses are sent to medulla oblongata
 Breathing and heart muscles are target
 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
- increasing rate and depth of breathing
 Heart rate increases
 More CO2 moves to the lungs to be exhaled
- blood CO2 levels return to normal
 Homeostasis is maintained