WASTE DISPOSAL AND MANAGEMENT

Waste has been a major environmental issue everywhere since the industrial revolution. Besides
the waste we create at home, schools and other public places, there are also those from hospitals,
industries, farms and other sources. Humans rely so much on material things and they all (almost)
end up as waste.
Definition of waste (trash, garbage, rubbish, refuse)
Wastes are items we (individuals, offices, schools, industries, hospitals) don’t need and discard.
Sometimes there are things we have that the law requires us to discard because they can be harmful.
Waste comes in infinite sizes—some can be as small as an old toothbrush, or as large as the body
of a school bus.
Everyone creates waste, although some people are very environmentally conscious and create very
little. Likewise, some countries do a very good job creating less waste and managing the rest.
Others are pretty horrible and have created huge environmental problems for the people and
animals living there.

All over the world, communities handle their waste or trash differently. Some common methods
of managing their waste include landfilling, recycling and composting. Other communities
strongly embark on waste reduction and litter prevention/control aimed at reducing the production
of waste in the first place. Some communities also engage in waste-to-energy plants and hazardous
waste disposal programmes.

Types of waste
Generally, waste could be liquid or solid but both of them could be hazardous. Liquid and solid
waste types can also be grouped into organic, re-usable and recyclable waste.
Liquid type: Waste can come in non-solid form. Some solid waste can also be converted to a
liquid waste form for disposal. It includes point source and non-point source discharges such as
storm water and wastewater. Examples of liquid waste include wash water from homes (sullage),
liquids used for cleaning in industries and waste detergents.

Solid type: Predominantly, this is any garbage, refuse or rubbish that we produce in our homes
and other places. These include old car tires, old newspapers, broken furniture and even food
waste. They may include any waste that is non-liquid.
Hazardous type: Hazardous or harmful waste are those that potentially threaten public health or
the environment. Such waste could be inflammable (can easily catch fire), reactive (can easily
explode), corrosive (can easily eat through metal) or toxic (poisonous to human and animals). In
many countries, it is required by law to involve the appropriate authority to supervise the disposal
of such hazardous waste. Examples include fire extinguishers, old propane tanks, pesticides,
mercury-containing equipment (e.g, thermostats) and lamps (e.g. fluorescent bulbs) and batteries.

Organic type: Organic waste comes from plants or animals sources. Commonly, they include
food waste, fruit and vegetable peels, flower trimmings and even goat dung or dog poop are
classified as organic waste. They are biodegradable (this means they are easily broken down by
other organisms over time and turned into manure). Many people turn their organic waste into
compost and use them in their gardens.

Recyclable type: Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new, useful products. This
is done to reduce the use of raw materials that would have been used. Waste that can be potentially
recycled is termed "Recyclable waste". Aluminium products (like soda, milk and tomato cans),
Plastics (grocery shopping bags, plastic bottles), Glass products (like wine and beer bottles, broken
glass), Paper products (used envelopes, newspapers and magazines, cardboard boxes) can be
recycled and fall into this category.

Sources of waste
Municipal sources of waste: This includes trash or garbage from households, schools, offices,
market places, restaurants and other public places. They include everyday items like food debris,
used plastic bags, soda cans and plastic water bottles, broken furniture, grass clippings, product
packaging, broken home appliances and clothing.
Medical/Clinical sources of waste: Medical/clinical waste normally refers to waste produced
from health care facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, surgical theatres, veterinary hospitals and
laboratories. They tend to be classified as hazardous waste rather than general waste. Items in this
group include surgical items, pharmaceuticals, blood, body parts; wound dressing materials,
needles and syringes.

Agricultural sources of waste: Typically, this is waste generated by agricultural activities. These
include horticulture, fruit growing, seed growing, livestock breeding, market gardens and seedling
nurseries. Waste items in this group include empty pesticide containers, old silage wrap, out of
date medicines and wormers, used tires, surplus milk, cocoa pods and corn husks.

End-of-life Automobiles: When cars are all old and not working again, where do they end up?
Many people just leave them to rust in the fields, but there is a better way to deal with them. In
many cities, these vehicles are sent to the plant, where all the removable parts are taken out for
recycling. The rest is flattened up and shredded into pieces for recycling. The last bit that cannot
be used again is sent to a landfill.

Industrial sources of waste: Since the industrial revolution, the rise in the number of industries
manufacturing glass, leather, textile, food, electronics, plastic and metal products has significantly
contributed to waste production. If you take a look at the things in your home, every item there
was probably manufactured and possibly, waste would be produced as a result.

Construction/demolition sources of waste: Construction waste is that resulting from the

construction of roads and building. Sometimes old buildings and structures are pulled down
(demolished) to make space for new ones. This is particularly common in old cities that are
modernizing. This is called demolition waste. These waste items include concrete debris, wood,
earth, huge package boxes and plastics from the building materials and so on.

Electronic sources of waste: This is waste from electronic and electrical devices. Think of DVD
and music players, TV, Telephones, computers, vacuum cleaners and all the other electrical stuff
in your home. These are also called e-waste, e-scrap, or waste electrical and electronic equipment
(WEEE). Some e-waste (like TV) contains lead, mercury, cadmium, and brominated flame
retardants. These are harmful to humans and the environment. It is therefore important that the
right authorities ensure the proper disposal of such waste.

Waste Disposal and Management

Waste management simply means the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and
monitoring of waste materials to minimize its' consequences on humans and environment. There
are several methods of managing all the various types of waste. Some of these methods cause
additional harm to the environment, but not doing anything is not an option.
Incineration method of waste management: This simply means burning waste. This method is
common in countries with limited landfill space. Incineration chambers can be small for domestic
use, but there are large ones for municipal use as well. It is great for treating waste with
contamination (like those from hospitals) and hazardous waste from factories, but the method
produces too much carbon dioxide (see our air pollution lesson). Modern incineration processes
are more efficient and release less dioxin than home fireplaces and backyard barbecues. This
method is very common in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. This method is effective, but
expensive.

Controlled Tipping or Sanitary Landfills as waste disposal: Generally, this term means a large
piece of land away from living places where all the waste from a town is deposited. Landfilling
involves a whole lot of technicalities. Proper landfill management involves sorting out all the waste
(waste separation), and sending only the waste that cannot be recycled and composted to the site.
Proper landfills are also lined at the bottom to minimize the leakage of soil pollutants and other
toxins from getting into the water table. This method is effective, but expensive and difficult.

In many towns, sorting is not done, and all the waste (paper, food, diapers, glass) is mixed up and
deposited. That is a problem because, glass, and plastics take thousands of years to decompose.
Additionally, the landfills soon become full, smelly and unsafe for the environment.

Qualities of a Sanitary Landfill

The following factors must be considered for an environmental friendly sanitary landfill site
1. Distance from Local Dwellings
It is highly paramount that a landfill should be sited far away from residential and commercial
centers. Litter and obnoxious smells from the top of the landfill might be offensive and a source
of nuisance to local residents if sited close to local dwellings. Again, in cases where landfill
sites are sited at an acceptable distance from human dwellings, precautionary measures have
to be adopted by erecting litter fences that will inevitably avert the problem of windborne
material while good operational practices will reduce odour.
2. Natural Boundaries
Trees and rivers if situated very close to a landfill site can adequately serve as natural
boundaries as they can be utilized to improve security and minimize the amount of fencing
needed. This is an important factor as fencing is a major cost item in the development of many
landfill sites.
3. Capacity and life span.
 It is very essential to calculate the capacity of the landfill site and the expected waste input
with a view to determining the approximate life span of a proposed landfill site. It is not
economically efficient to develop small sites that cannot stand the test of time.
4. Cover Material.
A landfill site that is very close to the source of cover material will ultimately help reduce
operational cost.
5. Access roads
Access road to the landfill site should be wide enough with a view to accepting the largest and
widest vehicle that will be making use of the site. The access roads must be thoroughly
constructed to withstand the wear and tear which might set in due to heavy vehicular
movement. The roads should equally accommodate good visibility onto any adjourning
highway. It should be free of obstruction such as overhead cables that may lead to occupational
hazards and accidents.
6. Public Utilities
A sanitary landfill site must be provided with all the basic facilities necessary for maintaining
satisfactory personal hygiene by the workers. It is therefore advantageous if the site is not too
far away from main electricity and water services. Toilets, cloakrooms and bathrooms must be
provided on the site.
7. Drainage
Accumulation of improperly disposed waste water or stagnant rain water around the site may
become favourable breeding medium for mosquitoes. It is therefore important that surface
water cut-off drains are constructed around the site area.

Waste Management
As long as humans exist, there will be waste generation. That means this discussion is not going
away soon, even though with technology, there are bound to be changes in the way we deal with
waste. For now, waste management is approached in three main ways, and each of these depends
on the community in question.
Source reduction
This involves ways that prevent the creation of waste in the first place. Individuals, communities,
businesses and industries all have a role to play here. The benefits are immense and far outweigh
the benefits of other waste management methods. Environmentally, we save energy because less
energy is needed to produce, retrieve, process, and transport the stuff that end up as waste, reducing
our greenhouse emissions. Additionally, there are fewer emissions from combustion facilities, and
also less methane from landfills. Most importantly, many of the raw materials needed to produce
things such as paper and plastic come from trees. Source reduction ensures that natural resources
are preserved. Economically, we save money by reducing waste collection, transportation and
disposal costs.
Recycle
After source reduction, waste recycling is usually considered. This involves the collection, sorting,
grading and processing of recyclable materials into new materials again. For example, old
newspapers can be processed into newsprint (the kind of paper used in printing newspapers) and
used again. Recyclable materials include paper, plastics, glass and aluminium. These materials
tend to lose their quality if they go through recycling too many times. The environmental benefits
of source reduction also apply to recycling. Additionally, recycling plants offer jobs and income
to the people in the communities.
Disposal
This is the toughest part of waste management. It is the part that often poses and brings
environmental problems. When waste is not recycled, they may be sent to the landfills, incinerated,
combusted to energy or composted. These are all major processes with consequences if they are
not done properly, and they also involve some serious equipment. This means it is usually funded
or operated by the state or government. Proper waste management is not cheap, but it is something
we all have to get involved with. The effects of not getting involved can be catastrophic to our
health and environment.

Waste Recovery
This is the reclaiming of ‘thrash’ materials that have for so long been considered as waste and
destined to the landfill. It involves collecting, sorting (and sometimes grading) and processing of
waste into compost or new raw materials that are used in manufacturing new products. The most
used waste recovery programmes involved energy recovery, recycling and composting.
Energy recovery involves the conversion of non-recyclable waste into heat, by gasification,
combustion or otherwise and further converted into usable energy. This process is also called
Waste-To-Energy (WTE). In 2011, about 29 million tons of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) (12%)
were combusted for energy use, generating over 2700 Megawatts of power per year.

Recycling involves the conversion of waste or used materials such as glass, metals, paper,
aluminium, plastics and others into their raw material state to use again. It has become a very
important function of many waste management and environmental organizations recently, because
it has helped reduce our dependence on fresh raw materials, created a lot of jobs and saved a huge
chunk of waste that would have ended up in landfills.

Composting
Composting recovery process involves the conversion of organic waste (food waste), with the help
of bacteria, moisture and aeration. Composting ends up in compost, a high-nutrient soil type that
is used to fortify farm soils. Heat can be extracted from large composting units, which is an added
bonus to the facility. Composting is being developed to become an attractive and acceptable
method of waste disposal in Nigeria. Large soil composting had been carried out in Kano and
Kaduna in the early 1940s. Plans are on the way to encourage composting as the bulk of the
Nigerian refuse is organic. As a matter of fact, the end product which is compost/manure can be
of immense use to both small and large scale farmers.

Over the past decade, education, information and public engagement, especially in developed
countries, have yielded some interesting results. In 1996, 27% of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
was recovered in the USA, exceeding the national goal of 25% set by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). “In 2012, Americans generated about 251 million tons of trash. They
recycled and composted almost 87 million tons of these materials, equivalent to a 34.5 percentage
recycling rate. On average, Americans recycle and compost 1.51 pounds out of their individual
waste generation rate of 4.38 pounds per person per day.

In spite of this achievement, there is still a lot of usable waste that is not recovered in the USA and
abroad. In Europe, Norway leads the way in the Waste-To-Energy business, with many countries
in the region exporting their waste to feed its plants. Germany and Sweden follow with the
importation of waste. "At the moment, the city of Oslo can take 410,000 tonnes of waste a year as
they import 45,000 tonnes from the UK. Europe as a whole currently dumps 150m tonnes of waste
in landfills every year, so there is clearly great potential in using waste for energy.
The residue from WTE is ash, which is sent to the landfill. However, waste recovery is not entirely
a cheap technology.

Anaerobic digestion
This is a collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in
the absence of oxygen. The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or
to produce fuels. Much of the fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products,
as well as home fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion occurs naturally in
some soils and in lake and oceanic basin sediments, where it is usually referred to as "anaerobic
activity". This is the source of marsh gas methane as discovered by Alessandro Volta in 1776.
The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials. Insoluble organic
polymers, such as carbohydrates, are broken down to soluble derivatives that become available for
other bacteria. Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids. These bacteria convert these resulting organic
acids into acetic acid, along with additional ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.
Finally, methanogens convert these products to methane and carbon dioxide. The methanogenic
archaea populations play an indispensable role in anaerobic wastewater treatments.
Anaerobic digestion is used as part of the process to treat biodegradable waste and sewage sludge.
As part of an integrated waste management system, anaerobic digestion reduces the emission
of landfill gas into the atmosphere. Anaerobic digesters can also be fed with purpose-grown energy
crops, such as maize. Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a source of renewable energy. The
process produces a biogas, consisting of methane, carbon dioxide, and traces of other
‘contaminant’ gases. This biogas can be used directly as fuel, in combined heat and power gas
engines] or upgraded to natural gas-quality bio-methane. The nutrient-rich digestate (slurry) also
produced can be used as fertilizer.
WATER TREATMENT
The objective of water treatment is to produce wholesome water that meets the statutory
requirements and is microbiologically and chemically safe for consumption, is not corrosive
towards materials in contact with water and is aesthetically acceptable. The range of treatment
processes includes clarification and sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. Depending on the
source and nature of the water, one or more of these processes can be used. Whilst each of the
treatment processes is able to reduce the numbers of particular micro-organisms, no process can
ever ensure their complete removal. Disinfection (usually by chlorination) is the final safeguard
against water-borne microbial contamination. When chlorine is used, the dose should be selected
so that the chemical demand of the water is satisfied and that an adequate contact time is achieved
before water is supplied to consumers. Microorganisms differ in their susceptibility to chlorine (in
decreasing order of resistance: protozoan cysts, bacterial spores, enteric viruses and enteric
bacteria). However, the combination of chlorine concentration and contact time necessary for
inactivation of enteric viruses and pathogenic bacteria can be achieved by a well-managed water
treatment works.
TREATMENT PROCESSES
Storage
The storage of water in reservoirs creates favourable conditions for the self-purification of the
stored water, but may also cause undesirable changes in water quality. The benefits of storage
include the provision of a continuous supply of water, reduction in turbidity, reduction in
pathogens through the action of sunlight and sedimentation, dilution of undesirable substances
that may accidentally enter the intake, and oxidation of impurities. It also provides a buffer
should pollution occur in the river.

Pre-sedimentation
Highly turbid surface water may require pre-sedimentation before further treatment.
Pre-sedimentation basins are constructed in excavated ground or of steel or concrete. Such basins
may be preceded by equipment for the addition of chemicals to provide partial coagulation
during periods when the water is too turbid to clarify by sedimentation alone.

Pre-chlorination
Pre-chlorination to breakpoint has been widely used as an alternative to storage for water derived
from lowland rivers and is also used when stored water contains much planktonic life. Its purpose
is to reduce counts of faecal bacteria and pathogens, destroy animal life and algae, and oxidize
ammoniacal nitrogen, iron, and manganese, thereby assisting in their removal. The combined and
free chlorine which remains effectively discourages microbial activities, such as
protozoal predation and nitrification, as well as microbial growth during subsequent filtration.
When used to disinfect raw water, the oxidative effect of chlorine and even more of ozone will
result in the partial conversion of total organic carbon into biodegradable organic carbon which, if
not removed by biological activity during treatment (e.g. during slow sand or granular activated
carbon filtration), can result in the growth of nuisance organisms during distribution. It
is important to balance the maintenance of the microbiological safety of drinking-water against
possible hazards associated with the formation of such disinfection by-products.

Coagulation and flocculation

To remove particulate matter, a water-treatment plant will generally include equipment for
coagulation and flocculation, followed by sedimentation and filtration. Coagulation involves the
addition of chemicals (e.g. aluminium sulfate, ferric sulfate) to neutralize the charges on particles
and facilitate their accumulation during the slow mixing provided in the flocculation step. Flocs
thus formed co-precipitate, adsorb and entrap natural colour and mineral particles, and can bring
about major reductions in counts of protozoa, faecal bacteria, pathogens, and viruses.

Sedimentation or flotation
The purpose of sedimentation is to permit settleable flocs to be deposited and thus reduce the
concentration of suspended solids that must be removed by filters. Flotation is an alternative to
sedimentation, and has advantages when the amount of floc is small. The factors that influence
sedimentation include the size, shape, and weight of the floc, viscosity and hence the temperature
of the water, the detention time, the number, depth, and areas of the basins, the surface overflow
rate, the velocity of flow, and the inlet and outlet design.

Rapid filtration
Typically, rapid sand filters consist of 0.4-1.2 m of sand, usually of an effective size of 0.5-1.0
mm, supported by gravel and underdrains. In recent years, single-medium filters have often been
replaced by dual-medium or multimedia ones. During filtration, residual particles of floc not
removed by sedimentation are trapped in the interstices of the bed, and may induce further
flocculation of particles. A limited amount of biological activity may also occur, if it is not
suppressed by pre-chlorination or by high flow rates. Both sand and mixed-media filters are
normally cleaned by reversal of the flow through the bed (backwashing).

Slow sand filtration

Typically, slow sand filters consist of 0.5-1.5 m of silica sand with an effective size of 0.3-0.6 mm.
The upper layer of fine sand is supported on gravel and a system of underdrains. Slow sand
filtration is simpler to operate than rapid filtration, as frequent backwashing is not required. It is
therefore particularly suitable for developing countries and small rural systems, but is applicable
only if sufficient land is available. On the other hand, the filters are readily clogged by algal bloom,
sand does not remove heavy metals and many micro pollutants efficiently. They effectively
remove biodegradable organic carbon and oxidize ammonia.
Infiltration
Surface water can also be treated by infiltration of the raw or partly treated water into river banks
or sand dunes, followed by underground passage. This is an effective means of removing
undesirable microorganisms and viruses. Infiltration is applicable only in areas where suitable
geological conditions exist. Pretreatment is required to prevent clogging of the infiltration area.
In addition, water abstracted from the aquifer usually needs some additional treatment, such as
aeration and filtration, to remove, e.g. iron and manganese present in anaerobic groundwater. The
residence time underground should be as long as possible to obtain water comparable in
quality to groundwater.

Disinfection
The overall objective of disinfection is to ensure that the quality criteria are always met. Terminal
disinfection of piped drinking-water supplies is of paramount importance and is almost
universal, since it is the final barrier to the transmission of waterborne bacterial and viral diseases.
Although chlorine and hypochlorite are most often used, water may also be disinfected
with chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and ultraviolet irradiation. The efficacy of any
disinfection process will depend on the degree of purity achieved by prior treatment, as
disinfectants are highly active and will be neutralized to a greater or lesser extent by organic matter
and readily oxidizable compounds in water. Microorganisms that are aggregated or adsorbed on
to particulate matter will also be partly protected from disinfection. It is therefore recommended
that the median turbidity of water before disinfection should not exceed 1 NTU; it should not
exceed 5 NTU in any individual sample.

Treatment of groundwater
Groundwater extracted from well protected aquifers is usually free from pathogenic
microorganisms, and the distribution of such groundwater without treatment is common practice
in many countries. However, the catchment area must be protected by effective regulatory
measures and the distribution system adequately protected against secondary contamination of
the drinking-water. If the water, in its passage from source to consumer, cannot be protected at
all times, disinfection and the maintenance of adequate chlorine residuals are imperative.
Treatment of surface water
The extent to which faecal bacteria, viruses, and parasites are removed by properly designed and
operated equipment for flocculation, coagulation, sedimentation, and rapid filtration is equivalent
to that achieved by slow sand filtration. Additional treatment, such as ozonation, will have a
considerable disinfecting action besides converting part of the total organic carbon into a
biodegradable form. If it is followed by activated carbon treatment or other biological filtration
stage, some of the biodegradable organic carbon will be removed by microbial activity, thus
reducing the potential for after growth of nuisance bacteria in distribution networks.

MICROBIAL INDICATORS OF WATER QUALITY

Indicator organisms
Indicator microorganisms are used to predict the presence of and/or minimize the potential risk
associated with pathogenic microbes. Indicator organisms are useful in that they circumvent the
need to assay for every pathogen that may be present in water. Ideally, indicators are non-
pathogenic, rapidly detected, easily enumerated, have survival characteristics that are similar to
those of the pathogens of concern, and can be strongly associated with the presence of pathogenic
microorganisms.

Rationale for the use of indicator organisms

The key criteria for ideal bacterial indicators of faecal pollution are:
 The indicator bacterium should be suitable for the analysis of all types of water for instance
tap, river, ground, sea, waste, estuary, recreational and so on.
 It should be present whenever enteric pathogens are present.
 It should be harmless to humans.
 The testing method employed for its detection should be easily performed.
 They should also be present in sewage effluent.
 They should not grow in natural waters.
 They should also be of exclusive faecal origin and be present in greater numbers than
feacally transmitted pathogens.
 Its level in contaminated water should have some direct relationship to the degree of feacal
pollution.
  In the environment, the indicator organisms should survive slightly longer than the
pathogens. The procedure should have high sensitivity and detect low levels of the
indicator.
 It should not reproduce in the contaminated water thereby producing an inflated value.
 The assay procedure for its detection should have great specificity; other bacteria should
not give positive results
 No single indicator organism fulfills all these criteria, but the member of the coliform group
that satisfies most of the criteria for the ideal indicator organism in tempera te climates is
E. coli.
 The presence of E. coli in a sample of drinking water may indicate the presence of intestinal
pathogens.
 The absence of E. coli cannot be taken as an absolute indication that intestinal pathogens
are also absent.
Other Indicator organisms
 Enterococci and
 Spores of sulphite-reducing clostridia, typified by Clostridium perfringens. Enterococci do
not multiply in the environment and can occur normally in faeces. Numbers of enterococci
in humans are greatly outnumbered by E. coli bacteria. When coliform bacteria are present
in the absence of E. coli, but in the presence of enterococci, this can be indicative of the
faecal origin of the coliform bacteria.
 The rationale for enumerating heterotrophic plate counts has been to assess the general
bacterial content of the water and to monitor trends or rapid changes in water quality.

Coliform bacteria
Coliform bacteria are defined as Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod shaped bacteria which
are capable of aerobic and facultative anaerobic growth in the presence of bile-salts or other
surface-active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties. They usually ferment lactose at
37 °C within 48 hours, possess the enzyme β-galactosidase and are oxidase-negative. Coliform
bacteria belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae and share similar cultural characteristics.
Typical genera encountered in water supplies are Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Hafnia,
Klebsiella, Serratia and Yersinia.
Faecal coliform bacteria
Faecal coliform bacteria possess the characteristics of coliform bacteria but are able to carry out
lactose fermentation at 44 °C. The term “faecal coliform” is not precise and has been used to
describe coliform bacteria thought to be of faecal origin. The term “thermotolerant coliform” has
been used to describe presumptive faecal coliform bacteria.

Escherichia coli
E. coli has long been used as an indicator of faecal pollution. E. coli is a coliform bacterium and
has historically been regarded as the primary indicator of faecal contamination of both treated
and untreated water. Most of the E. coli strains possess the enzyme β-glucuronidase, which can
be detected using specific fluorogenic or chromogenic substrates.

Intestinal enterococci
Enterococci have been used successfully as indicators of fecal pollution. Intestinal enterococci
are defined as Gram-positive cocci that tend to form in pairs and chains. They are non-spore
forming, oxidase-negative, catalase-negative, possess Lancefield’s Group D antigen and hydrolyse
aesculin. They can grow aerobically and anaerobically in the presence of bile salts, and in sodium
azide solutions, concentrations of which are inhibitory to coliform bacteria and most Gram-
negative bacteria. Enterococcus faecalis and some related species can reduce 2,3,5-
triphenyltetrazolium chloride to the insoluble red dye and formazan.

Clostridium perfringens
C. perfringens is an enteric, gram-positive, anaerobic, spore-forming, pathogenic bacterium found
in human and animal feces. Clostridium perfringens is a member of the sulphite-reducing
clostridia which is non-motile and is capable of fermenting lactose, reducing nitrate and liquefying
gelatin. Most clostridia are strictly anaerobic, but a few species are capable of limited
growth in the presence of low levels of oxygen. Clostridium perfringens is the key species of the
sulphite-reducing clostridia. Clostridium perfringens produces environmentally resistant spores
that survive in water and in the environment for much longer periods than the vegetative cells of
E. coli and other faecal indicators.
Colony count bacteria
Colony counts are enumerations of the general population of heterotrophic bacteria present in
water supplies. The enumerations may represent bacteria whose natural habitat is the water
environment or those that have originated from soil or vegetation. Historically, these bacteria
have been enumerated on bacteriologically nutrient-rich media with incubation at 37 °C and
22 °C. It is well recognised, however, that only a small fraction of the viable bacterial population
present in water is enumerated by the procedures normally employed. Monitoring of water supplies
for colony count bacteria can be useful for monitoring trends in water quality or detecting sudden
changes in quality.

Other potential indicators of faecal contamination

E. coli and related coliform bacteria, intestinal enterococci and Clostridium perfringens are
currently recommended for use as indicator organisms of faecal contamination in water. Other
micro-organisms have been suggested for this purpose and these include the Bacteroides fragilis
group, Bifidobacterium species or Rhodococcus coprophilus. Also bacteriophages that infect the
coliform bacteria (coliphages) and the Bacteroides fragilis group have been used.
Although some of these alternative indicator organisms have been applied with varying degrees
of success to environmental waters, they are not considered suitable for the assessment of water
treatment efficacy or treated water quality.

WATER-BORNE PATHOGENS
Bacteria
Campylobacter
Bacteria of the genus Campylobacter are members of the family Spirillaceae. Campylobacteriosis
occurs most frequently in the summer months and the most commonly isolated species is
Campylobacter jejuni. The organism can be carried asymptomatically by cattle, sheep, poultry and
other birds, and is also isolated from natural waters. Campylobacter species can survive in water
for some days but are highly susceptible to chlorination or ultra violet disinfection at the doses
typically used in water treatment and should, therefore, not be a risk in treated drinking water,
unless it is subject to significant post treatment contamination.

E. coli O157
Some strains of E. coli can cause serious diarrheal disease. Several classes of diarrhoeagenic E.
coli are now recognised, which are defined by the possession of distinct virulence factors. The
most important of these are the Vero-cytotoxin-producing E. coli (VTEC), in particular VTEC of
serogroup O157, but other E. coli serogroups may contain VTEC members. Typical symptoms of
people infected with E. coli O157 range from mild diarrhea, fever and vomiting to severe
bloody diarrhea and painful abdominal cramps. In 10 - 15 % of cases, a condition known as
hemolytic uremic syndrome which can result in kidney failure. Individuals of all ages can be
affected but children up to ten years old and the elderly are most at risk. The infectious dose for
E. coli O157 is relatively low compared with other bacterial causes of gastro-enteritis, perhaps as
low as 10 organisms.

Salmonella
Species of Salmonella are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and are the causative agents
of typhoid and paratyphoid fever, and milder forms of gastro-enteritis. The enteric fevers
(typhoid, caused by Salmonella typhi, and paratyphoid, caused by Salmonella paratyphi) remain
important contributors to water-borne disease world-wide, although nowadays very rarely in
developed countries. Salmonellae can be subdivided into more than 2000 serotypes. Salmonella
typhi and Salmonella paratyphi are only associated with humans but the other Salmonellae are
found commonly in the faeces of animals and agricultural livestock, and have been found in
poultry, eggs and meat products. Food-borne contamination is the major route of infection for
these bacteria, but transmission can occur by water contaminated with faecal material. Survival
in surface water is limited to hours or days, depending on the amount of contamination and the
water temperature. Species of Salmonella are susceptible to normal methods of disinfection used
in the water industry. E. coli is an adequate indicator for the presence and survival of Salmonella
in water.

Shigella
Species of Shigella are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and cause bacillary dysentery
(Shigellosis) in humans. The Shigella group is divided into four main sub-groups differentiated
by biochemical and serological tests. Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella sonnei,Shigella flexneri and
Shigella boydi are the main organisms of concern. Person-to person contact, faecally contaminated
food, and less frequently, water are the main sources of contamination. Survival in
surface water is limited to hours or days, depending on the amount of contamination and the
water temperature. Shigellae are susceptible to chlorination and ultra violet disinfection at the
doses used in water treatment. E. coli is an adequate indicator for the presence and survival of
Shigella in water.

Yersinia
Species of Yersinia are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, of which some species cause
diseases in humans and other mammals. Human plague, caused by Yersinia pestis, is not a
waterborne disease. Other species, including Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia intermedia, Yersinia
kristensenii, Yersinia frederiksenii and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, may produce symptoms
ranging from subclinical and mild diarrheal infections to rare severe infection including
septicemia. Some serotypes of Yersinia enterocolitica are more frequently associated with human
disease than others. Yersinia species are susceptible to chlorination and ultra violet
disinfection at doses normally used in water treatment. E. coli is an adequate indicator for the
presence and survival of Yersinia in water.

Vibrio
Species of Vibrio are members of the Vibrionaceae. Some species, most notably, strains of Vibrio
cholerae, cause gastro-enteritis in humans. Vibrio species occur naturally in brackish and saline
waters, and some can survive in fresh water systems. Vibrio cholerae, which causes cholera, can
be divided into approximately 140 O-serovars. The strains that usually produce outbreaks of
epidemic cholera are toxin-producing strains of the O1 serovar and a more recently reported
serovar, O139. Some other serovars of Vibrio cholerae can also cause gastroenteritis. The primary
route of transmission for cholera is contaminated water and outbreaks have also been reported
following consumption of crops irrigated with sewage-contaminated water. Vibrio
parahaemolyticus also causes diarrhoea, often through the consumption of raw, contaminated
seafood. Vibrio fluvialis, Vibrio furnissii, Vibrio hollisae and Vibrio mimicus are also recognised
as causing diarrhoea. Other species of Vibrio are associated with wound infections or septicaemia
following exposure to environmental waters. Vibrio species can grow in environmental waters,
particularly when temperatures rise above 10 °C and may be associated with sediments, plankton
and cyanobacterial blooms. Vibrio are susceptible to chlorination and ultra violet disinfection at
doses normally used in water treatment.

Viruses
Norwalk-like viruses
Norwalk-like viruses (NLV) are classified within the Caliciviridae family. They are the most
common cause of sporadic and epidemic viral gastro-enteritis in adults, but are also common
causes of infections in children. Many strains of NLV have been recognised and they are
currently divided into two major genogroups (I and II). The main route of transmission is via
person to-person contact, but food-borne transmission may occur, especially involving raw or
inadequately cooked shellfish. Water-borne outbreaks have occurred as a result of sewage
contamination of drinking water supplies. The limited information currently available suggests
that NLV are sensitive to chlorination. As these viruses may survive in the environment longer
than bacteria, the absence of E. coli may not always equate with the absence of NLV.

Hepatitis A Virus
Hepatitis A virus is a member of the Picornaviridae family of viruses, and is the only member of
the Hepatovirus genus in which there is only one serotype. No animal strains are known. The virus
replicates in the liver and causes acute but self-limiting hepatitis. Transmission is by direct
faecal-oral route and is most common in areas of poor hygiene and poor sanitation. Waterborne
outbreaks have been recognised after sewage contamination of drinking water. Hepatitis A viruses
are sensitive to chlorination, but as these viruses may survive in the environment longer than
bacteria, the absence of E. coli may not always equate with the absence of Hepatitis A viruses.

Other viruses
Enteroviruses (Picornaviridae family) are well-established indicators of human enteric viruses in
the environment. This is due to the relative ease with which they can be concentrated from
sewage-contaminated water and the availability of effective detection methods. Additionally,
Enteroviruses replicate in the gastro-intestinal tract and are present in most populations
throughout the year. The group includes poliovirus, Coxsackievirus B and echovirus. Enterovirus
infections are commonly asymptomatic, but may cause flu-like symptoms, occasionally
meningitis and, rarely, paralysis. Enterovirus infection does not result in gastro-enteritis unless as
part of a more generalised illness. Vaccination campaigns utilising live poliovirus are undertaken
world-wide resulting in widespread occurrence of the virus in the environment. Infections with
other Enterovirus serotypes are common world-wide with different serotypes predominating
from year to year. Water-borne transmission has not been confirmed, although as person-to person
transmission is the main route and results in many asymptomatic infections, it would be
difficult to identify.

Rotaviruses (Reoviridae family) comprise six serogroups and are further divided into serotypes
and genotypes. Serogroup A is the most common human rotavirus infection, although members
of Group B and C can also infect humans. Infection first occurs below the age of one year and
rotavirus is the most important pathogen causing gastro-enteritis of this age group. Subsequent
infections throughout life are usually asymptomatic. A few waterborne outbreaks world-wide
have been reported.

The Adenoviruses (Adenoviridae family), which include many different serotypes, replicate in
the gastro-intestinal tract and are shed into sewage. Only serotypes 40 and 41 are known to
cause gastro-enteritis in humans, mostly in babies. Infection involving drinking water has not
been recognised. The Astroviruses (Astroviridae family) include at least eight serotypes that
infect humans, causing gastro-enteritis, particularly in children. Water-borne infections have
been reported.
The above viruses may survive in the environment for longer periods than bacteria, and the
absence of E. coli may not be an adequate indicator for the environmental presence of these
viruses in all circumstances. These viruses are sensitive to chlorination.
Classic calicivirus is the name given to a distinct group of Caliciviruses, and are recognised by
clear cup-shaped markings on virions when examined by electron microscopy. This group is also
known as Sapporo virus or Sapporo-like viruses. They are part of the family Caliciviridae, but
are distinct from the NLV. No water-borne infections have been recognised.

Protozoa
The enteric protozoa that cause human illness are usually transmitted by the consumption of food
and drink, although environmental contamination and poor hygiene are also important
transmission routes. Many cause particular problems in immuno-compromised patients,
particularly in people infected with HIV and individuals with T-cell deficiencies. The protozoa
that are of most concern are Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Toxoplasma, although Cyclospora
has been identified in a number of food-borne outbreaks. Water-borne outbreaks of infection
with protozoa have been reported.

Cryptosporidium
Cryptosporidium species are the cause of a diarrheal disease that can last for up to several days
to a few weeks. A chronic life threatening infection with watery diarrhea can occur in people
with compromised immune systems. There have been several outbreaks of gastroenteritis linked
to drinking water, contaminated swimming pool and recreational water use, and drinking water is
an important identifiable source of human cryptosporidiosis. Other sources include
contamination associated with farm visits and food-borne infection.
Cryptosporidium oocysts have a low infectious dose (from 10 to 1000 organisms) and individual
strains have been found to differ in their infectivity. Natural water sources are commonly
contaminated with oocysts from animal and human faeces. Cryptosporidium species includes a
number of types that are infectious to humans.
The oocysts of Cryptosporidium are infectious when excreted in faeces, and pass into rivers and
lakes via sewage works and agricultural run-off. The oocysts are resistant to environmental
conditions and disinfectants such as chlorine, and can pass into drinking water when there are
failures in filtration processes or contamination of source waters. There is increasing evidence
that oocysts are susceptible to ultra violet disinfection. Conventional indicator bacteria are not
good indicators of Cryptosporidium contamination, and water supplies that are at risk of
contamination are subject to continuous monitoring.

Giardia
Giardia species are flagellated protozoans that parasitize the small intestines of mammals, birds,
reptiles and amphibians, and giardiasis is a common cause of diarrhea. The symptoms of
giardiasis range from asymptomatic to a transient or persistent acute stage, with steatorrhoea,
intermittent diarrhoea, and weight loss, or to a sub-acute or chronic stage that can mimic
gallbladder or peptic ulcer disease. The cysts of Giardia duodenalis are relatively resistant to
chlorine, although less resistant than Cryptosporidium oocysts. The cysts can remain viable in
cold water for several months.

Cyclospora
Cyclospora is a coccidian parasite that causes protracted watery diarrhea. It occurs worldwide,
and is normally associated with travel to developing countries. Outbreaks linked to drinking
water have been reported. Person-to person contact is not thought to occur, because the oocysts
need to mature (sporulate) under environmental conditions outside the host for one to two weeks
before they become infectious. The oocysts have been reported to be relatively resistant to
chlorine.

Microsporidia
Microsporidia are protozoa with characteristic morphology including a lack of mitochondria and
possession of a distinctive coiled polar tube in the spores. Two species, Enterocytozoon bieneusi
and Encephalitozoon intestinalis, are a common cause of chronic diarrhea in immuno-
compromised individuals, and they may infect a range of agricultural animals. As viable spores
are passed by infected patients, person-to-person transmission and contamination of water with
human waste are potential routes of transmission. The difficulty of isolating organisms by tissue
culture means that reliable information on the sensitivity of spores to chlorine is not available for
all species. The relatively recent emergence of species of Microsporidia as human pathogens and
the difficulties of diagnosis mean that water-borne associations cannot yet been clearly
demonstrated, although spores have been found in water that is not potable.

Toxoplasma gondii
Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite which forms oocysts in cats, and cysts within a secondary host’s
(other mammals or birds) tissues. The life cycle is completed when the carnivorous primary host
consumes the secondary host. Humans are infected by consuming inadequately cooked meat
from infected secondary host species such as agricultural animals, or from oocysts occurring in
food or water. The sporulated oocysts of Toxoplasma are very resistant to environmental
conditions and disinfectants. Water-borne infections arise through oocysts, from infected wild
cats, getting into drinking water.

Entamoeba histolytica
Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery and abscesses in the liver and other organs.
Water-borne infections mostly arise when consuming contaminated food or water in countries
where it is endemic. Infection is common world-wide, particularly in poor countries with
inadequate sanitation. Outbreaks of infection associated with drinking water are rare.

Microorganisms affecting taste, odour and appearance

Ideally, drinking water should be clear and acceptable to the palate. In practice, however, the
aesthetic properties of a drinking water will depend to a large extent on its source and any
subsequent treatment or microbial activity. In most instances, when there is adverse comment
regarding the appearance, taste or odour of a drinking water, the causes tend to be physical or
chemical in nature rather than microbiological.
Nevertheless, musty, mouldy or earthy tastes and odours may result from the growth of fungi
or actinomycetes in water pipes. These tastes and odours are primarily associated with the
production of secondary metabolites (notably geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol) or the
biomethylation of chlorinated phenols (for example, trichloroanisole from trichlorophenol).
Other compounds, which are produced via microbial decomposition, can impart fishy, swampy
or septic odours to waters, whilst rotten-egg odours can be generated via the reduction of
sulphate and sulphite to hydrogen sulphide by some bacteria (for example, Desulfovibrio
desulfuricans and some species of Clostridium).
Micro-organisms growing in biofilms in pipes can result in the corrosion of iron pipes. A
consequence of this is the discoloration of drinking water due to elevated levels of iron in the
water, or to the accumulation of (brown) iron or (black) manganese deposits, or iron-stained
material being dislodged from pipes or sediments.
Actinomycetes and certain algae can also cause taste problems by growth in the raw water,
particularly storage reservoirs. This situation can often be controlled by the inclusion of
appropriate use of granular or powdered activated carbon in treatment processes.
Cyanobacteria and animalcules
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Cyanobacteria occur naturally in many in-land, standing bodies of water and can often be seen
forming a surface scum or bloom. These bacteria thrive in warm, shallow and nutrient rich
lowland waters and examples include Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Microcystis and Oscillatoria.
Some species produce toxins that can be found in mucus material which is secreted by cells.
There is no evidence, however, that these toxins pose a risk to public health via treated water
supplies as they are destroyed by treatment. One of the main problems with Cyanobacteria is that
raw water blooms can affect treatment efficiency by blocking filtration systems, and can cause
adverse tastes and odours in the treated water, although these may be removed with appropriate
treatment.

DOMESTIC WASTES AND WASTE TREATMENT

Domestic waste water contain high levels of organic matter from human faeces, urine and
graywater. Gray water results from washing, bathing and meal preparation. Water from various
industries may also enter the system. People excrete 100 – 500 grams wet weight of faeces and 1
– 1.3 litres of urine per person per day. Three major tests are used to assess the amount of
organic matter in waste water:
(i) Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
(ii) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
(iii) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The major objective of domestic waste water treatment is to ensure that water released into the
environment do not pose environmental and health hazards.

TOC is determined by the oxidation of the organic matter with heat and oxygen, followed by
measurement of the CO 2 liberated with an infrared analyzer.

BOD is the amount of DO consumed by organisms during the biochemical oxidation of organic
(Carbonaceous BOD) and inorganic matter. It was developed in the, 1930s. The 5 -day BOD test
(BODs) is a measure of the amount of O 2 consumed by a mixed population of heterotrophic
bacteria in the dark at 200C over a period of 5 days.

COD is the amount of oxygen necessary to oxidize all of the organic carbon completely to CO 2
and H2O. COD is measured by oxidation with potassium dichromate (K2Cr 2 O7) in the presence
of sulphuric acid and silver.

In terms of speed, TOC is fastest but it is less informative in terms of biological processes. The
COD is slower and involves the employment of wet chemicals with higher waste chemical disposal
costs. The TOC, COD and BOD provide different but complementary information on the carbon
in a water sample. It is essential to note these measurements are only concerned with the removal
of carbon in water sample. They do not directly address the removal of minerals such as nitrate,
phosphate, and sulphate. These minerals have been documented to impact cyanobacterial and algal
bloom in lakes, rivers, and oceans by contributing to the process of eutrophication.

How to control eutrophication

 Seeding of water body with denitrifiers that can readily expunge excess nitrate

 improvement of the purifying performance of wastewater treatment plants, installing

tertiary treatment systems to reduce nutrient concentrations;
 implementation of effective filter ecosystems to remove nitrogen and phosphorus present
in the run-off water (such as phyto-purification plants);
 reduction of phosphorous in detergents;
 rationalisation of agricultural techniques through proper planning of fertilization and use
of slow release fertilizers;
 use of alternative practices in animal husbandry to limit the production of wastewater.
 removal and treatment of hypolimnetic water (deep water in contact with the sediments)
rich in nutrients since in direct contact with the release source;
 drainage of the first 10-20 cm of sediment subject to biological reactions and with high
phosphorus concentrations;
 oxygenation of water for restore the ecological conditions, reducing the negative effects of
the eutrophic process, such as scarcity of oxygen and formation of toxic compounds
deriving from the anaerobic metabolism;
  chemical precipitation of phosphorous by the addition of iron or aluminium salts or calcium
carbonate to the water, which give rise to the precipitation of the respective iron, aluminium
or calcium orthophosphates, thereby reducing the negative effects related to the excessive
presence of phosphorus in the sediments.

MODERN WASTEWATER TREATMENT

The essential goal of wastewater treatment is the removal and degradation of organic matter under
controlled conditions. Sewage treatment is in 3 major steps.
Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment

PRIMARY TREATMENT
This is the first step in municipal sewage treatment. It is a physical process that involves the
removal of large solids, from the waste stream. The raw sewage passes through a metal grating
that removes large particles such as twigs, plastics, stones etc. A moving screen then filters out
smaller items after which a brief residence in a grit tank allows sand and gravel to settle out. The
waste stream is then pumped into the primary settling tank/sedimentation tank or clarifier. Here
the suspended organic solids settle to the bottom as sludge or bio-solids. This sludge is referred to
as primary sludge. Pathogens (especially microbes) are not removed effectively in the primary
process.

SECONDARY TREATMENT
This is a biological degradation process, in which the remaining suspended solids are decomposed
and the number of pathogens is reduced. Effluent from primary treatment may be pumped into a
(1) trickling filter bed (2) an aeration tank or (3) a sewage lagoon.

Trickling filter bed is simply a bed of stoned or corrugated plastic sheets through which water
drips. The effluent is pumped through a system over head sprayer onto this bed, where bacteria
and other microorganisms reside. These microorganisms intercept the organic material as it trickles
past and decompose it aerobically. The media through which the waste trickles may be stones,
ceramic materials, hard coal or plastic. Polyvinylchloride or polypropylene is now commonly used
in modern high-rate trickling filters. Because of the lightweight of the plastic, they can be stacked
in towers 6 to 10m high referred to as bio-towers. The organic material passing through the filter
is converted to microbial biomass which forms a biofilm on the filter medium surfaces. The biofilm
that form on the surface of the filter medium is called the Zoogleal film. It is otherwise known as
the complex population of organisms that form a slime growth on the trickling filter media and
break down the organic matter in wastewater. These slimes consist of living organisms feeding on
the wastes in wastewater, dead organisms, silt, and other debris. Slime growth is a more common
term. It is composed of bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. BOD removal by trickling filter is
approximately 85% for low-rate filters. It is one of the earliest systems for biological degradation
of sewage.

Activated sludge
Also known as aeration-tank digestion. Effluent from primary treatment is pumped into a tank and
bacteria-rich slurry (activated sludge) is mixed with it. The mixture is aerated by pumping pure
oxygen or air through it. This promotes bacteria growth and decomposition of the waste. It
goes to a secondary settling tank where water is siphoned off the top of the tank and sludge
removed from the bottom. Part of the sludge is re-used as inocula for the incoming primary effluent
(i.e. activated sludge). One of the important characteristics of the activated sludge is the recycling
of a large proportion of the biomass. This results in a large number of microorganisms that oxidize
organic matter in a relatively short time. The detention time for sewage in the aeration basin varies
from 4 to 8 hours. The content of the aeration tank is called the Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
(MLSS) while the organic part of MLSS is known as the Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids
(MLVSS).

TERTIARY TREATMENT
This involves a series of additional steps after secondary treatment to further reduce organics,
turbidity, nitrogen, phosphorus, metals and pathogens. Processes involved are some type of
physicochemical treatments such as coagulation, filtration, activated carbon, adsorption of
organics and additional disinfection. Constructed wet lands are now increasingly used in the
treatment of liquid wastes and for bioremediation.