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Module 1 :

The equation of “continuity”

Lecture 1:

Equation of Continuity

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer: Modules

1. THE EQUATION OF “CONTINUITY”: Lectures 1-6

(i) Overall Mass Balance

(ii) Momentum Balance

(iii) Energy Balance

(iv) Special Mass Balance

(v) Equation for the fluxes

2. “DIFFUSIVE” HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER: Lectures 7-20

(i) Steady and Unsteady/One and Multiple Dimensions

(ii) Mass Transfer with Chemical Reaction

(iii) Perturbation Techniques

(iv) Moving Boundary Problems

(v) Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer

3. “CONVECTIVE” HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER: Lectures 21-32

(i) Flow Inside Ducts

(ii) Dispersion

(iii) Laminar Boundary Layers

(iv) Mass Transfer with Chemical Reactions

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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(v) Asymptotic Methods

(vi) Simultaneous Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer

(vii) Natural Convection

4. MULTICOMPONENT TRANSPORT: Lectures 33-37

(i) Binary Systems

(ii) Muti-component Flux Equations

(iii) Thermal Diffusion

(iv) Dimensional Analysis

5. MASS TRANSFER IN TURBULANT FLOWS: Lectures 38-41

(i) Time Averaging and Eddy Viscosity

(ii) Universal Velocity

(iii) Mass Transfer in Turbulent Pipe Flow

Reference Books

1. Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., “Transport Phenomenon”, Wiley (1960).

2. Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C., “Conduction of heat in Solids”, (2nd ed) Oxford (1975).

3. Slattery, J., Momentum, Energy and Mass Transfer in Continua”, (2nd ed) Krueger
(1981).

Transport Processes

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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Goals of the Course

• To relate mathematical symbols to physical reality

• To review several classic problems

• To show examples of how to approach the unknown

THE EQUATION OF “CONTINUITY”

The Continuum Approximation

Field variables (e.g. velocity) at a “point” are spatial averages over a small volume V around that
point, where V has to be such that

ℓ << V1/3<< D, (1.1a)

where, ℓ is a characteristic microscopic length scale, which can be of molecular dimensions or

the distance between molecules in a gas or the particle size in a solid/fluid two-phase system, and
D is a characteristic macroscopic length scale. For example, for flow in a pipe, D can be the pipe
diameter.

The continuum approximation considers the fluids to be continuous. Thus, the fluid
properties such as temperature, pressure, density and velocity of the fluid are taken to be well
defined at infinitely small points (i.e. at microscopic level), defining a reference element of
volume, let’s call this volume REV, at the geometric order of the distance between the two
adjacent molecules of fluid. Properties are assumed to vary continuously from one point to
another, and are averaged over the volume REV. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete
molecules is ignored.

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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Eulerian and Lagrangian coordinates

Eulerian Coordinate: in this system the independent variables are x, y, z and t or xi (i=1, 2, 3) and
t. This is a fixed coordinate system. The basic conservation equation are in the Eulerian frame, R
= R (xi, t).

In the Lagrangian frame, attention is fixed on a particular mass of fluid as it flows, R

= R (xio, t), where the coordinate xio specifies which fluid element is being considered.

Material Derivative

Consider a variable α such that

α = α(x i , t ) (1.1b)

Then the total differential of α can be expressed as

∂α ∂α
δα = δt +
∂t ∂x i
δx i (1.1c)

Division by a time differential δt leads to the following expression:

δα ∂α ∂α δx i
= +
δt ∂t ∂x i δt
(1.1d)

After taking the limit δt→0, we obtain for the material derivative

Dα ∂α ∂α
= +ν i
∂t ∂x i
(1.1e)
Dt

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ∂x ⎥ is the fluid velocity in direction i,
where, ν i =
⎢ ∂t ⎥
i

⎣⎢in the limit of δt →0⎦⎥

Dα ∂α
∂t
is called the Material Derivative or Lagrangian Derivative in time and is the Eulerian
Dt

Derivative in time.

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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The Material derivative or Lagrangian time derivative represents in total change in α as

seen by an observer who is moving with a particular fluid element. In the Lagrangian frame, we
observe the particle for a time δt as it flows. The position of a particle changes by δxi while α
changes as δα.

Time derivatives

The time derivative is a derivative of a function with respect to time. It implies the rate of change
of value of a function with respect to time t.

∂c
∂t
Partial time derivative (at a point)

Total time derivative

By dividing by dt , the total differential can be written as total time derivative

dc ∂c ∂c dx ∂c dy ∂c dc
= + + +
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
(1.1f)

This expression represents the change in the time of the function c i.e., (∂c/∂t) as we move about
with arbitrary velocities in the coordinate directions i.e., (dx/dt, dy/dt and dz/dt).

Substantial Derivative or Material Derivative

If we constrain the motion to follow the motion of the individual fluid particles, we obtain the
Substantial Derivative or Material Derivative (also known as Convective Derivative) given by

Dc ∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c
= + Ux + Uy + Uz
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Substantial time Derivative or Convective Derivative :

(1.1g)

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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where Ux, Uy and Uz are the components of the local fluid velocity U in x, y and z directions,
respectively.

The Mass Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is an overall mass balance about a control volume. Consider a volume
element of volume V fixed in space as shown in figure below. Here the volume V is bounded by
a surface S with outward unit normal vector n

Fig. 1.1 Control Volume for Mass Continuity equation

(Accumulation of mass inside V ) = (The Net influx of mass through surface S)

∫v ∂t dV = −∫s ρU • n dS
∂ρ
(1.2)

Here, ρ is the mass density. The minus sign (-) in front of the integral is because of the choice of
n pointing outwards.

The Divergence Theorem (Gauss) for a vector field A gives

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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Fig.1.2. Gauss Divergence theorem

∫ (∇ • A )dV = ∫ (A • n )dS
V S
(1.3a)

Where ∇ is gradient (a vector) and can be expressed as

∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
(1.3b)

In equation (1.3a), the left hand side is the volume integral over the volume V, the right hand
side is the surface integral over the boundary of the volume V. The closed manifold dV is quite
generally the boundary of V oriented by outward-pointing normals and n is the outward pointing
unit normal field of the boundary dV.

For A = ρU , equation (1.2) becomes

− ∫ ∇ • (ρU )dV = − ∫ (ρU • n )dS (1.3c)

V S

Substitute equation (1.3c) on the right hand side of equation (1.2) we get,

∫ ∂t dV = − ∫ ∇ • (ρU ) dV
∂ρ
(1.3d)
V V

or

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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∫ ⎢⎣ ∂t + ∇ • (ρU )⎥⎦ dV = 0
⎡ ∂ρ ⎤
(1.3e)
V

Equation (1.3e) is known as Mass Continuity equation.

Since this equation must hold for arbitrary V, Mass Continuity Equation becomes

+ ∇ • (ρU ) = 0
∂ρ
∂t
(1.4a)

or

+ ρ(∇ • U ) = 0
Dρ
(1.4b)
Dt

From equation (1.1g), we know that

+ (U • ∇ρ )
Dρ ∂ρ
=
Dt ∂t
(1.4c)

Incompressible fluids: Incompressible fluids are those fluids that do not exhibit any variation in
∂ρ
density either in space or time. Therefore for incompressible fluids ∇ρ = 0 and = 0.
∂t

If ρ is constant (for incompressible fluids) in space and time, then the equation of continuity for
incompressible fluids becomes

∇ • U =0 (1.4d)

Equation (1.4b) can also be written as:

= (∇ • U )
1 DV
V Dt (1.4e)

where, V =
1 1 DV
and is the rate of dilation of the fluid.
ρ V Dt

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering

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Application: We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross sections which
changes along their length. See Fig 1.3 below.

Fig.1.3. fluid flowing through convergent-divergent section of the pipe

A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the same direction. By the
continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the same at each section.

NPTEL , IIT Kharagpur, Prof. Saikat Chakraborty, Department of Chemical Engineering