The Hittites of Anatolia: A

Comprehensive Overview
I. Introduction
The Hittites, an Indo-European people who migrated to Anatolia in the early 2nd millennium
BCE, established one of the most significant civilizations of the Bronze Age in West Asia. Their
kingdom, centered in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), rose to prominence, rivaling and at times
surpassing the power of established nations like Egypt. The Hittites left an indelible mark on the
ancient Near East through their advancements in law, warfare, diplomacy, and a rich tapestry of
cultural and religious traditions. For centuries, their empire exerted considerable influence
across Anatolia and into parts of Syria and Mesopotamia. The rediscovery of the Hittite
civilization is largely attributed to archaeological excavations, particularly the unearthing of their
capital city, Hattusa, and the subsequent decipherment of thousands of cuneiform tablets that
documented their history, society, and beliefs. This report aims to provide a comprehensive
overview of the Hittite civilization, exploring its origins, geographical setting, historical trajectory,
societal structures, cultural practices, religious beliefs, interactions with neighboring powers, the
factors leading to its decline, and the significant archaeological discoveries that continue to
shape our understanding of this influential ancient people.
The initial identification of the Hittites in the 19th century was closely linked to mentions in the
Hebrew Tanakh, also known as the Christian Old Testament. These biblical texts repeatedly
refer to the Hittites as adversaries of the Israelites and their God, often portraying them as a
people dwelling among the Israelites. This early connection between historical inquiry and
religious texts highlights how different sources can initially converge in the study of ancient
civilizations, although later archaeological and textual evidence from the civilization itself often
provides a more nuanced and accurate picture. Furthermore, the name by which we know this
powerful Bronze Age empire, "Hittites," is an exonym, derived from external sources such as the
Bible and the Amarna Letters of Egypt, which referenced a "Kingdom of Kheta" now identified
as the 'Kingdom of Hatti'. The Hittites themselves, however, referred to their own language as
"Nesili" and their land as "Hatti," as evidenced in their own documents and contemporary
records. This distinction underscores the importance of examining primary sources and the self-
designations used by ancient peoples to gain a more authentic understanding of their identity
and history.
II. Origins and Geographical Setting
The Hittites were an Anatolian people with Indo-European linguistic roots, believed to have
migrated to Anatolia in the early 2nd millennium BC. The ancestors of the Hittites likely arrived
in Anatolia sometime between 5000 and 3000 BC, around the period when the Anatolian branch
of the Indo-European language family diverged from its Proto-Indo-European origins. The Proto-
Hittite language developed around 2100 BC, eventually evolving into the Hittite language itself,
which was used in Central Anatolia from the 20th to the 12th centuries BC. The Hittites are first
historically associated with the kingdom of Kussara sometime before 1750 BC. Upon their
arrival in Anatolia during the Bronze Age, the Hittites coexisted with indigenous populations,
most notably the Hattians and Hurrians, through processes of either conquest or gradual
assimilation. While earlier migration theories suggested connections to the Ezero culture of the
Balkans and the Maykop culture of the Caucasus, more recent genetic and archaeological
research indicates that the Hittite migration route likely passed through the Caucasus. This is
further supported by linguistic evidence revealing agricultural loanwords from cultures located
on their eastern borders. The dominant indigenous inhabitants of central Anatolia were the
Hattians and Hurrians, who spoke languages not related to the Indo-European family. During
the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BC), Assyrian colonies also existed in the region, and it
was from these Assyrian speakers of Upper Mesopotamia that the Hittites adopted the
cuneiform script for their own language. Following the collapse of the Old Assyrian Empire, the
Hittites gradually established themselves, initially as separate groups centered on various cities.
However, strong rulers with their base in Hattusa (modern Boğazkale) eventually unified these
groups, leading to the establishment of the Hittite kingdom and the conquest of large parts of
central Anatolia.
The Hittite kingdom was strategically situated in Anatolia, a peninsula that today constitutes the
Asian portion of Turkey. Anatolia's geographical location at the intersection of Asia and Europe
made it a crucial crossroads for numerous peoples migrating or conquering from either
continent, a factor that significantly influenced the history and cultures of the region. The
heartland of the Hittite kingdom was centered on the lands surrounding Hattusa and Neša
(Kültepe), an area known as "the land Hatti". After Hattusa became the capital around 1650 BC,
the territory within the bend of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite Marassantiya, Greek Halys) was
considered the core of the Empire, with Hittite laws even distinguishing between "this side of the
river" and "that side of the river". To the west and south of this core territory lay the region
initially known as Luwiya, which later became known as Arzawa and Kizzuwatna as these
kingdoms rose. The Hittites continued to refer to the language of these areas as Luwian. Before
the rise of Kizzuwatna, its heartland in Cilicia was called Adaniya by the Hittites. To the north
lived the Kaskian mountain people, and to the southeast was the Hurrian empire of Mitanni. At
its zenith during the reign of Muršili II, the Hittite empire extended from Arzawa in the west to
Mitanni in the east, also encompassing many Kaskian territories north to Hayasa-Azzi in the
northeast and stretching south into Canaan, near the southern border of Lebanon.
Hattusa, located at the site of modern-day Boğazkale in Turkey, served as the capital city of the
Hittite kingdom and later the empire. Its strategic location in north-central Anatolia, on a slope
rising approximately 300 meters above the Budaközü Plain, provided natural defenses. The city
was divided by the Kızlarkayası creek into a lower city in the north and an upper city in the
south. Hattusa was originally founded by the Hatti around 2500 BCE, and their culture may have
provided the basis for that of the Hittites. The city was later sacked and destroyed around 1700
BCE by the Hittite King Anitta of the neighboring kingdom of Kussara. However, Hattusa was
subsequently rebuilt and established as the Hittite capital by Hattusili I around 1650 BCE,
marking the foundation of the Hittite kingdom. The impressive ruins of Hattusa today bear
witness to its former glory as a vast fortress-city with massive stone walls, elaborate temples,
and royal palaces, reflecting the power and sophistication of the Hittite civilization.
The Hittites' Indo-European linguistic heritage connects them to a vast and widespread family of
languages, both ancient and modern. The identification of Hittite as part of this linguistic group
reveals the extensive historical migrations of peoples who spoke related languages across
Europe and parts of Asia, highlighting a deep and ancient interconnectedness of cultures across
a significant geographical expanse. Furthermore, the complex interaction between the Hittites
and the indigenous Hattians and Hurrians demonstrates the dynamic cultural landscape of
ancient Anatolia. The Hittites did not simply supplant the existing populations but engaged in a
long process of coexistence, conquest, and eventual assimilation, leading to a blending of
cultural traditions and influences that shaped the unique character of Hittite civilization. Finally,
Anatolia's pivotal geographical position at the juncture of continents made the Hittite kingdom a
central actor in the geopolitical arena of the Bronze Age Near East. Situated at this strategic
crossroads, the Hittites were inevitably drawn into intricate webs of interaction with powerful
neighboring empires such as Egypt, Assyria, and Mitanni, resulting in periods of both
cooperation and intense rivalry that significantly influenced the course of history in the entire
region during the Late Bronze Age.
III. Historical Overview and Key Periods
The history of the Hittite civilization spans several centuries and is typically divided into distinct
periods by modern-day scholars.
The Early Period (c. 1700 BCE - c. 1650 BCE) is marked by the initial Hittite incursions into
Anatolia. Around 1700 BCE, the Hittites invaded the region inhabited by the Hatti people,
initiating a systematic campaign against them. During this early phase, the significant Hatti city
of Hattusa was sacked and destroyed.
The subsequent Old Kingdom (c. 1650 BCE - c. 1500 BCE) witnessed the consolidation of
Hittite power. Hattusili I, who reigned around 1650 BCE, is recognized as the founder of the Old
Hittite Kingdom. Under his leadership, the campaigns against the Hatti were brought to
completion, resulting in their subjugation. Hattusili I also undertook the rebuilding of Hattusa,
establishing it as the new capital of the Hittite kingdom. His reign saw an expansion of Hittite
influence, with military campaigns extending into Syria and the region of Arzawa. By
approximately 1600 BCE, the important city of Aleppo came under Hittite control. A significant
event during this period was the military expedition led by King Mursilis I in 1595 BCE, which
resulted in the sack of Babylon, marking the end of Amorite rule in the city. The Edict of
Telepinu, an ancient document from the 16th century BCE, provides valuable insights into the
reign of Hattusili I and the political landscape of the early Hittite kingdom. However, following the
assassination of Mursilis I upon his return to Hattusa, the Old Kingdom experienced a period of
internal instability and decline before its fortunes revived under later rulers.
The Middle Kingdom (c. 1500 BCE - c. 1380 BCE) is a less documented period in Hittite
history compared to the Old and New Kingdoms. It is generally considered a transitional phase,
bridging the era of the early kingdom with the later imperial period.
The New Kingdom, also known as the Hittite Empire (c. 1380 BCE - c. 1200 BCE), represents
the zenith of Hittite power and influence. Around 1380 BCE, the Hittite capital, Hattusa, was
burned to the ground by Kaska invaders. The empire reached its peak between 1350 BCE and
1250 BCE. A pivotal figure of this era was King Suppiluliuma I (c. 1344 BCE - 1322 BCE), who
significantly expanded Hittite territory and influence, including the conquest of the Mitanni
capital, Washukanni. The Hittites engaged in prolonged conflicts with Egypt over control of Syria
and the Levant. This rivalry culminated in the famous Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE, fought
between the forces of the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses II and the Hittite King Muwatalli II.
Although neither side achieved a decisive victory, the battle led to the signing of the first known
peace treaty in the world between Egypt and the Hittites in 1258 BCE. During the later part of
the New Kingdom, the Hittites faced increasing pressure from the rising power of the Assyrian
Empire, including a significant defeat at the Battle of Nihriya around 1245 BCE. Internal conflicts
and external invasions, particularly by the enigmatic Sea Peoples and the Phrygians, ultimately
led to the decline and collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1200 BCE.
Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire, the region entered the Neo-Hittite Period (c. 1200
BCE - c. 700 BCE). The once unified empire fragmented into several independent Syro-Hittite
city-states. Some of these Neo-Hittite states managed to survive for several centuries, until the
8th century BCE, when they were eventually absorbed by the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Kingdoms like Lydia also emerged as Neo-Hittite successors in the Anatolian region.
The cyclical pattern of the Hittite kingdom, marked by periods of expansion and consolidation
followed by decline and fragmentation, mirrors a common trajectory observed in the history of
many empires. The Hittite narrative clearly illustrates this rise and fall, from the establishment of
the Old Kingdom to the imperial might of the New Kingdom and its subsequent disintegration.
This recurring pattern in imperial history is often influenced by a complex interplay of factors,
including the effectiveness of leadership, the stability of the economy, the pressures exerted by
external forces, and the presence or absence of internal unity. The Battle of Kadesh, while
resulting in neither a clear victory nor a decisive defeat for either the Hittites or the Egyptians,
underscores the critical strategic importance of Syria and the Levant during the Late Bronze
Age. The intense conflict over this region highlights the significant rivalry between the major
powers of the time for control of its vital trade routes and abundant resources. The fact that both
empires committed substantial military forces to this engagement emphasizes the pivotal role of
this area in the overall balance of power in the Late Bronze Age Near East. Furthermore, the
decline of the Hittite Empire appears to have coincided with the broader transition from the
Bronze Age to the Iron Age. While the Hittites were early adopters of ironworking technology,
giving them an initial military advantage, the subsequent spread of this technology to other
regions, combined with a multitude of other contributing factors, likely played a role in the
shifting dynamics of global power and the eventual decline of the Hittite state. This illustrates the
profound and intricate ways in which technological advancements can impact the rise and fall of
civilizations throughout history.
IV. Society and Culture
Hittite society exhibited a hierarchical structure, with the king occupying the apex of the social
pyramid. Below the king were the members of the royal family and the nobility, who held
significant political and military positions and enjoyed privileges such as land ownership and tax
exemptions. The king held ultimate political and religious authority, serving as the chief ruler,
military leader, supreme judge, and the earthly representative of the storm god. The Hittite state
was essentially feudal and agrarian, with the majority of the population consisting of
commoners, including farmers, artisans, and merchants, many of whom were tied to large
estates. At the bottom of the social hierarchy were slaves, who were often prisoners of war or
debtors, although they possessed certain rights and could own property. In the early Hittite
period, the king's hold on power appears to have been somewhat tenuous, with frequent
rebellions and political crises often following the death of a ruler. The nobles formed a powerful
class, protective of their ancient privileges, leading to tensions and conflicts with the kings who
sought to centralize power. There is also evidence of a shadowy institution known as the
Assembly, likely composed of the nobility, which may have played a role in the Hittite state.
Interestingly, women in Hittite society enjoyed more rights and freedoms compared to women in
many other ancient Near Eastern cultures. Queens and royal women held important political
and religious positions and could own property and conduct business. Women from noble
families could also serve as priestesses and participate in religious ceremonies, although most
women were still subordinate to men and expected to fulfill traditional roles as wives and
mothers.
Daily life in Hattusa and other Hittite settlements revolved largely around agriculture and animal
husbandry. Major crops cultivated included wheat, barley, and grapes, and the Hittites
developed advanced irrigation techniques to support agriculture in the often arid Anatolian
plateau. They also raised livestock such as horses, cattle, goats, and sheep. Trade was an
important aspect of the Hittite economy, with merchants exchanging goods like textiles, metals
(especially silver and iron), and horses along the major trade routes of the ancient Near East.
Professional craftsmen, including builders, weavers, and smiths, also played a role in the
economy. The Hittites paid significant attention to legal matters, possibly due to the unification
of diverse local societies under their rule, each with its own customs. Their legal system is
considered more humane than those of many contemporary societies, with a focus on providing
a consistent set of laws under which people of differing customs could live in harmony.
Hittite culture was characterized by skilled craftsmanship in art and architecture. Their
architectural style, evident in the ruins of Hattusa, featured massive stone walls, palaces, and
temples, often with asymmetrical ground plans and the use of square piers for support rather
than columns or capitals. Iconic examples of Hittite art include the Sphinx Gate at Alacahöyük,
adorned with sculpted sphinxes, and the rock reliefs at Yazılıkaya, an outdoor religious
sanctuary featuring carvings of male and female deities arranged to represent the cosmic order.
The Hittites were known for their ability to assimilate and adapt cultural elements from
conquered populations, blending indigenous Anatolian traditions with influences from
Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. They also made significant advancements in military
technology, being among the first to effectively employ chariots in battle, which gave them a
considerable advantage over their rivals. Furthermore, the Hittites were pioneers of the Iron
Age, beginning to manufacture iron artifacts around 1400 BCE, which proved to be more
efficient for tools and weapons than bronze.
The Hittite king's dual role as the supreme political and religious authority highlights the close
integration of state and religion in their society. His position as the earthly deputy of the storm
god and the chief priest in religious affairs underscored the divine sanction of his rule, a
common feature in many ancient civilizations where political legitimacy was often intertwined
with religious beliefs. The Hittite legal system's emphasis on financial compensation and
restitution for crimes like murder, rather than the death penalty which was common in some
contemporary societies, suggests a distinct approach to justice. This focus on making amends
and restoring balance within the community reveals a potentially different set of societal values
regarding crime and punishment compared to some of their neighbors. The Hittites' practice of
adopting and adapting cultural and religious elements from the Hattians, Hurrians, and
Mesopotamians demonstrates a significant degree of syncretism and cultural exchange. This
willingness to incorporate the beliefs and customs of the people they encountered and
conquered likely played a crucial role in maintaining stability and integrating diverse populations
within their expansive empire.
V. Language and Writing System
The Hittite language belonged to the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family,
making it related to a vast group of ancient and modern languages spoken across Europe and
parts of Asia. It is considered one of the earliest attested Indo-European languages, with written
records dating from the 17th to the 13th centuries BC. The Hittite language is traditionally
divided into Old Hittite (OH), Middle Hittite (MH), and New Hittite (NH), corresponding to the
different periods of the Hittite Kingdom. Scholars have also identified dialectal variations,
including Kanišite Hittite and Ḫattuša Hittite.
The Hittites adopted and adapted the cuneiform script, originally developed in Mesopotamia, for
their own language. They likely borrowed this writing system from the Assyrian traders who had
established colonies in Anatolia during the Old Assyrian Empire or possibly from the Old
Babylonian script used in Syria. The Hittites modified the cuneiform script to suit the phonetic
requirements of their Indo-European language, using a combination of Sumerograms (signs
representing Sumerian words), Akkadograms (Akkadian words written syllabically and used to
represent Hittite words), and syllabic signs to write their language phonetically. The discovery of
thousands of clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform at Hattusa, the Hittite capital, has provided an
extensive corpus of texts that document nearly every aspect of Hittite history, society, culture,
and religion. In addition to cuneiform, the Hittites also developed and used a hieroglyphic script,
now known as Hieroglyphic Luwian, primarily for monumental inscriptions and royal seals.
Hittite cuneiform writing presents certain challenges for decipherment due to its predominantly
syllabic nature. The script distinguished between various consonants combined with the vowels
a, e, i, and u, and also introduced signs for ya, wa, and wi. However, the Akkadian distinction
between voiced and unvoiced consonants was not consistently expressed in Hittite writing.
Scribes sometimes employed "prop vowels" to write consonant clusters that could not be
directly represented. For example, to write the word for "plague" (ḫenkan), a scribe might write
ḫe-en-ka-an. Another feature of Hittite cuneiform was scriptio plena, where an extra vowel
symbol was added to indicate a long vowel, such as writing ne-e-pi-iš for nēpis ("sky, heaven").
Examples of common Hittite words written in cuneiform include e-eš-mi ("I am"), e-ep-mi ("I
take"), and wa-a-tar or wa-tar ("water").
The Hittite adoption of the cuneiform script from Mesopotamia illustrates the significant
interconnectedness of ancient Near Eastern civilizations. Rather than developing their own
writing system from scratch, the Hittites adapted an existing and sophisticated script, likely
facilitated by trade and diplomatic contacts with Assyria and Syria. This borrowing and
modification of cuneiform demonstrates a common pattern in the ancient world, where
knowledge and technology, including writing systems, were readily transmitted and adapted
across cultural boundaries to meet specific linguistic and administrative needs. The
simultaneous use of both cuneiform and hieroglyphic scripts within the Hittite realm suggests a
degree of linguistic and cultural complexity. The cuneiform script, with its Mesopotamian origins,
was likely employed for administrative, legal, and literary texts, while the indigenous
Hieroglyphic Luwian script was primarily reserved for monumental inscriptions and royal seals,
possibly reflecting different spheres of influence or purposes within Hittite society. The vast
archive of cuneiform tablets unearthed at Hattusa serves as an unparalleled primary source for
understanding the Hittite civilization. These tens of thousands of fragments cover a remarkable
range of topics, from historical annals and international treaties to religious rituals and legal
codes, offering invaluable insights into the intricate workings of the Hittite state and the daily
lives of its people. This extensive textual record is fundamental to our current knowledge of the
Hittites and continues to be a subject of ongoing scholarly research and interpretation.
VI. Religion and Mythology
Hittite religion was polytheistic, incorporating a vast pantheon of deities drawn from various
sources, including their own Indo-European traditions as well as the beliefs of the indigenous
Hattians and the neighboring Hurrians and Mesopotamians. The chief deity of the Hittite
pantheon was the Storm God, known as Tarhunt in Hittite and Luwian, Taru in Hattian, and
Teshub in Hurrian. He was associated with storms, thunder, lightning, and rain, and was
revered as a symbol of power and authority, often depicted wielding a thunderbolt and riding a
bull. The principal goddess was the Sun Goddess of Arinna, known as Arinnitti by the Hittites
and Wurusemu in Hattian. She was considered the chief goddess and wife of the Storm God,
representing the sun and divine light, and was seen as a protector of justice, treaties, and oaths.
Other important deities included Istanu, the Sun God; Arma, the Moon God; Shaushka, the
goddess of love and war (identified with the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar); and Hannahannah,
a mother goddess associated with birth and creation. The Hittites were known to have
incorporated a vast number of deities into their pantheon, sometimes referred to as the
"thousand gods," reflecting the syncretic nature of their religious beliefs.
Hittite mythology included various myths and legends that explained the origins of the world, the
relationships between the gods, and the interactions between the divine and mortal realms.
Notable myths include the Illuyanka myth, which recounts the struggle between the Storm God
and a dragon, and the Song of Kumarbi, a Hurrian myth adopted by the Hittites that bears
similarities to Greek stories of the Titans and Olympian gods.
Religious rituals and practices were central to Hittite life, aimed at honoring the gods,
maintaining cosmic order, and seeking divine favor. Animal sacrifice, typically involving bulls,
sheep, and goats, was a common practice to communicate with the gods and ensure divine
blessings. Purification rituals were performed to cleanse individuals, objects, and spaces of
impurity. The Hittite calendar was marked by numerous religious festivals and processions
dedicated to various deities, often linked to the agricultural cycle and featuring feasting and
public displays of devotion. Temples served as focal points for worship, offerings, and divine
communication, maintained by priests and priestesses who performed the necessary rituals.
The Hittites also consulted divine oracles to seek guidance from the gods, with priests
interpreting the responses. Treaties with neighboring states were often established and
enforced through religious rituals, invoking the gods as witnesses and guarantors.
Religion played a pervasive role in Hittite daily life and governance. The king held the dual
position of political ruler and high priest, acting as the intermediary between the gods and the
people, responsible for ensuring the kingdom's well-being through proper religious practices and
maintaining cosmic order. The concept of divine kingship linked the ruler's authority to the gods,
with the king seen as the earthly representative of the Storm God. The Hittites believed that the
gods controlled all aspects of life, including natural phenomena, fertility, war, and justice, and
that maintaining good relationships with the deities was essential for the prosperity and security
of the kingdom.
The Hittite pantheon's assimilation of deities from Hattian, Hurrian, and Mesopotamian cultures
demonstrates a significant level of religious syncretism. This incorporation of diverse religious
traditions suggests a pragmatic approach to integrating the beliefs of various populations within
their empire, fostering a degree of religious tolerance and cultural cohesion. The strong
connection between Hittite festivals and the agricultural cycle highlights the fundamental
importance of agriculture to their society. The timing and themes of these religious celebrations
were deeply intertwined with the seasons and the stages of planting, growth, and harvest,
underscoring the reliance of the Hittites on agriculture and the role of religious rituals in seeking
divine favor for a bountiful yield. The Hittite belief that their gods had human-like needs and that
the king was responsible for ensuring their proper worship illustrates a unique reciprocal
relationship between the divine and mortal realms. This concept suggests a worldview where
the gods, while powerful, also depended on the service and devotion of humans, and in turn,
were obligated to provide for the well-being of their worshippers, emphasizing a balance of
responsibilities between the earthly and divine spheres.
VII. Interactions with Neighboring Powers
The Hittites engaged in complex and multifaceted relationships with neighboring powers, most
notably Egypt and Assyria, which shaped the political landscape of the Late Bronze Age Near
East. Trade played a significant role in these interactions, with the Hittites exchanging goods
such as metals and textiles for luxury items from Egypt and other regions. Diplomatic
engagements were also crucial, involving alliances formed through strategic marriages and
treaties aimed at maintaining peace and mutual defense.
However, the relationship between the Hittites and both Egypt and Assyria was also marked by
periods of intense military conflict. The Hittites clashed with the Egyptian New Kingdom for
control of Syria and the Levant, culminating in the famous Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. This
battle, though inconclusive, led to the landmark Treaty of Kadesh in 1258 BCE, one of the
earliest known peace treaties in history, establishing terms of peace and alliance between the
two great powers. The Hittites also engaged in conflicts with the rising power of Assyria,
particularly in the later period of their empire, as Assyrian influence expanded into regions
previously under Hittite control. The Hittite-Mitanni conflict around 1600 BC was another
significant military engagement that defined the power struggles in northern Mesopotamia and
Anatolia, ultimately leading to a shift in power with the Hittites emerging as the dominant force.
The interactions between the Hittites and Egypt and Assyria highlight the dynamic and ever-
shifting landscape of alliances and rivalries in the Late Bronze Age Near East. Their
relationships were characterized by a complex interplay of trade, diplomacy, and warfare,
reflecting the constant competition for resources, territory, and influence among the major
civilizations of the time. The Treaty of Kadesh stands as a remarkable testament to the
development of early international diplomacy. This agreement, reached after a prolonged period
of conflict, not only established peace between the Hittites and Egypt but also included
provisions for mutual defense and trade, setting a precedent for future international agreements
and demonstrating a sophisticated understanding of interstate relations. The Hittites' control
over vital trade routes and their advancements in military technology, particularly ironworking,
were crucial factors that shaped their interactions with neighboring powers. Their strategic
location in Anatolia allowed them to dominate key commercial arteries, while their early mastery
of iron gave their military an advantage, influencing their ability to engage in both trade and
conflict with empires like Egypt and Assyria.
VIII. Decline and Fall of the Hittite Empire
The decline and eventual collapse of the Hittite Empire around the end of the Bronze Age (c.
1200 BCE) was a complex process resulting from a confluence of environmental, political, and
social factors. Recent research suggests that a severe multi-year drought, occurring
approximately between 1198 and 1196 BCE, may have played a significant role in the empire's
fragmentation. Tree-ring analysis and stable isotope records from juniper trees in central
Anatolia indicate a period of unusually severe dryness that would have severely impacted
agriculture, leading to famine, economic hardship, and potentially social unrest.
Invasions by various groups also contributed to the empire's downfall. The Sea Peoples, a
mysterious confederation of naval raiders, are frequently cited as a major factor in the
widespread devastation across the Eastern Mediterranean during this period, and they are
believed to have attacked and weakened the Hittite Empire. Other groups, such as the Kaska
tribe from the north and the Phrygians who migrated into Anatolia, also exerted pressure on
Hittite territories, leading to the burning and abandonment of the capital city, Hattusa, around
1200 BCE. Internal conflicts and instability within the Hittite Empire, potentially exacerbated by
the prolonged drought and external pressures, also played a role in its decline. Furthermore, the
rising power of the Assyrian Empire to the southeast posed a significant threat to Hittite
dominance, leading to territorial losses and further weakening the empire's ability to withstand
other challenges. The last known Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II, came to the throne around 1207
BCE, and by either 1188 or 1177 BCE, Egyptian records indicate the destruction of the Hittite
Empire, likely marking the final collapse of their central authority.
The demise of the Hittite Empire was not likely attributable to a single cause but rather a
combination of interconnected factors. The severe and prolonged drought likely exacerbated
existing vulnerabilities within the empire, weakening its agricultural base, straining its economy,
and potentially leading to social unrest. This ecological crisis, coupled with the devastating
invasions by the Sea Peoples and other migrating groups, as well as internal strife and the
growing threat from Assyria, created a perfect storm of calamities that overwhelmed the Hittite
state. The Hittite collapse was part of a broader phenomenon known as the Late Bronze Age
collapse, which affected numerous civilizations across the Mediterranean and Near East. This
widespread decline suggests systemic issues within the ancient world, possibly including
climate change, disruptions in trade networks, and large-scale migrations that destabilized
established powers. Despite the fall of their empire, Hittite culture and traditions did not entirely
disappear. Several independent Neo-Hittite city-states emerged in Anatolia and Syria after 1180
BCE, some of which survived until the 8th century BCE before being absorbed by the Neo-
Assyrian Empire. This persistence of Neo-Hittite entities demonstrates the enduring legacy and
resilience of Hittite civilization in the region even after the collapse of its centralized imperial
structure.
IX. Archaeological Landscape and Recent Discoveries
The Anatolian landscape is dotted with significant archaeological sites that provide invaluable
insights into the Hittite civilization. Hattusa (modern Boğazkale), the capital city, stands as a
monumental testament to Hittite urban planning and architectural prowess, with its extensive
fortifications, numerous temples dedicated to the Hittite and Hurrian pantheon, and the ruins of
royal residences. Nearby lies Yazılıkaya, a remarkable rock sanctuary featuring impressive
reliefs of Hittite gods and goddesses carved into the natural bedrock. Alacahöyük, while
predating the Hittites, also contains significant Hittite remains, most notably the imposing Sphinx
Gate adorned with intricately sculpted sphinxes. Kültepe (ancient Kanesh or Nesha), located
near modern-day Kayseri, was an important early Hittite center and also served as a major
Assyrian trading colony, yielding numerous cuneiform tablets that provide early evidence of the
Hittites. Another significant Hittite site is Şapinuva (modern Ortaköy), where the remains of a
large palace and administrative buildings have been discovered.
Recent archaeological discoveries continue to shed new light on the Hittite civilization. Notably,
the site of Uşaklı Höyük has been convincingly identified as the long-sought Hittite holy city of
Zippalanda. Excavations at this site have unearthed the remains of monumental public
buildings, including a large Hittite temple and a unique circular structure potentially associated
with the Storm God of Zippalanda, mentioned in numerous Hittite texts. Archaeologists have
also discovered several cuneiform tablets at Uşaklı Höyük, further supporting its identification as
Zippalanda. In addition, a well-preserved 3,300-year-old clay tablet inscribed in both Hittite and
Hurrian languages was discovered in Büklükale in 2023, recounting a devastating invasion of
four Hittite cities, including Hattusa, during a period of internal strife. In July 2024, a Hittite royal
seal bearing a warning inscription was unearthed during excavations in Kırıkkale. Ongoing
research also aims to definitively identify the second capital of the Hittite Empire, with the
extensive mound site of Türkmen-Karahöyük emerging as a strong candidate. Furthermore, a
previously unknown Indo-European language, Kalašma, belonging to the Anatolian language
family, was deciphered from a cuneiform tablet discovered at Boğazköy-Hattusha in 2023.
The ongoing archaeological investigations at Hittite sites across Anatolia continue to yield new
and exciting discoveries, constantly refining and sometimes challenging our understanding of
this ancient civilization. The recent identification of Zippalanda, for example, provides crucial
insights into Hittite religious practices and the geographical distribution of their cult centers. The
geographical spread of major Hittite archaeological sites throughout Anatolia underscores the
vast extent and complex organization of their kingdom. The presence of significant urban and
religious centers beyond the capital city highlights the regional importance and multifaceted
nature of Hittite society. The discovery of bilingual inscriptions and the decipherment of
previously unknown languages from the Hittite period emphasize the linguistic diversity of
ancient Anatolia. These philological breakthroughs offer valuable opportunities to deepen our
understanding of the interactions between different cultural and linguistic groups within and
around the Hittite Empire, potentially revealing new perspectives on their history, religion, and
daily life.
X. Burial Customs and Afterlife Beliefs
The tablets from Boğazköy have provided significant information about Hittite burial practices.
Cremation was the preferred method of disposal, particularly for members of the royal family.
The royal burial ritual was an elaborate affair lasting 13 days. It involved the cremation of the
body on a funeral pyre, which was then extinguished with liquids such as wine or beer. The
bones were carefully collected from the ashes, dipped in oil or fat, and then wrapped in linen
cloth or fine garments. These wrapped bones were often placed in stone chambers or
sometimes on a chair or stool. Following the burial, a funeral feast was held. For ordinary
people, both burial (inhumation) and cremation were practiced. Interestingly, compared to other
major civilizations of the time like Egypt, very few Hittite royal graves have been discovered
archaeologically.
The Hittites believed in an afterlife and had a concept of the netherworld. They envisioned the
netherworld as a significant realm within their cosmology, with caves, springs, dug pits, and
tombs serving as potential passageways to it. The sun god, in his capacity as the deity who
traversed the sky during the day and the underworld at night, was considered the chief god of
the netherworld. The Hittites seemed to believe that life after death continued in a manner
similar to life during mortality, with the deceased potentially needing provisions and being
symbolically outfitted for their journey in the next life. There was also a practice of appeasing the
spirit of the dead, possibly to prevent any lingering anger towards those who remained alive.
The Hittite preference for cremation, particularly for royalty, sets their funerary practices apart
from those of contemporary civilizations like Egypt, which emphasized elaborate mummification
and the preservation of the body. This emphasis on cremation might reflect a belief in the
separation of the soul from the body after death. The relative scarcity of discovered Hittite royal
tombs, despite the empire's wealth and power, remains an intriguing question for
archaeologists. This lack of monumental royal burials contrasts sharply with the elaborate tombs
found in Egypt and Mesopotamia, suggesting either different burial customs, the possibility that
royal tombs have yet to be discovered, or that Hittite royal burials were less focused on
elaborate material remains. The Hittite belief in a netherworld ruled by the sun god and the
continuation of a life similar to mortal existence suggests a cyclical view of life and death. The
transition to the netherworld, overseen by the sun god, might have been seen as a continuation
of the life cycle, with the deceased entering a new realm that mirrored their earthly existence.
XI. Entertainment and Leisure
Hittite society, while characterized by its political and military strength, also had its forms of
entertainment and leisure. Music played a significant role in Hittite life, with various instruments
mentioned in texts and depicted in archaeological finds, including lyres (both large and small),
long-necked lutes, harps (though less common), horns, woodwind instruments, drums, and
cymbals. Singing and dancing were also popular forms of entertainment and often accompanied
musical performances. Athletic competitions, particularly racing and wrestling, provided another
avenue for leisure and possibly public spectacle. Acrobatics are also mentioned as a form of
entertainment, sometimes performed alongside music.
Religious festivals, which were numerous throughout the Hittite year, often included elements of
celebration and entertainment in addition to their spiritual significance. These festivals, many of
which were linked to the agricultural cycle, would have provided opportunities for communities
to gather, socialize, and enjoy various forms of entertainment. Storytelling and perhaps games
likely also played a role in Hittite leisure activities. Hunting with spears was a common practice,
which may have served both as a means of obtaining food and as a form of recreation,
particularly for the elite. The KI.LAM festival is notable for its unique practice involving the
rhythmic beating of spears against each other by men from the Hattian city of Anunuwa,
accompanied by singing.
The prominence of music and dance in Hittite society, especially their integration into religious
rituals, indicates their importance in both spiritual and social life. The variety of musical
instruments used and the detailed information about their role in religious ceremonies suggest
that the performing arts held a significant place in Hittite culture. The inclusion of athletic
competitions and acrobatics among leisure activities reflects a societal appreciation for physical
skill and entertainment, similar to many other ancient cultures. These activities likely provided
both enjoyment and opportunities for social interaction within Hittite communities. The numerous
religious festivals, with their blend of ritual and celebration, served as vital social events that
brought people together, reinforced cultural identity, and provided a context for various forms of
entertainment. These gatherings would have been important occasions for social bonding and
the transmission of cultural traditions through shared experiences and festivities.
XII. Conclusion
The Hittites of Anatolia were a remarkable civilization that significantly shaped the course of the
ancient Near East during the Bronze Age. Originating from Indo-European migrations, they
established a powerful empire in Anatolia, centered on the impressive city of Hattusa. Their
history is marked by periods of expansion, consolidation, and intense interactions with
neighboring powers like Egypt and Assyria, culminating in the landmark Treaty of Kadesh, a
testament to their diplomatic skills. Hittite society was hierarchical yet afforded certain rights to
women, and their culture was rich with artistic and architectural achievements, influenced by
both indigenous Anatolian traditions and those of the wider Near East. Their adoption and
adaptation of the cuneiform script allowed for the creation of an extensive written record,
providing invaluable insights into their language, history, religion, and daily life. The Hittite
pantheon was syncretic, incorporating deities from various cultures, and their religious practices
were deeply intertwined with their daily lives and governance, with the king holding a central role
as both ruler and high priest. While the Hittite Empire ultimately collapsed around 1200 BCE
due to a combination of environmental pressures, invasions, and internal strife, their legacy
continued through the Neo-Hittite states and their contributions to law, warfare, diplomacy, and
culture left a lasting impact on the ancient world. Ongoing archaeological research continues to
uncover new information about the Hittites, promising to further illuminate our understanding of
this influential Bronze Age civilization.
Period Name Approximate Dates Key Events/Characteristics
Early Period c. 1700-1650 BCE Hittite invasion of Hatti, sacking
of Hattusa.
Old Kingdom c. 1650-1500 BCE Foundation by Hattusili I,
rebuilding of Hattusa,
subjugation of Hatti, expansion
into Syria and Arzawa, control
of Aleppo, sack of Babylon by
Mursilis I, internal instability.
Middle Kingdom c. 1500-1380 BCE Transitional period, less
documented.
New Kingdom (Empire) c. 1380-1200 BCE Burning of Hattusa, peak of
empire under Suppiluliuma I,
conflict with Egypt (Battle of
Kadesh), signing of the Treaty
of Kadesh, increasing pressure
from Assyria, internal conflicts
and external invasions,
eventual collapse.
Neo-Hittite Period c. 1200-700 BCE Fragmentation into Syro-Hittite
city-states, survival of some
states until absorption by
Assyria, emergence of
kingdoms like Lydia.

Deity Name Primary Associations/Roles

Tarhunt/Teshub Storm God, chief deity, power, authority,
storms, thunder, rain, lightning.
Arinnitti/Wurusemu Sun Goddess of Arinna, chief goddess, sun,
divine light, justice, treaties, oaths.
Istanu Sun God, distinct from the Sun Goddess of
Arinna.
Arma Moon God, played a minor role.
Shaushka Goddess of love and war, identified with
Mesopotamian Ishtar.
Hannahannah Mother Goddess, associated with birth,
creation, and destiny.

Instrument Name Description/Evidence of Use

Lyre (zinar) Most frequently attested, small and large
versions, used in religious contexts and
drinking ceremonies.
Lute (Sumerogram: ^GIŠ^TIBULA) Long-necked, played alone or with singing and
dancing, prominent in rituals.
Harp Literary sources rare, artistic depictions
fragmentary, less important than in
Mesopotamia.
Horn (šawetra) Shaped like a bull's horn, used in Luwian
rituals, for signals, and sometimes as a libation
Instrument Name Description/Evidence of Use
vessel.
Woodwind (Sumerogram: GI.GÍD) Mentioned in texts, likely reed instruments or
flutes, associated with the mountain god Ḫulla.
Drums (arkammi-) Frequently used at the beginning of musical
pieces and to accompany dancing, played by
both men and women.
Cymbals Archaeologically attested, often played by
women in pairs, sometimes with acrobats.
Spears (marit) Rhythmically beaten together and sung to
during special events like the KI.LAM festival.

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makes-film-not-war 82. The Hittites I Docu-Drama - YouTube,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_9S40sXeJ2k