College of natural and computational science

Department of mathematics

Short note of modern algebra for exit exam

Proper by: Getasew Alene (Msc)

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Contents
1. Binary operations and algebraic structures ........................................................ 3
2. Groups .................................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Definition and example of groups....................................................................................... 4
2.2. Order of group and elements ............................................................................................. 6
2.3. Subgroups ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.4. Cyclic group ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.5. Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem .......................................................................................... 8
2.6. Normal subgroups............................................................................................................... 9
2.7. Quotient groups ................................................................................................................ 10
2.8. Group homomorphism ..................................................................................................... 10
2.9. Isomorphism theorem ...................................................................................................... 11
2.10. Group of Permutation ....................................................................................................... 12

Summery..................................................................................................................... 13
3. Rings ..................................................................................................................... 16
3.1. Definition and examples of rings ...................................................................................... 16
3.2. Subring .............................................................................................................................. 18
3.3. Ideals ................................................................................................................................. 19
3.4. Quotient Ring .................................................................................................................... 20
3.5. Homomorphism of rings ................................................................................................... 21
3.6. Isomorphism theorem ...................................................................................................... 22
3.7. Prime and maximal ideals ................................................................................................. 22
3.8. The ring of polynomial ...................................................................................................... 23
3.9. Root of polynomial and factorization of polynomial ........................................................ 24
3.10. ED, UFD and PID ................................................................................................................ 25

Summery..................................................................................................................... 26
4 . Introduction to field theory .............................................................................. 34
4.1. field extension................................................................................................................... 34
4.2. finite and algebraic extension ........................................................................................... 35
4.3. Algebraic closure ............................................................................................................... 36
4.4. Splitting fields and normal extensions .............................................................................. 36
4.5. Separable and Inseparable Extensions ............................................................................. 37

Summery..................................................................................................................... 38
Reference .................................................................................................................... 40

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 1. Binary operations and algebraic structures

Definition 1.1 Let S be a non- empty set. A binary operation on S is a function from 𝑆 × 𝑆
into 𝑆,
i.e if f is a function from 𝑆 × 𝑆 in to 𝑆, then f is called a binary operations on 𝑆.

Remark:1. If ∆∶ 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆 is a binary operation on 𝑆 the value ∆(𝑥, 𝑦) of ∆ for an ordered

pair (𝑥,𝑦) ∈ 𝑆 × 𝑆 is usually denoted by 𝑥∆𝑦.
2) Given a set, defining a binary operation ∆ on 𝑆, one must be sure of the following
two important points.
a) ∆ assigns exactly one element to each ordered pair of element of S, (well defined)
b) The element assigned to each ordered pair of element of 𝑆 is again in S. (closed)
Examples:1.1:

1. Consider the set of integers

a. Then is a binary operation on because the sum of two integers is an integer
i.e 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ for all 𝑥 𝑦 ∈
b. maps an element (𝑥 𝑦) in to a single element of
c. Similarly – and are binary operations on .
d. But since is not closed under division, division is not a binary operation on .
2. Let 𝑆 * + Here addition is not a binary operation on 𝑆,
since 𝑆 But it is easy to see that multiplication is a binary operation
on 𝑆.
Definition 2.1.2 A non –empty set with one or more binary operations is called an
algebraicstructure.

Remark: An algebraic structure with one binary operation is usually denoted by an

ordered pair (𝑆 ) where 𝑆 is a non- empty set and is a binary operation on 𝑆.

An algebraic structure with two binary operations is denoted as an ordered triad (𝑆 )

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2. Groups
2.1. Definition and example of groups
Definition2.1.1: Let be any non-empty set and be binary operation on , then the
algebraic structure ( ) is said to be a group if and only if the following condition are
satisfied:

i. Closure property: i.e for all 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ 𝑥 𝑦∈

ii. Associative of property: i.e for all 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ∈ (𝑥 𝑦) 𝑧 𝑥 (𝑦 𝑧)
iii. Existence of identity element: for all 𝑥 ∈ , there exist an element ∈ such
that 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
iv. Existence of inverse: for each 𝑥 ∈ there exists 𝑦 ∈ such that 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
therefor 𝑦 is invers of 𝑥

Example: 2.1.1

1. ( ) is a group.
2. ( ) is not a group. Why?
3. ( ) is not a group. why?
4. ( * + ) is a group.

Example:2.1. 2

1. Let be the set of all positive rational numbers we define a binary operation on
as follows. For all 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ ,𝑥 𝑦 , find identity element and inverse.

Definition2.1.2: A group ( ) is called an abelian group if and only if

∈ . If there exist ∈ such that , then the group is called a non-
abelian group.

Example2.1.3

Show that (S, ×) is a finite abelian group. Where = {1, i, i}, × multiplication of
complex numbers and i2 = .
Solution: Since S is finite use table
1 -1 i -i
1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
I I -i -1 1
-i -i I 1 -1

From the above table we can observe that

i. S is closed under ×.
ii. 1 is the identity element of S
iii. Every element in has an inverse.

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  The inverse of 1 is 1 itself.
 The inverse of -1 is -1 itself.
 The inverse of i is -i and vice versa
iv. ×is commutative, since the main diagonal is a symmetric axis to the table
.[abelian group]
Therefore (S,×) is a finite abelian group with |S| = 4
Example:2.1.4

1. Let * is matrix such that detA }, then ( ) is a group but not

abelian group. Why?

Theorem2.1.1: Let a group and ∈ , then

i. The inverse of is unique

ii. ( )
iii. ( )

Theorem2.1.2 (cancellation laws)

Let be a group and ∈ ,then

i. implies (this is called the left cancellation)

ii. implies (this is called the right cancellation)

Definition2.1.3: The group ( ) is a group of addition modulo n. we denoted the elements

by r instead of ̅ , r means remainder.

Similarly (𝑧 ) called multiplication modulo n

Generally:

i. , where r is the remainder when is divided by n

ii. , where r is the remainder when is divided by n

Example 2.1.5:

1. Find addition and multiplication modulo table of

Solution:

1st to find elements of * +, then

0 1 2 3 And 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 3
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 0 2
3 3 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1

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 2.2. Order of group and elements

Definition2.2.1: The order of group , denoted by | | or ( ) is the number of element in

Example2.2.1:

1. Find the order of ( )

Solution: is a finite group of order 4.

Definition2.2.2: The order of element ∈ is the least positive integer n such that

If the binary operation is addition, then the order of an element ∈ is the least positive
integer that

If n is not exists, then order of infinite.

Example2.2.2: Find the order of each elements of (𝑧 )

Answer

i. ( )
ii. ( )
iii. ( )
iv. ( )

Exercise

1. find the order of each element in

2. find the order of each element of , where is prime and ∈

2.3. Subgroups

Definition2.3.1: Let be a group and be a non-empty subset of , then is said to be a

subgroup of Denoted by if and only if is a group under the binary operation of .

Example2.3.1:

 ( ) is subgroup of ( )
 The set ( * + ) is subgroup of ( * + )

Definition2.3.2: If is a group, then the subgroup consisting of itself is the improper

subgroup all other subgroup are proper subgroups. The subgroup * + is the trivial subgroup of
All other subgroups are nontrivial.

Lemma2.3.1: Let be a group and be subgroup of , then

i. The identity in is the identity in

ii. For each ∈

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Theorem2.3.2: Let be a subsets of a group, then is a subgroup of if and only if

i.
ii. 𝑥 𝑦∈ 𝑥 𝑦∈
iii. 𝑥 ∈ implies 𝑥 ∈
iv. 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ , then 𝑥 𝑦 ∈

2.4. Cyclic group

Definition2.4.1: Let be a group and let ∈ , then the subgroup * | ∈ 𝑧+ of G is said to

be cyclic group, if there is same element ∈ that generates denoted by

Example2.4.1: Let 𝑆 * +, then under multiplication of real numbers, 𝑆 is a group.

Show that (𝑆 ) is a cyclic group.

Solution

Element of 𝑆 * +, then

In cyclic group generates 𝑆

So that ∈ , * +

Then ( ) ( ) ( ) ………….

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) …………

Hence (𝑆 ) is a group and (𝑆 ) is cyclic generated by

Example2.4.2: Let be a group under addition, then show that is cyclic group.

(Hints * +

Show exercise

Theorem2.4.1: Every cyclic group is abelian.

Theorem 2.4.2: Let be a cyclic group of order and , then

i. ( ) ii.

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 2.5. Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem

Definition2.5.1: Let be a subgroup of a group and let ∈ , then the left coset of
is the set * ∈ + and the right coset is * ∈ +

If the binary operation is addition, then left coset is * ∈ +

Example2.5.1: In addition modulo and consider the subgroup * + , the find

all the distinct left cosets of that partition .

Solution
* + * + * +

Element of * + , then , if and * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

Then

Therefore: The collection all left cosets of ar* +

Exercise
Find all the distinct left cosets of * + that partition

Theorem2.5.1: Let be a group and be a subgroup of G. let ∈ , then

i. if and only if ∈
ii. if and only if ∈
iii. if and only if ∈

Lemma2.5.2: Let be subgroup of a group of , then | | | | ∈ that is the

number of and its left cosets is the same.

Theorem2.5.3: (Lagrange’s theorem)

Let be a subgroup of a finite group of , then the order of divides the order of .
( )
Corollar2.5.4: Let be a group and be a sub group of , then , -
( )

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Example2.5.2: Let be a finite group of order 50 and let be a subgroup of of order 10,
then find the number of distinct left cosets of

Solution
| |
Distinct left cosets =| |

2.6. Normal subgroups

Definition2.6.1: Let be a group and be a subgroup of , then is said to be normal

subgroup denoted by if and only if ∈ ∈

Note:- i. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.

ii. Trivial subgroups * + and are always normal subgroup.

Example2.6.1: Consider a subgroup * + . Show that

Solution

* + and * + , then to show

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

* + * + * +

So that

Therefore

Theorem2.6.1: Let be a group and be subgroup of , then is a normal subgroup of

if and only if ∈ ∈ ∈

Corollarly2.6.2: Let be a group and are normal subgroup of , then is

normal subgroup of

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 2.7. Quotient groups

Definition2.7.1: Let be a group and is normal subgroup of we put * ∈

+ is called the quotient set of by i.e the set of all cosets of in . Now will define a
binary operation on * ∈ + means ( ) is quotient group.

Example2.7.1:Let * + , then find all elements of the quotient group

Solution

* + and * +

1st to show that normal subgroup, then

* +

* +

* +

* +

Then :.

So that the collection of distinct left cosets * +

Therefore the quotient group * +

Theorem2.7.1: Let H is a normal subgroup of G. Let be defined on * ∈

+ as follows for ∈ * ∈ +, ( ) ∈ which
implies that ( ) is quotient group.

2.8. Group homomorphism

Definition2.8.1: Let ( ) and ( )be two groups, then the mapping is called a
group homomorphism if ( ) ( ) ( ) ∈

Definition2.8.2: Let ( ) and ( ) be two groups and be a homomorphism,

then is said to be

i. A monomorphism if is injective (one to one)

ii. An epimorphism if is surjective (on to)
iii. An isomorphism if is bijective
iv. An authomorphism if is an isomorphism a group on to a group
v. An endomorphism if is an epimorphism from on to

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Example2.8.1: Let be given (𝑥) , 𝑥∈ then is homomorphism from
( ) in to ( )

Because ∈ then ( ) (𝑥) (𝑦)

Therefore is homomorphism from ( ) in to ( )

Example2.8.2: Let ( ) ( ) define by ( ) ( ), then is a

homomorphism. Why?

Theorem2.8.1: Let be two groups with are identities respectively if is a

homomorphism between , then

i. ( )
ii. ( ) ( ( ))
iii. ( ) , ( )-

Theorem2.8.2: Let be a homomorphism group,

i. If is a subgroup of , then ( ) is subgroup of

ii. ( ) is subgroup of

Definition2.8.3: Let be a homomorphism of a group in to and Let be the identity of

then the kernel of , denoted by is the set *𝑥 ∈ (𝑥) + the set of all
elements 𝑥 in that map to under .

Theorem2.8.2: Let ( ) ( )be a homomorphism, then

i. is subgroup of
ii. is a normal subgroup of

2.9. Isomorphism theorem

Theorem2.9.1: Let be a group and then mapping defined by

( ) ∈ is an epimorphism.

Theorem2.9.2: (Fundamental theorem of isomorphism)

Let be a homomorphism, then ( )

Theorem2.9.2: (Second isomorphism theorem)

If and are subgroup of a group with then is subgroup and

Theorem2.9.3: ( isomorphism theorem)

If H and K are normal subgroups of a group G with then

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 i.
ii. ( ) ( )

2.10. Group of Permutation

Definition2.10.1:Let A be a set, then a permutation of A is simply a one to one and onto or

bijective map . a permutation group of a set A is a set of permutation of A that
forms a group composition function.

Note:-

i. A symmetric group 𝑆 has Permutation

ii. If are two permutations of A, then the composition of also a
permutation of A and the composition of permutation and product of permutation
are similar.
iii. If is a permutation of A, then the inverse of is a permutation of A.

Example2.10.1: Consider * +, then the three vertices have the following

permutation. It means . /, . /, . /, . /, . /,

. /

Definition2.10.2:

i. Let be a permutation on a non-empty set A, then is called a cycle of length

if and only if there are ∈ such that ( ) , ( ) ,
( ) …. ( ) and ( ) …………………………(1)
A one cycle is identity and n length of cycle
ii. A cycle of length two is called a transposition. The function in (1) is called a
permutation symbolized by the following notation
( ) ………………………...(2)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

. /……………….. ………………………...(3)

Definition 2.10.3: Let A be the finite set {1,2,3, . . . ,n}. The group of all permutations of set
A is the symmetric group on n-letters, and is denoted by 𝑆 .

Example2.10.2:

i. ( ) is a cycle of length 5 in 𝑆 which represents

. /

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 ii. ( ) is a cycle of length 5 in 𝑆 which represents
. /
iii. ( ) is a cycle of length 4 in 𝑆 which represents
. /

iv. ( ) is a transposition in 𝑆 represents . /

Definition2.10.3: ∈ is said to be

i. Even permutation if and only if is expressible as even number of transpositions.

ii. Odd permutation if and only if is expressible as odd number of transpositions.

Example2.10.3:

i. ∈ given by . / is even permutation because

. / ( )( ) ( )( )( )( )

ii. ∈ given by . / is odd permutation because

. / ( )( ) ( )( )( ) so that a
product of an odd number of transposition.

Example2.10.4: Let ( ) and ( )( ) find and

Solution: . / and . /, then

. / ( )( )

( (𝑥)) ( )( )

Summery
Let G be a non-empty set. Any mapping from G × G G is called a binary operation on G.
A binary operation on a set G is called Commutative if and only if a b = b a, a, b ∈ G
.Associative if and only if (a b) c = a (b c), a, b, c ∈ G A group (G, ) is a set G,
closed under a binary operation , such that the following axioms are satisfied:

G1: Associativity ( ) ( ) ∈

G2: Existence of identity There is an element in G such that ∈

So that is called the identity element of G with respect to *.

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G3: Existence of inverse Corresponding to each element ∈ , there is an element in G
such that

A group ( ) is abelian if is binary operation is commutative.

A group ( ) is said to be finite or infinite according as the underlying set G is finite

or infinite. If ( ) is a finite group, then the number of elements in G is called the
order of the group

Let ( ) be a group. For all ∈ we have ( )

If a subset of a group is closed under the binary operation of and if with the
induced operation from is itself a group, then is a subgroup of . We shall let
or denote that is a subgroup of , and or shall mean
, but

Let be a group and a subgroup of . Define a left coset of with representative

∈ to be the set * ∶ ∈ + And right cosets can be defined similarly by
* ∶ ∈ +.

If left and right cosets coincide or if it is clear from the context to which type of coset
that we are referring, we will use the word coset without specifying left or right.

(Lagrange) Let be a finite group and let be a subgroup of , then

| | | | , ∶ - is the number of distinct left cosets of in . In particular, the

number of elements in must divide the number of elements in .

The Index is Multiplicative If then , ∶ - , ∶ -, ∶ -

A subgroup of a group is normal in if for all ∈ . That is a normal

subgroup of a group is one in which the right and left cosets are precisely the same or

Let be a subgroup of If any of the following equivalent conditions holds, we say

that is normal subgroup of , or that is normal in :

for all ∈ (equivalently, for all ∈ )

for all ∈ (equivalently, for all ∈ )

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 = for all ∈

Every left coset of in is also a right coset

Every right coset of in is also a left cose

If is a normal subgroup of a group , then the cosets of in form a group under

the operation ( )( ) . This group is called the factor or quotient group of and
. Our first task is to prove that is indeed a group.

If ∶ where and are groups, then is said to be a homomorphism if for all

, we have ( ) ( ) ( )

If is a normal subgroup of , then the map ∶ sets up a one-to-one

correspondence between subgroups of containing and subgroups of . The inverse of
is the map ∶ ( ) where is the canonical epimorphism of onto .
Furthermore,

if and only if , and in this case,, ∶ - , ∶ -

is a normal subgroup of if and only if is a normal subgroup of . More

generally, is a normal subgroup of if and only if is a normal subgroup of

and in this case, ( ) ( )

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3. Rings
3.1. Definition and examples of rings

Definition3.1.1: Let be any non –empty set with two binary operations , then the
algebraic structure ( ) is called a ring if and only if

i. ( ) is commutative group
ii. ( ) is closure, Let ∈ implies ∈
iii. ( ) is associative Let ∈ implies ( ) ( )
iv. distributive over that is ∈
( ) ( ) ( ) left distributive
( ) ( ) ( ) right distributive

Example3.1.1:

i. ( )
ii. ( )
iii. (R, +, )

Are rings, where and are the usual addition and multiplication. but

i. ( )
ii. ( )
iii. (R, +, ) are not ring

Example3.1.2: Let be the set of real numbers we define as follows for ∈

, then ( ) is a ring. Why?

Example3.1.3: Let 20 1 ∈ 3 be a matrix over integers, then

( ) is a ring. Why?

Definition3.1.3: A ring ( ) is called a division ring if and only if 𝑥 ∈ * + 𝑦∈

such that 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥

Definition3.1.4: A ring ( ) be a commutative ring if is commutative on R such that

∈

Example3.1.4: ( ), (R, +, ) are a division and commutative ring. Because every non
zero elements have inverse.

(Z, +, ) is a commutative ring but not division ring. Because let (Z, +, ) is a ring with unity.
Since ∈ and does not exist a 𝑦 in such that 𝑦 𝑦 so that there is no 𝑦 in

Therefore (Z, +, ) is not a division ring.

Example3.1.5: ( ) is division ring where is prime number.

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Consider ( ) means

Definition3.1.5: Let be a ring, if there exist ∈ such that ∈ , then the

least such positive integer is called characteristic of a ring If no positive integer exist, then
is characteristic zero.

Example3.1.6: Find the characteristics of a ring of

Solution

* + and ∈ * +, then formula of characteristic is

If , then

If , then

If , then

Therefor is

Thus the ring is characteristics 4. So that 4 is the least such positive integer. In general the
characteristic of ring is . But have characteristics is zero.

Definition3.1.6: Let ( ) be a commutative ring. Let 𝑥 ∈ * +, then 𝑥 is called a zero

divisor if and only if there exists 𝑦 ∈ * + such that 𝑥 𝑦 . And so 𝑦 is zero divisor.

Example3.1.7: Consider the ring ( ), then find all zero divisor of the ring.

Solution: element of * +. So that ∈ , then

Such that

Therefor 2 and 3 are zero divisors in .

Definition3.1.7: Let be any non –empty set with two binary operations , then the
algebraic structure ( ) is called a field if and only if

i. ( ) is commutative group
ii. ( ) is closure, Let ∈ implies ∈
iii. ( ) is associative Let ∈ implies ( ) ( )
iv. distributive over that is ∈
( ) ( ) ( ) left distributive

( ) ( ) ( ) right distributive

v. ( ) is commutative, ∈ . Every nonzero element has a

multiplicative inverse.

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Definition3.1.8: A commutative ring with a unity is called a field if every nonzero element is
a unit.

Example3.1.8: ( )( ) and ( ) are field

is a field if and only if is prime.

Definition3.1.9: A commutative ring ( ) with unit element is said to be an integral

domain (ID), if ∈ and implies is identity element of .

In this case, a commutative ring with unity that has no zero divisors is called integral domain.

Example3.1.10: ( ), ( ), (R, +, ) are integral domain.

Example3.1.11: ( ) is not integral domain because but

Theorem3.1.1: ̅ ∈ * ̅ + is a zero divisor if and only if ( ) Why?

Theorem3.1.2: The ring of integers under addition and multiplication modulo ,

is prime has no zero divisor. Why?

Theorem3.1.3: is an integral domain if and only if is prime. Why?

Example3.1.12: Consider the ring ( ), then list all the zero divisors.

Solution: by theorem 3.1.1 all zero divisors

( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) ,
( ) and ( )

Therefor ̅ ̅ ̅ are zero divisors in

Theorem3.1.4: Every finite integral domain are a field. Why?

3.2. Subring
Definition3.2.1: Let be a ring and be non-empty subset of , then ( ) is said to be a
subring of ( ) if and only if

i. ∈ , ∈
ii. ∈ ∈
iii. ( ) is ring.

Example3.2.1:

i. A ring ( ) is subring of ( ) Why?

ii. A ring ( ) is subring of ( ) Why?
iii. A ring ( ) is subring of ( ) Why?

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Theorem3.2.1: Let be a ring and be a non- empty subset of a ring , then ( ) is a
sub ring of ( ) if and only if ∈

i. ∈
ii. ∈

Theorem3.2.2: Let 𝑆 and be subrings of a rings of a ring , then 𝑆 is a sub ring of .

Example3.2.2: Let be the set of all matrix over integers, that is

𝑥 𝑦
20 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 ∈ 3Let 20 1 ∈ 3, show that is a subring of
𝑧

Solution: , since 0 1∈

Let 0 1, [ ]∈

i. 0 1 [ ] [ ]∈ ∈

ii. 0 1 [ ] [ ]∈
∈

3.3. Ideals

Definition3.3.1: Let be a ring and be subring of then is

i. A left ideal of if ∈ ∈ ∈ that is

ii. A right ideal of if ∈ ∈ ∈ that is
iii. A subring of a ring is called ideal (a two sided ideal ) if both left and right
ideal of

Example3.3.1: ( ) of even integers is an ideal of ( )

Because: Let𝑥 𝑦 ∈ 𝑥 𝑦 for some ∈

i. 𝑥 𝑦 ( )∈ ∈
ii. 𝑥 𝑦 ( )∈ ∈

Therefor ( ) is subring of ( )

Next to show that left and right ideals. Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥 ∈ , then the left ideal
is 𝑥 ( )∈ ∈ and right ideal is

𝑥 ( )∈ ∈

Therefor ( ) of even integers is an ideal of ( )

19
Theorem3.3.1: The intersection of ideals is an ideal.

Theorem3.3.2: Every ideal is subring.

Theorem3.3.3: Every subring may not be an ideal.

𝑥
Example3.3.2: Let 20 1 ∈ 3 and Let {[ ] 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ }, then is
𝑦
a left ideal of but not a right ideal. Why ?

3.4. Quotient Ring

Definition3.4.1: If is an ideal of a ring , then the left cosets under induced

operations is the quotient ring and denoted by that is * ∈ + is quotient
ring under binary operations ( ) ( ) ( ) and

( ) ( ) ( )

Example3.4.1: Find all elements of and Find the additive identity and the additive
inverse of all elements.

Solution:

is ideal of so that

* + and element of * +, then

* +

* +

* +

Therefore * + and additive identity

( )

( ) so that is additive
identity and is additive inverse of it self and and are additive
inverse of each other.

Exercise

Find all elements in and find the additive identity and the additive inverse of each
element of

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 3.5. Homomorphism of rings

Definition3.5.1: Let ( ) and ( ) be two rings, then ( ) ( ) is

called a homomorphism of ring if and only if

i. ( ) ( ) ( )
ii. ( ) ( ) ( ) ∈

Definition3.5.2: Let ( ) and ( ) be two rings and be a ring

homomorphism, then is said to be

i. A monomorphism if is injective (one to one)

ii. An epimorphism if is surjective (on to)
iii. An isomorphism if is bijective
iv. An authomorphism if is an isomorphism a ring on to a ring
v. An endomorphism if is an epimorphism from on to

Example3.5.1: Let ( ) and ( ) be a ring. Define by (𝑥) 𝑥, then

is a ring homomorphism.

Because: Let 𝑥 𝑦 ∈ , then

i. (𝑥 𝑦) 𝑥 𝑦 (𝑥) (𝑦)
ii. (𝑥 𝑦) 𝑥 𝑦 (𝑥) (𝑦)

Therefore is a homomorphism ring from

Example3.5.2: A function ( ) ( ) defined by (𝑥) 𝑥 is not a ring
homomorphism. Why?

Theorem3.5.1: Let 𝑆 be a rings and Let 𝑆 and 𝑆 be a ring

homomorphism, then the composite is a ring homomorphism.

Theorem3.5.2: Let 𝑆 be a ring homomorphism, then

i. ( )
ii. ( ) ( ) ∈

Theorem3.5.3: Let 𝑆 be a ring homomorphism if is an ideal of then ( ) is an

ideal of 𝑆.

Example3.5.3: Let { √ ∈ } then ( ) is a ring from

defined by ( √ ) √ √ ∈ then is a ring isomorphism.
Why?

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Example3.5.4: Let { √ ∈ } and consist of all matrix of the form
0 1 ∈ such that ( ) and ( ) are rings, then show that ,

where ( √ ) 0 1 is ring isomorphism.

3.6. Isomorphism theorem

Theorem3.6.1: (Fundamental theorem of ring homomorphism)

Let be a ring and be an ideal of , then

i. defined by (𝑥) 𝑥 a homomorphism

ii. 𝑆 is a homomorphism on to 𝑆, then 𝑆

Theorem3.6.2: (2nd isomorphism theorem)

Let and be ideal of , then is ideal of and ( )

Theorem3.6.3: (3rd isomorphism theorem)

Let and be ideals of the ring such that , then

a. is ideal of
b. ( ) ( )

3.7. Prime and maximal ideals

Defination3.7.1: Let be a commutative ring. An ideal is said to be prime ideal of if

and only if ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ .

Example3.7.1: Let be an integral domain, then * + is prime ideal of

Because: ∈ such that ∈ * +, then , since is an integral domain so that

Thus * + is prime ideal of

Example3.7.2: Let and then is prime ideal of

Because: ∈ such that ∈ , then for some ∈

Hence 3 divides that is which implies that .

i.e ∈

Hence ∈ ∈

Therefor is prime ideal of

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Theorem3.7.1: An ideal of a commutative ring with unity is prime ideal if and only if
is integral domain.

Defination3.7.2: An ideal such that is not equal to is said to be maximal ideal if and
only if there is no proper ideal of containing .

i.e is maximal ideal, if there exists a proper ideal of of containing , then

Example3.7.3: show that is a maximal ideal of the ring of integers.

Proof : suppose there exist an ideal of such then 𝑥 ∈

Such that 𝑥 then 𝑥 ∈

i.e 𝑥 ∈ i.e 𝑥∈

Thus ∈𝑥 i.e ∈ so that

Therefor is maximal ideal of

Remark: 1. Every maximal ideal of a commutative ring with unity is prime ideal.

:- 2. A maximal ideal need not be prime ideal

3.8. The ring of polynomial

Definition3.8.1: Let be a commutative ring and 𝑥 be variable, then the expression of the
form 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ∈ is called a polynomial over the ring

The set of all polynomial over the ring is denoted by ,𝑥-

Example3.8.1: (𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 is a polynomial over the ring of integer.

Example3.8.2: (𝑥) √ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 is polynomial over the ring of real number

Example3.8.3: Find the sum and the product of (𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 and

(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 in ,𝑥-

Solution:

i. Sum (𝑥) (𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

(𝑥) (𝑥) 𝑥 ∈ ,𝑥-

ii. Product (𝑥) (𝑥) ( 𝑥 𝑥 ) ( 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 )

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 (𝑥) (𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ∈ ,𝑥-

Theorem3.8.1: Let ( ,𝑥- ) be a ring polynomial over , then for (𝑥) (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥-
with (𝑥) ∑ 𝑥 and (𝑥) ∑ 𝑥 such that

i. If ( ) * +
ii. If f then deg( )
iii. If is a ring without zero divisors, then deg( )

3.9. Root of polynomial and factorization of polynomial

Definition3.9.1: Let a field and ∈ ,𝑥- and ∈ , then

i. is a root of if and only if ( )

ii. ∈ ,𝑥- are called factors of if and only if (𝑥) (𝑥) (𝑥)

Example3.9.1: Let (𝑥) 𝑥 in ,𝑥- One easily see that 4 is a root of in ,𝑥-

Since ( ) in ,𝑥-

Theorem3.9.1: (Division algorithm)

Let (𝑥) and (𝑥) be any two polynomial over a field such that (𝑥) , then there exist
unique polynomial (𝑥) and (𝑥) in ,𝑥- such that (𝑥) (𝑥) (𝑥) (𝑥), where
(𝑥) or degree of (𝑥) (𝑥).

Theorem3.9.2: (Factor theorem)

An element ∈ is a zero of (𝑥) ,𝑥- if and only if 𝑥 is factor of (𝑥)

Theorem3.9.3: Any polynomial (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥- of degree has at most zero in if

Definition3.9.2: A non-constant polynomial (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥- is irreducible polynomial over a

field if (𝑥) cannot be expressed as a product of two polynomials (𝑥) and (𝑥) ,𝑥-,
where the degrees of (𝑥) and (𝑥) are both smaller than the degree of (𝑥)

Irreducible polynomial function as the prime numbers of polynomial rings.

Example3.9.2: irreducible in ,𝑥- but reducible in ,𝑥-.

Example3.9.3: is irreducible in ,𝑥- but reducible in ,𝑥-.

Theorem3.9.4: A polynomial of degree 2 or 3 in ,𝑥- is reducible if and only if has a zero

in

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 3.10. ED, UFD and PID

i. Euclidean domain (ED)

Definition3.10.1: Let R be an integral domain. R is said to be a Euclidean domain (ED) if

there is a function Ψ from R \ {0} to the nonnegative integers satisfying the following
property: If a and b are elements of R, with b = 0,then a can be expressed as bq +r where
either r = 0 or Ψ(r) < Ψ(b). We can replace “r = 0 or Ψ(r) < Ψ(b)” by simply “Ψ(r) < Ψ(b)” if
we define Ψ(0) to be −∞. A Euclidean domain is automatically a principal ideal domain, as
we now prove.

Theorem3.10.1: If R is a Euclidean domain, then R is a principal ideal domain. For short,

ED implies PID.

ii. Unique factorization domain (UFD)

Definition3.10.2: A unique factorization domain (UFD) is an integral domain R satisfying

the following properties:

Every nonzero element a in R can be expressed as where is a unit and the

pi are irreducible.

If a has another factorization, say , where is a unit and the qi are

irreducible, then and, after reordering if necessary, and are associates for each .
Property i asserts the existence of a factorization into irreducible, and ii asserts uniqueness.

Proposition3.10.2: In a unique factorization domain, is irreducible if and only if is

prime.

iii. principal ideal domain (PID)

Definition3.10.3: A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal
is principal that is generated by a single element.

Theorem3.10.3: Every principal ideal domain is a unique factorization domain. For short,
PID implies UFD.

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Theorem3.10.4: R is a PID if and only if R is a UFD and every nonzero prime ideal of R is
maximal.

Summery

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 4 . Introduction to field theory
4.1. field extension

Definition4.1.1: A commutative ring is a field if * +. Non zero element has an

inverse.

Example4.1.1: and are fields but is not a field

Definition4.1.2: A commutative ring with unity in which each non zero element is a
unit

Definition4.1.3: A non-empty subset 𝑆 of a field is said to be a subfield of if

i. ∈𝑆 ∈𝑆 ∈𝑆
ii. 𝑆 is a field under induced addition and multiplication

Example4.1.2: ( ) is a sub field of ( ) and ( ) is a sub field of ( )

Definition4.1.4: A field is an extension field of a field if is a subfield of The field

is called the base field. We write

Example4.1.3: Let (√ ) * √ ∶ ∈ +

If ∈ , then √

If 𝑥 ∈ (√ ) 𝑥 √

* √ + is a base of (√ ) over

[ (√ ) ]

If √ , then (√ )

(√ ) is a field extension of

|
Example4.1.4: let in this is extension field of and is field of both and .
|

Theorem4.1.1: Let be a field and let (𝑥) be a non constant polynomial in ,𝑥- then
there exists an extension field of and an element ∈ such that ( )

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 4.2. finite and algebraic extension

Definition4.2.1: A field is said to be a finite or infinite extension of accordingly of the

degree of over is finite or infinite

i.e , - or , -

Definition4.2.2: An element in an extension field over is algebraic over if ( )

For some non- zero polynomial (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥-. An element in that is not algebraic over
transcendental over

Definition4.2.3: An extension field of a field is an algebraic extension of if every

element in is algebraic over .

Definition4.2.4: If is a field extension of and are contained in , we

denoted the smallest field containing and by ( ) if
( ) ∈ then is a simple extension of .

Example4.2.1: Both √ and are algebraic over since they are zeros of the polynomials
𝑥 and 𝑥 respectively.

Example4.2.2: The real number and are transcendental over because and are
algebraic over . But and are not algebraic over . For it is a zero of (𝑥 ) ∈ ,𝑥-

Exercise.

Show that √ √ is algebraic over

Theorem4.2.1: A finite extension field of a field is an algebraic extension of .

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 4.3. Algebraic closure
Definition4.3.1: A field is algebraically closed if every non constant polynomial in ,𝑥-
has a zero in .

Definition4.3.2: (Algebraic Extension & Algebraic Closure). Some definitions

i. A field extension is algebraic over if every ∈ is algebraic over

ii. A field is algebraically closed if the only algebraic extension of is itself
iii. is an algebraic closure of if it is an algebraic field extension of such that is
algebraically closed

Definition4.3.3: An extension of is an algebraic closure of if is algebraic over and

is algebraically closed. Note that is minimal among algebraically closed extensions of .
For if and ∈ , then since α is algebraic over it is algebraic over
. But since ,

Example4.3.1: is the algebraic closure of in (𝑥) but is not algebraically closed

because 𝑥 has no zero in .

Proposition4.3.1: Let be a tower field extensions then:

i. , ∶ - , ∶ -, ∶ -
ii. is algebraic if and only if both and are algebraic
iii. Finite field extensions are algebraic
iv. If ( ) where are algebraic over ,
then is finite over

Theorem4.3.1: A field is algebraically closed if and only if every non-constant polynomial

in ,𝑥- factors in ,𝑥- in linear factors.

Theorem4.3.2: (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra): The field of complex numbers is an

algebraically closed field.

Theorem4.3.3: Every field F has an algebraic closure.

4.4. Splitting fields and normal extensions

Definition4.4.1: The extension field of is called splitting field for the polynomial
(𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥- if (𝑥) factors completely in to linear factors or splits completely in ,𝑥-.

Definition4.4.2: Let be a field and (𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 be non- constant

polynomial in ,𝑥-. An extension field of is a splitting field of (𝑥) if there exist
elements in such that ( ) and

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 (𝑥) (𝑥 )(𝑥 ) (𝑥 ). A polynomial (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥- splits in if it is the
product of linear factors in ,𝑥-.

Example 4.4.1: Let (𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥 be in ,𝑥-, then (𝑥) has irreducible factors
𝑥 and 𝑥

The field (√ √ ) is a splitting field for (𝑥) Because

𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 √ )(𝑥 √ )(𝑥 √ )(𝑥 √ ) this are all linear factors.

Example 4.4.2: Let (𝑥) 𝑥 be in ,𝑥-, then (𝑥) has a root in ( √ )

However, this field is not a splitting field for (𝑥)since the complex cube roots of 3,
√ (√ )
are not in ( √ )

Theorem4.4.1: Let (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥- be non- constant polynomial, then there exists a splitting
field for (𝑥).

Definition4.4.3: If is algebraic extension of which is the splitting field over for a

collection of polynomials (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥- then is called a normal extension of ,

Definition 4.4.4: K is a splitting field over F if it is the splitting field of some family of
polynomials over F. We say also in this case that K/F is normal.

4.5. Separable and Inseparable Extensions

Definition4.5.1: Let be a field and let (𝑥) ∈ ,𝑥- be a polynomial over a splitting field
for (𝑥) we have the fraction (𝑥) (𝑥 ) (𝑥 ) (𝑥 ) (𝑥 ) ,
where distinct elements of the splitting field and for all .

Recall that is called is called a multiple root if and is called a simple root if
the integer is called the multiplicity of the root

Definition4.5.2: A polynomial over is called separable if it has no multiple roots (i.e all its
roots are distinct). A polynomial which is not separable is called inseparable.

Example4.5.1: The polynomial 𝑥 is separable over since its two roots √ are
distinct. The polynomial (𝑥 ) for any is inseparable since it has the multiple
roots √ , each with multiplicity n.

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Summery

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Reference

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