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An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered
Counseling Approach

Aisha Salman Al-Thani

ii    
An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered
Counseling Approach
by Aisha Salman Al-Thani

Published by QScience.com
Tornado Tower, PO Box 5825, Doha, Qatar

Copyright © 2012 Aisha Salman Al-Thani

This book is published under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license,
which allows users to download, copy and build upon the work, even for
commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly
attributed. The open access model ensures maximum dissemination with
a greater impact for the published work than it may have otherwise
enjoyed.

Disclaimer
All statements and opinions herein are of the author and not necessarily
those of the publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of
information contained within the published work. The publishers assumes
no responsibility for damage or injury to persons or property arising from
the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained herein.

Twitter hashtag: #impcca

All of our published books have an associated hashtag for online
discussion and feedback. Readers are encouraged to use this hashtag
when tweeting about the book.

First published: November 2012

The full text of this book is available for free at:

http://www.qscience.com/books/impcca

Additional hard copies of this book can be ordered through the print-on-
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Person-Centred Counselling in the State of Qatar

324 p 10x8 cm
ISBN: 978-99921-95-31-4

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  iii  
iv    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered
Counseling Approach

Aisha Salman Al-Thani

  v  
vi    
Dedication

I dedicate this thesis to my family, from whom I have been

separated for a long time. Without their enduring support and love
I would have struggled to finish this book.
To the souls of my parents
Who made me believe and taught me that true love and hard work
last a life time and beyond, and whom I wish could be here today.
To my brother, Sheikh Meeshal
My heart beat.
The person I treasure most, who supports me every step of the way
and who has never stopped giving of himself to me, from when I
was working on my MA in Counseling, through my PhD, until I
finished this book.
To my sister, Sheikha Fatma
Who helped me to reach my dream with her love, friendship and
endless support.
To all my brothers and sisters,
Who have supported and believed in me, may Allah bless them all.

  vii  
viii    
Preface

It is important to mention my own academic and professional

experience, which gave me the impetus to increase public
awareness of counseling in general and the Person-Centered
Approach (PCA) in particular. I obtained my Diploma in Counseling
and Psychology in 1994-1995 from Qatar University (QU) and the
Advanced Certificate in Counseling Skills, MA and PhD in
Counseling Studies from the University of Durham in the UK in
2002 and 2010, respectively. I believe that studying abroad has
helped me gain a better understanding of the importance of
counseling as a tool for helping and supporting people
experiencing life difficulties. I also learned to work as a person-
centered counselor. Because of my background as a Muslim, I
became interested in applying both person-centered and Islamic
principles in counseling.
In my work it became clear that a different approach was required
to help some of the clients, who wanted to be listened to and
understood rather than advised or guided directly. I was always
keen to apply the core conditions of PCA in my work as well as
focus on building a healthy relationship with my clients. It was not
easy to work non-directively in Qatar; however, my strong belief in
the potential of this method helped me encourage clients to take
part and learn to be more independent as opposed to depending on
the counselor. When working with each client I often asked myself
whether I would be able to apply a non-directive method in a
society such as that of Qatar, where religion and culture play an
important role in the individual’s life. I believe that this study has
answered all of my doubts and fears about applying the PCA in
Qatar. The study of person-centered therapy has also met my
personal needs: for example it has helped me be more aware of
myself and listen to and accept myself as I am. I feel that
counseling clients deserve the same opportunity that I have had. I
considered this study a journey that aided in developing myself as a
Muslim person-centered counselor, a researcher and as an
individual.
Dr. Aisha Al-Thani March 2011

  ix  
x    
Table of Contents

DEDICATION .................................................................. VII  

PREFACE ......................................................................... IX  

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................... XI  

CHAPTER 1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PERSON-CENTERED

APPROACH AND ITS SIMILARITIES TO THE VIEW OF
COUNSELING .................................................................... 1  

Brief background of the person-centered approach ........................... 1  

The three core conditions of therapeutic relationship ...................... 3  

1. Congruence ........................................................................................ 3  
2. Positive regard .................................................................................... 5  
3. Empathy ............................................................................................. 8  

Actualizing tendency ........................................................................ 11  

Islamic views of the Person-Centered Approach. ............................. 16  

The correlation between the person-centered approach and Islamic
counseling ............................................................................................ 17  

The nature of the human being and spirituality .............................. 17  

Self-responsibility ............................................................................. 19  

A fully functioning person ................................................................ 19  

The three stages of self in Islam ....................................................... 20  

1. The passionate soul (Nafs al Ammarah) ........................................... 20  
2. The reproaching soul (Nafs al Lawwamah) ....................................... 20  

  xi  
 3. The satisfied soul (Nafs al Mutmainnah) .......................................... 21  

Applying the core conditions in an Islamic context ......................... 23  

CHAPTER 2 THE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE OF WELLBEING

AND ISLAMIC COUNSELING ........................................... 27  

The aims of Islam regarding human beings ..................................... 27  

The Prophet’s (PBUH) attitude towards achieving healthy

relationships with others .................................................................. 29  

The Islamic methods used to help Muslims ..................................... 34  

1. Prayer ............................................................................................... 34  
2. Remembering Allah’s names ............................................................ 35  
3. Dealing with anger ........................................................................... 35  
4. Forgiveness ....................................................................................... 36  

Arab and Islamic views of counseling............................................... 37  

CHAPTER 3 WESTERN AND ISLAMIC VIEWS OF

COUNSELING, SPIRITUALLY AND DEPRESSION............ 47  

The Western definition of counseling .............................................. 47  

The Islamic definition of counseling ................................................ 49  

The Western definition of spirituality ............................................. 51  

The Islamic definition of spirituality ............................................... 54  

Religion ............................................................................................. 55  

Depression ........................................................................................ 56  

CHAPTER 4 BACKGROUND TO THE STATE OF QATAR

AND QATARI COUNSELING SERVICES ........................... 59  

General Background to Qatar ........................................................... 59  

Improving the quality of the educational system............................. 62  

The University of Qatar ........................................................................ 63  

xii    
Mental health in Qatar ..................................................................... 65  

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy at HMC ............................................. 66  

Counseling provision in Qatar .......................................................... 69  

General public services......................................................................... 69  
Counseling in higher education ........................................................... 71  
Training courses in counseling ............................................................ 74  

CHAPTER 5 A MODIFICATION OF THE PERSON-

CENTERED APPROACH TO BE APPLIED IN THE STATE
OF QATAR ....................................................................... 75  

Section One ....................................................................................... 76  

The origins of the study ....................................................................... 76  
The study problem ............................................................................... 79  
Questions relating to me as a counselor .............................................. 80  

Section Two: Working with Muslim clients and ethical issues ........ 80  
Why Muslim depressed clients? ........................................................... 80  
Ethical considerations while working with clients and professionals .. 81  

Section Three: Methodology of the pilot and main fieldwork studies

.......................................................................................................... 84  
The purpose of the pilot study ............................................................. 84  
Study design for the pilot and main fieldwork studies ......................... 84  

Section Four: Interviews with professionals .................................... 92  

Interview sample and method .............................................................. 94  
Setting up the professional interviews ................................................. 95  

Section Five: Translation and using triangulation methods ............ 96  

Translating the counseling sessions and interviews with professionals
............................................................................................................. 96  
Methods used to collect the study data ................................................ 97  

Section Six: Reflection on the author’s role in the pilot and main
fieldwork studies ............................................................................. 100  
Reflection on the author’s role as a researcher and counselor in the
pilot study .......................................................................................... 100  
Reflection on the author’s role as a researcher and counselor in the
main study .......................................................................................... 100  
Reflection on the author’s role as an outsider.................................... 101  

  xiii  
 Reflection on the author’s role as an insider ...................................... 101  

CHAPTER 6 DATA COLLECTION OF THE STUDY SAMPLE

...................................................................................... 103  

Introduction .................................................................................... 103  

Data collection from the Pilot Study .............................................. 103  

Pilot study case 1 ................................................................................ 103  
Pilot study case 2 ................................................................................ 106  
Pilot study case 3 ................................................................................ 107  
Pilot study case 4 ................................................................................ 108  

Data Collection from the Main Fieldwork Study ............................ 110  

Main study case 1 ............................................................................... 110  
Main study case 2 ............................................................................... 113  
Main study case 3 ............................................................................... 115  
Main study case 4 ............................................................................... 119  
Main study case 5 ............................................................................... 123  

Conclusion ...................................................................................... 127  

CHAPTER 7 STUDY FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF SOME

ASPECTS OF THE COUNSELING SESSIONS................... 129  

Introduction .................................................................................... 129  

Section One: Analysis of the pilot study findings ......................... 129  

Depressed client self-rating score and client comments on the
counseling .......................................................................................... 129  
Main themes emerging from the pilot study ...................................... 130  
Feedback from the pilot study ............................................................ 136  
The use of non-directive counseling .................................................. 137  

Section Two: Analysis of the main fieldwork cases ........................ 137  

Part 1: Cases with positive outcomes ................................................. 137  
Case 2: Farhan .................................................................................... 150  
The seven stages of process ............................................................... 162  
Part 2: Cases with less positive outcomes .......................................... 163  
Case 2: Hadi........................................................................................ 177  
Section Three: Findings from the Beck Depression Inventory ........... 188  
Stage 1: The findings and analysis of the pilot study ......................... 189  

xiv    
 Stage 2: The main findings and analysis of the fieldwork study......... 190  

CHAPTER 8 THE THERAPEUTIC JOURNEY TO FIND

ONESELF: THE USE OF THE MODIFIED PCA ................ 193  

Introduction .................................................................................... 193  

Case Overview: Fatma ..................................................................... 193  

Analyses of the counseling and feedback sessions ......................... 194  

Session 1............................................................................................. 194  
Session 2............................................................................................. 201  
Session 3............................................................................................. 204  
Session 4............................................................................................. 205  
Session 5............................................................................................. 210  
Session 6............................................................................................. 211  
Session 7............................................................................................. 215  
Session 8............................................................................................. 217  
Session 9............................................................................................. 220  
Session 10 ........................................................................................... 222  
Session 11 ........................................................................................... 224  
Session 12 ........................................................................................... 229  
Session 13 ........................................................................................... 233  
Session 14 ........................................................................................... 237  
Feedback session 1 ............................................................................. 242  
Feedback session 2 ............................................................................. 247  
Summary and conclusion ................................................................... 251  

CHAPTER 9 ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS WITH

PROFESSIONALS IN THE STATE OF QATAR ................ 255  

Introduction .................................................................................... 255  

Application of a modification of the PCA in Qatar ........................ 256  

Working with depressed clients ......................................................... 261  
Applying the modification to QU students ......................................... 263  
Training courses ................................................................................. 266  

Subthemes in the interviews with the professionals ...................... 269  

Educating the clients in using non-directive counseling ................... 270  
Working with educated clients ........................................................... 270  
Qatari society ..................................................................................... 271  

  xv  
 Applying religious support in counseling........................................... 273  

Summary ......................................................................................... 275  

CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY ......................... 277  

Introduction .................................................................................... 277  

Summary of the main findings ....................................................... 277  

The therapeutic relationship .............................................................. 278  
Triangulation of data ......................................................................... 279  
The Islamic religious background of the clients and the counselor ... 281  
My belief as a counselor ..................................................................... 282  
The limitations of the study ............................................................... 282  
Recommendations of the study .......................................................... 282  

Conclusion ...................................................................................... 284  

CHAPTER 11 SELF REFLECTION ON THE WORK IN THE

STUDY ........................................................................... 287  

Introduction .................................................................................... 287  

Some thoughts about what made the therapy work....................... 289  

Acceptance ......................................................................................... 290  
Patience.............................................................................................. 290  
Not trying too hard ............................................................................. 290  
Modeling ............................................................................................ 291  
Trusting intuition ............................................................................... 292  
Getting ‘outside’ oneself .................................................................... 293  
Client motivation ............................................................................... 293  

My therapeutic relationship with the main fieldwork clients ....... 293  

My therapeutic relationship with Mariam .......................................... 293  
My therapeutic relationship with Heasa ............................................ 294  
My therapeutic relationship with Farhan ........................................... 295  
My therapeutic relationship with Hadi............................................... 296  
My therapeutic relationship with Fatma ............................................ 297  

Practical techniques that I employed with clients ......................... 300  

The first technique: Applying religious support when required ......... 300  

xvi    
 The second technique: Directing the client towards the aim of the
counseling .......................................................................................... 301  
The third technique: Putting the will of Allah (SWT) before my own
abilities............................................................................................... 301  
My body language during the sessions ............................................... 302  
Brief reflection on myself in the pilot study ....................................... 303  
Brief refection on myself in the main study ....................................... 304  
Discovering oneself ............................................................................ 306  

Conclusion ...................................................................................... 307  

GLOSSARY .................................................................... 310  

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................ 313  

 
   

  xvii  
  
   

xviii    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

Chapter 1
An Overview of the Person-Centered
Approach and its Similarities to the View
of Counseling

KEY CONCEPTS
• The core condition of therapeutic relationship
• Actualizing tendency
• The correlation between the person-centered approach and
Islamic counseling
• The nature of the human being and spirituality
• Self responsibility
• A fully-functioning person
• The stages of self in Islam
• Applying the core condition in an Islamic context

Brief background of the person-centered approach

In the 1930s and 1940s the American psychologist and therapist
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) established the Person-Centered
Approach (PCA). It was first known as ‘non-directive therapy’ and
then as ‘client-centered therapy.’ Later, the term ‘person-centered
approach’ was adopted when it was shown that the theory and
philosophy of the therapy could be adapted and translated to other

  1  
Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

settings where people’s growth and development were of central

importance, such as in education (Merry and Lusty 1993). Rogers
considered the counseling relationship an essential element in his
theory. He saw psychological or emotional healing promoted
within a relationship in which the client’s experience is accepted,
valued and understood (Merry 2004). Rogers highlighted the
necessity for moving away from a medical view of people towards
one which views the client as an individual, and he replaced the
term ‘patient’ with ‘client’. He believed that people who seek help
should not be treated as patients in a hospital, as they are
responsible for their own actions. They are in charge of their own
lives, with their own resources for change and growth (Merry and
Lusty 1993). In 1957 Rogers considered that a truly therapeutic
relationship between client and counselor depends on the
existence of six therapeutic conditions, these are:

1 - Two persons are in psychological contact.

2 - The first, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of
incongruence, being vulnerable or anxious.
3 - The second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is
congruent or integrated in the relationship.
4 - The therapist experiences unconditional positive regard
for the client.
5 - The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of
the client’s internal frame of reference and endeavors to
communicate this experience to the client.
6 - The communication to the client of the therapist’s
empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard
is to a minimal degree achieved.

No other conditions are necessary. If these six conditions exist, and

continue over a period of time, this is sufficient. The process of
constructive personality change will follow (p.95).
In these six conditions the person-centered therapeutic
relationship starts with contact between the client and the

2    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

counselor. The second step relates to the client’s worries and

unsettled feelings. The third, fourth and fifth steps focus on the
counselor's attitude, openness and authenticity in the relationship
as well as his ability to fulfill the conditions and understand the
internal world of the client. The sixth step addresses the client’s
perception of what the counselor offers in the therapeutic
relationship. Some of Rogers’ colleagues later simplified the six
conditions to three core conditions: unconditional positive regard,
congruence and empathy.
The three core conditions offer a basis for building a healthy
therapeutic relationship. The personality of the counselor needs to
be considered, as he needs to work willingly with clients to help
them reach their goals in a non-directive manner. Means and
Thorne (1999) define the role of each of the core conditions: they
see empathy as a ‘process’; unconditional positive regard as an
‘attitude’; and congruence as a ‘state of being’ in the therapeutic
relationship with the client (p.84).
I have experienced the roles of both counselor and client in a
person-centered counseling relationship. As a client, the core
conditions allowed me to break my silence and share my feelings
and thoughts with my person-centered counselor. As a counselor I
agree with Rogers that the core conditions are important in
building a healthy relationship with the client.
A couple of core conditions are rendered essential in both Islamic
and person-centered counseling. These are the notion of the fully-
functioning person, and the term “actualizing tendency”. Rogers’
view on these two is hereby discussed prior to presenting the study,
its methodology and results.

The three core conditions of therapeutic relationship

1. Congruence
The first core element in the PCA is congruence. This describes the
counselor's ability to authentically be him/herself with the client.
Mearns and Thorne (1999) describe congruence as ‘the state of
being’ of the counselor when his/her outward responses to her
client consistently match his/her inner feelings and sensations in
relation to the client. Merry and Lusty (1993) add that congruence

  3  
Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

includes the therapists’ awareness of his/her feelings within the

relationship developed with the client. Tolan (2003) states that
‘congruence is a capacity to admit organismic experiences fully
into awareness, without the need for distortion or denial’ (p.13).
According to the theory then, the person-centered counselor must
achieve a level of authentic credibility relevant to his/her
environment.

For Rogers (1961), congruence is achieved when:

The feelings the therapist is experiencing are available to

him, available to his awareness, and he is able to live these
feelings, be them, and be able to communicate them if
appropriate. No one fully achieves this condition, yet the
more the therapist is able to listen acceptingly to what is
going on within himself, and the more he is aware of the
complexity of his feelings, without fear, then the higher his
degree of congruence. (p.61)

Merry (2004) regards congruence as a fundamental value in the

counselor's attitude and self-awareness when entering others’
worlds.

Some authors are interested in the significance of communicating

nonverbally as part of helping and supporting the client. Mearns
and Thorne (1999) discuss the counselor’s ability to communicate
nonverbally by nodding:

This is a powerful therapeutic phenomenon: the counselor is

not simply nodding knowingly and commenting wisely on the
client’s behavior, but she is responding as a vibrant and
trustworthy human being – it is little wonder that her
congruent reactions can be potent in helping the client to
move on (p.98).

Mearns and Thorne (1999), found that openness and sincerity form
a non-directive invitation to the client to feel free to share his/her
worries and fears with the counselor. Nodding has also proven to
be an effective way of listening; however, it is important to

4    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

understand the client’s background. For example, in Qatar some

clients may feel that nonverbal communication is not enough.
They may perceive it as being ignored. Hence, the therapist needs
to orient his/her clients with the form of counseling to avoid any
cultural clashes.

2. Positive regard
The second core condition is unconditional positive regard. This is
also described as a caring attitude, prizing, acceptance, and/or
non-possessive warmth and respect or ‘unconditional respect’
(Purton 1998 p.26). According to PCA theory this core condition
refers to the respect or valuing that the counselor has for the
client. Rogers occasionally used the word ‘prizing’ because he
believed that it is necessary for the counselor to help the client to
feel safe and not judged in the counseling session. Rogers (1961)
states:
I find that the more accepting and liking I feel towards this
individual, the more I can be creating a relationship that he
can use. By acceptance I mean a warm regard for him as a
person of unconditional self-worth, of value no matter what
his condition, his behavior, or his feelings. It means a respect
and liking for him as a separate person, a willingness for him
to possess his own feelings in his own way. It means an
acceptance of and regard for his attitudes of the
moment…this acceptance of each fluctuating aspect of this
other person makes it for him a relationship of warmth and
safety, and the safety of being liked and prized as a person
seems a highly important element in a helping relationship
(p.34).

Rogers used the word ‘warmth’ to emphasize the importance of

this element in the therapeutic relationship, and this is supported
by Mearns and Thorne (1999):
Unconditional positive regard is the label given to the
fundamental attitude of the person-centered counselor
towards her client. The counselor who holds this attitude
deeply values the humanity of her client and is not deflected

  5  
Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

in that value by any particular client behaviors. The attitude

manifests itself in the counselor’s consistent acceptance of,
and enduring warmth towards, her client. (p.64)

The above statement agrees with Rogers’ (1961) view of the

counselor’s accepting the client as a whole person. Mearns and
Thorne (1999) add that acceptance involves accepting the client’s
positive and negative feelings and thoughts during counseling.
Both Mearns and Thorne (1999) emphasize the importance of
focusing on warmth in the therapeutic relationship. Merry and
Lusty (1993) add that warmth is respecting and prizing the client as
a unique, worthwhile and valued individual. They stress the
importance of rapport as the therapist’s way of communicating by
matching the way the client communicates, eg using a similar tone
of voice, and being sensitive to the client’s way of being and
respecting and valuing (p.27).
Mearns and Thorne (1999) again emphasize the importance of non-
verbal communication here:
‘Touching’ is a natural and literal reaching out of one human
being towards another, but many workers in some cultures
find it enormously difficult to show their warmth through
touch. (p.76)

The above indicates the importance not only of accepting the client
as a whole but also of understanding him as a whole. In the context
of Arab and Islamic society the male counselor has to be fully
aware and very careful when counseling females, as it is religiously
unacceptable for a man to shake a Muslim woman’s hand, touch
her or make eye contact, as this could be misunderstood. This is
corroborated by Colin Lago (2006, p.79):
…non-verbal behaviour, as a communication system, can
cause miscommunication across cultures.

Lago (2006, p.57) categorizes nonverbal behavior into three types.

The first, ‘kinesics’, involves all body movements. The second
category, ‘oculesics’, is the use or avoidance of eye contact. The
last category is ‘haptics’, which means touching. From an

6    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

educational point of view, Roberts et al (2001, p.83) agree that

nonverbal communication is important when communicating with
others. Therefore for the above writers, verbal and nonverbal
communications need to be considered in working with
multicultural students.
While conducting my own PhD studies, it was confirmed that
touching and eye contact are very useful techniques in the
counseling relationship. This has been previously stated by Lago
(2006, p.57): ‘The British use eye contact as a sign of listening
behavior’.
Mearns and Cooper (2005, p.47) describe nonverbal
communication as a ‘meeting without words’. Interestingly,
according to the therapists they worked with, moments of intimacy
and relational depth occurred in silence, eye contact, a touch on
the shoulder and a shared laugh between client and therapist.
However, as mentioned above the counselor needs to be aware of
what helps the client to be open and free to share his or her
experiences and to apply these techniques rather than making the
client feel threatened by using eye contact. It is worth mentioning
that Qatari clients’ attitudes to eye contact in counseling are
summarized by Interviewee 1, a counselor:
…when you look at the client during the counseling session,
it’s counted as being daring, which is not accepted in our
society. Looking at him indirectly is more suitable in our
society.

I personally agree with Interviewee 1, but argue that educated

clients are aware of the role of the counselor and understand that
eye contact is part of the process. However, it is important for the
counselor to show his/her caring side by respecting Islamic cultural
values as well as considering the client’s willingness to participate.
Purton (1998) argues that unconditional positive regard is a
technical term. For him the terms acceptance, prizing, respect and
warmth all have different meanings. However, he believes that
unconditional respect needs to be considered in counseling as well
as the client’s spiritual aspect.

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

Another point of view is put forward by Nimetz (2006), who feels

that acceptance is important as it helps the individual live more
calmly and feel satisfied with oneself and one’s environment. It
offers self-healing and helps both the counselor and the client to
overcome their fears and anxieties. Acceptance is also an
important aspect of the counselor’s work. However, I believe that it
needs to be based on knowledge of the cultural background(s) and
belief system(s) of both the client and the counselor.

3. Empathy
The third core condition is empathy and understanding. Empathy
involves the counselor’s attempt to reach the client’s world by
listening and ‘being with’ another person and seeing the world
from their perspective. Merry (2004) believes that by showing
empathy the counselor can get closer to the client. Rogers (1980)
writes:
Empathetic listening provides one of the least clouded
windows to the workings of the human psyche, in all its
complex mystery. (p.50)

He adds:
I consider empathy as a self healing agent. It is one of the
most potent aspects of therapy, because it releases, it
confirms, it brings even the most frightened client into the
human race. If a person can be understood, he or she belongs.
(p.129)

Mearns and Thorne (1999) define empathy as:

…a continuing process whereby the counselor lays aside her
own way of experiencing and perceiving reality, preferring to
sense and respond to the experiencing and perceptions of her
client. This sensing may be intense and enduring with the
counselor actually experiencing her client’s thoughts and
feelings as powerfully as if they had originated in herself.
(p.41)

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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

Mearns and Thorne (1999) see empathy as a process and Mearns

(2003) adds that it involves a considerable depth of relationship
and emotional engagement with the client. Mearns and Thorne
(1999) do not consider empathy a ‘technique’; Merry (2004) states
that it is a way of understanding the client’s internal world and
trying to capture some of the feelings the clients experience
without judging them.
Mearns and Thorne (1999) propose a four-point scale by which to
measure the quality of empathy in a therapeutic relationship as
follows:

Level 0: No evidence of understanding of the client’s

expressed feelings;
Level 1: Shows partial understanding of surface feelings.
Sometimes called ‘subtractive’ because the listener has lost
something of the client’s experience in response feedback;
Level 2: Shows understanding and acceptance of feelings
and thoughts;
Level 3: Shows understanding beyond the level of the
client’s immediate awareness and underlying feelings which
the client is unaware of. (pp.44-45)

Mearns and Thorne (1999) argue that the core conditions are easy
to state but not so easy to apply. They believe that for the person-
centered counselor to develop and maintain such an attitude, a
lifetime’s work and commitment is involved which, in turn, affects
his/her personal as well as professional life.
Counselors should be encouraged to practice the PCA core
conditions on regular basis rather than solely during counseling
sessions..
Rogers (1961) considers the therapeutic relationship a central
factor in which the counselor’s acceptance, genuineness and
empathic way of being all exist in a friendly atmosphere. In his
work with clients he was aware of giving his best freely to help
clients to get in touch with their inner feelings, to understand

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

themselves, and to grow and develop within this relationship. He

states:
The individual will discover within himself the capacity to
use this relationship for growth. (1961, p.35)

From the PCA point of view, the client becomes a ‘fully-

functioning person’ through a process of becoming more congruent
and more aware of the self in relation to others and the
environment. He becomes more trusting of experiences and
feelings and is able to shift the focus of evaluation from external
(the evaluations of others) to internal (self-evaluation). The person
is able to show development and growth during the process of
change, believe in himself, recognize adopted values and develop
only those values relevant to the basic organismic valuing system.
The fully functioning person lives in the present moment and is
easily in touch with and trusts his feelings. The fully functioning
person is aware that emotions are present for good and valid
reasons. Moreover, the fully functioning person is willing to accept
responsibility for his role in the experiences he lives. The process
towards this therapeutic relationship helps him increase his level
of self-esteem, allows him to be totally himself without fear of
obstruction and to increase his level of personal creativity with a
willingness to take risks and find ‘a way of being.’ Rogers describes
the fully-functioning person (1961) as follows:
He is completely engaged in the process of being and
becoming him, and thus discovers that he is soundly and
realistically social; he lives more completely in this moment,
but learns that this is the soundest living for all time. He is
becoming a more fully functioning organism, and because of
the awareness of himself, which flows freely in and through
his experiences, he is becoming a more fully functioning
person. (p.192)

Some would criticize Rogers for being so optimistic about the

nature of the human being. In answer to this, Rogers (1961) states:
No one person would fully exemplify these characteristics, no
one person fully achieves that description I give, but I do see

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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

certain generalizations which can be drawn, based upon

living a therapeutic relationship with many clients. (p.15)

According to the theory of PCA, the counselor cannot value and

care for others unless he is ready to value and care for himself. For
this reason, the person-centered counselor should hold
philosophical beliefs and attitudes which uphold the worth,
dignity, significance and value of each individual.
Moreover, the counselor is not there to evaluate, diagnose, or even
guide the client, but to engage in the more difficult task of active
listening and responding in a way which conveys deep
understanding and acceptance. These attitudes need to be
sincerely rooted within counselor in order for them to be
experienced by the client. It is worth noting that during the session
the counselor builds his/her awareness, beliefs, feelings and
attitudes towards others and works on improving the quality of the
relationship with the client.

Actualizing tendency
In this section the term ‘actualizing tendency’ is addressed to
encourage counselors in my society who criticize the theory of PCA
to better understand how the PCA might work from an Islamic
perspective. However, from both the Islamic and the person-
centered point of view, seven PCA stages (presented later) are
considered important in the counseling process and can be applied
when counseling Qatari Muslim clients to measure the outcome of
the sessions.
In the PCA each individual is seen as having a strong tendency to
grow, develop and achieve his/her maximum potential. Hence, the
actualizing tendency is an essential element in the sense that it
places firm emphasis on people’s innate ability to improve their
lives. Life circumstances such as emotional or traumatic
experiences in childhood can affect self-actualization.
Nevertheless, the person’s actualization process can be reactivated
in a more healthy way by applying the core conditions in
counseling sessions. Relationships with others are a vital
component of each person’s environment. Each relationship
coexists with personal autonomy, independence and self-esteem.

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

The actualization theory is a natural science theory, not a moral

theory. The theory does not believe in evaluations such as ‘good’ or
‘bad’ that can be aspired to in the process of actualization. It
considers humans as individuals with a capacity for both
constructive and destructive thoughts and actions. People should
have a tendency towards pro-social behavior, values and attitudes.
Pro-social tendencies emerge in a constructive environment and
are unlikely to appear in a hostile one where the human capacity
for destructive or anti-social behavior is apparent.
According to the person-centered theory, when an infant begins to
interact with the environment s/he simultaneously starts
envisioning themselves with respect to that environment.
Therefore, adverse early experiences result in a negative
development of self. Thus individuals who have received very little
love and a great deal of criticism from their parents in early life will
in all probability grow into adulthood with poor self-esteem. It is
believed that people who ask for help are used to being judged and
directed by others often, which has affected their capacity to make
choices or decisions. For this reason the person-centered
counselor’s task is to encourage such clients to get in touch with
their inner resources and free themselves from the unwanted
feelings that they hold within as a result of their environment.
Some person-centered approach writers have used the term ‘the
organismic self’ – the basic force which regulates each person’s
physiological and psychological growth – an essential inner part of
a person’s life. The primary aims of the organismic self are to grow
to maturity and to achieve self-actualization. Because every
individual needs to be loved, accepted and received positively by
others, the organismic self is often neglected in favor of building a
self-concept based on rules made by others. If this attempt pleases
only others and not the self, the person is not living according to
his own inner beliefs and needs. Mearns and Thorne (1999) later
revised the terminology and referred instead to the ‘organismic
valuing process’.
Rogers (1963) sums up the theory of actualization as follows:
I would reaffirm, perhaps even more strongly after the
passage of a decade, my belief that there is one central source

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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

of energy in the human organism; that it is a functioning of

the whole organism rather than of some portion of it; and
that it is perhaps best conceptualized as a tendency towards
fulfillment, towards actualization, towards the maintenance
and enhancement of the organism. (cited in Merry, 2002,
p.22)

The aim of the person-centered model of counseling is to

encourage and support the client to develop beneath the concept
of the self which has largely been imposed by outside influences,
and to find instead the real or inner organismic self, to release the
actualizing tendency.
It is deemed impossible for the client to achieve a level of self-
actualization unless the counselor commits to highlighting that the
individual has the inner potential and resources necessary for
growth and improvement. Nonetheless, if the person-centered
counselor is willing to give the client time and offer the core
conditions and respect, without doubt this will give the client
confidence to share experiences that were hard to face in the past.
Moreover, exploration and clarification of the client’s present life
helps towards growing and healing.
The PCA states that the actualizing tendency provides the energy
for positive, creative changes to help clients move on. Rogers
believed that growth, change and development towards full
actualization are natural to all humans (as the only cognitive form
of life). During his work with clients he theorized seven stages to
observe and value the changes and progression that his clients
made during their sessions, even though clients are unlikely to
seek help before stages 3 or 4. Rogers presents the stages in On
Becoming a Person (1961) as follows:
Stage 1
...The individual has little or no recognition of the ebb and
flow of the feeling life within him…He does not communicate
him self but only communicates about externals…He tends to
see himself as having no problems, or the problems he
recognizes are perceived as entirely external to himself.

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

The individual at this stage is represented by such terms as

stasis, fixity, the opposite of flow or change. (p.133)

Stage 2
When the person in the first stage can experience himself as
fully received then the second stage follows…internal
problems can be perceived and communicated about as
entirely external…we seem to know too little about the ways
in which a person at this stage may come to experience
himself as ‘received’. (pp 133-135)

Stage 3
If the slight loosening and flowing in the second stage is not
blocked, but the client feels himself in these respects to be
fully received as he is, then there is a still further loosening
and flowing of symbolic expression. (p.135)

Stage 4
…general loosening of constructs, a freer flow of feelings
which are characteristic of movement up the continuum.
(p.137)

Stage 5
…Here many aspects of the client are in flow, as against the
rigidity of the first stage. He is very much closer to his
organic being, which is always in process. He is much closer
to being in the flow of his feelings. His constructions of
experience are decidedly loosened and repeatedly being
tested against referents and evidence within and without.
Experience is much more highly differentiated, and thus
internal communication, already flowing, can be much more
exact. (p.143)

Stage 6
Assuming that the client continues to be fully received in the
therapeutic relationship then the characteristics of stage five

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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

tend to be followed by a very distinctive and often dramatic

phase. It is characterized as follows.

A feeling which has previously been ‘stuck’ and has been

inhibited in its process quality is experienced with immediacy
now.

A feeling flows to its full result.

A present feeling is directly experienced with immediacy and

richness.

This immediacy of experiencing, and the feeling which

constitutes its content, are accepted. This is something which
is, not something to be denied, feared, struggled against.
(p.145-146)

Stage 7
The client often seems to go on into the seventh and final
stage without much need of the therapist’s help. This stage
occurrs as much outside of the therapeutic relationship as in
it, and is often reported, rather than experienced in the
therapeutic hour. (p.151)

In addition to what have been said by Rogers above, Tolan (2003)

adds:
The person experiences new feelings immediately, with
richness and intensity, and he has a fundamental trust in
himself and his process…he can use his past experiences in
order to understand the present. (p.115)

It is obvious that the healing effect of the actualizing tendency is

an important part of the theory, yet self-actualization may be
misunderstood in collective societies such as those of the Arab
world. This is mentioned by some Arab writers such as Dwairy
(2006), who emphasizes the care needed when applying the term
‘self-actualization’ in a collective Arab Islamic society where

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

culture and religion are fundamental and individuals depend on

their relationships with others.

Islamic views of the Person-Centered Approach.

According to Dwairy (2006) the core conditions involved in
listening and reflecting are helpful in making clients feel
unconditionally accepted as well as facilitating their growth and
self-actualization. From his clinical point of view, however, Dwairy
states that non-directive and non-judgmental therapy can be very
confusing, especially in the early stages of therapy. The writer
believes that Arab and/or Muslim clients feel disappointed if they
are given free space to think and reflect, and will not know how to
use such space.
Self-actualization may be regarded in Qatari society as selfishness
that threatens the harmony of the collective, and therefore the
client must expect to face rejection and social sanctions which may
be rendered unendurable. Often this ‘solution’ may turn into a
serious problem (Dwairy 2006, p.102). From a Muslim Arab non-
directive counselor perspective, it may be argued that the client
needs to be educated towards self-awareness and self-actualization
within the Islamic perspective. Likewise, the PCA aims to
encourage individuals to fulfill their needs and reach their goals
based on their own values. Al-Bahadal (2004, p.119) argues that
self-actualization is not acceptable in Islamic collective society,
where individuals are considered part of the whole society. The
individual has to be aware of how to behave as a Muslim. For
example, Al-Bahadal presents an example of dealing with
unacceptable behavior such as homosexuality in Islamic society by
encouraging the client to realize that this is unacceptable in Islam,
in the hope that s/he will stop following her/his own desires.
Badri (2007) argues that the aim of the PCA is to encourage clients
to actualize themselves. He adds that self-actualization cannot be
achieved in a totally value-free way. This is partially true. A study
like the present one allows a Muslim person-centered counselor to
encourage clients to be more aware of themselves based on their
backgrounds as Muslims and their needs as individuals (see
Chapters 7 and 8). Badri is a psychologist and does not practice the
PCA; therefore his views are believed to be based solely on theory.

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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

It is clear that the terms ‘self-actualization’ and ‘self-awareness’

can be misunderstood in Islamic society where individuals’ needs
and decisions are based on the needs of the whole society.
However, if counselors are fully aware of how to apply the terms
from an Islamic and cultural perspective, they can be of help to the
client. This belief is corroborated by some points of view
mentioned in Chapter 3 that state that the client’s belief system,
values and cultural background need to be seriously considered
when counseling (e.g Dwairy, 2006; Lago, 2006).

The correlation between the person-centered approach and Islamic

counseling
Many who are attracted to the PCA would not consider applying it,
or a modification of it, in an Arab and/or Islamic society. However,
remarkable positive similarities were found when reviewing
Rogers’, Arab and Islamic literature. The similarities from the
Islamic perspective in terms of the nature of the human being,
including spirituality, self-responsibility, the fully functioning
person and the core conditions are presented.

The nature of the human being and spirituality

The human being is highly appreciated in both Islam and the PCA.
From an Islamic point of view, Allah (SWT) asserted His great
appreciation for humankind in the following verse:
We have honored the sons of Adam; provided them with
transport on land and sea; given them for sustenance things
good and pure; and conferred on them special favors, above a
great part of Our Creation (17:70 cited in www.Al-
Islam.com).

The human being in Islam is a distinct creation with the ability and
readiness to increase and renew knowledge. The human being is
also special in the eyes of Allah (SWT) and holds a unique place in
the grand scheme of things. The human being has the capacity to
elevate nearly to the level of angels and those who are close to
Allah (SWT). They also have the capacity to debase themselves to a
level lower than that of the animals; this depends on the effort put

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

forth to either purify or despoil the self and on blessings and help
from Allah (SWT) and divine guidance and care as a direct result of
the effort, concern, and longing for a healthy relationship with
Allah (SWT) and striving to stay on the Divinely-ordained Path (Al-
Hashmi, 2007).
Rogers had a positive view of human beings in general according to
the PCA. Many would regard it as unrealistic and optimistic. Rogers
(1961) believed and trusted in the goodness of human beings’
nature, as he describes it here:
…the basic nature of human beings, when functioning freely
is constructive and trustworthy…When we are able to free
the individual from defensiveness, so that he is open to the
wide range of his own needs, as well as the wide range of
environmental and social demands, his reactions maybe
trusted to be positive, forwards moving, constructive…His
total behavior…as he moves towards being open to all his
experience, will be more balanced and realistic, behavior
which is appropriate to the survival and enhancement of a
highly social animal. (p.194)

It is clear that each person is responsible for being good or bad

based on his own actions. Rogers was aware of how each individual
sees himself within his environment as a responsible person. This
is similar to the Islamic point of view of each person being
responsible for his actions.
Both Islamic society and the PCA are interested in applying
‘spirituality’ to helping and supporting clients psychologically.
Irrelevant as to how the term is applied, both approaches seek to
provide a safe atmosphere where people feel accepted and loved.
This is supported by Rogers (1980):
When I am at my best, as a group facilitator or a therapist, I
discover another characteristic. I find that when I am closest
to my inner, intuitive self, when I am somehow in touch with
the unknown in me, at these moments, it seems that my
inner spirit has reached out and touched the inner spirit of
the other. Our relationship transcends itself and becomes a

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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

part of something larger. Profound growth and healing and

energy are present. (p.129)

Self-responsibility
In both views the individual is regarded as responsible for his
personal actions. Everyone is entitled to choose and decide how
they act and has the right to learn from their experiences. Finally,
everyone is responsible for working from within to change
themselves. For example, the Holy Quran says:
For each (such person) there are (angels) in succession.
Before and behind him: they guard him by command of Allah.
Verily never will Allah change the condition of a people until
they change it themselves (with their own souls). (13:11,
www.Al-Islam.com)

Experience has shown that depressed clients need to be

encouraged to take responsibility for their actions.

A fully functioning person

Both Islamic and person-centered counselors tend to encourage
the client to become fully functioning with a positive attitude to
the direction of the self and others, taking responsibility for their
own actions and choices.
Both the Islamic and PCA views believe in the importance of self-
awareness and development through gradual movement towards
change. Rogers (1961) divides the process of clients’ growth into
seven stages, as mentioned earlier in this chapter. Similarly, the
fully functioning Muslim also moves through three stages of the
self (called Nafs) to reach satisfaction with the self. These Nafs are
within each individual’s personality and everyone is responsible for
dealing with with their own. According to the Holy Quran, the
three stages are called Nafs al Ammarah, Nafs al Lawwamah and
Nafs al Mutmainnah.

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

The three stages of self in Islam

The three stages of self in Islam described below are based on
Athar’s (2003) explanations of they may relate to different client
presentation.

1. The passionate soul (Nafs al Ammarah)

As The Holy Quran describes it:

Nor do I absolve my own self (of blame): the (human) soul is

certainly prone to evil, unless my Lord bestows His Mercy:
but surely my Lord is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (cited in
12:53 www.A-Islam.com)

According to Athar (2003), at this stage the soul inclines towards

sensual pleasure, passion and self-gratification, anger, envy, greed,
and conceit. Its concerns are bodily pleasure, gratification of
physical appetite, and the ego.
The Prophet (PBUH) said:

Your most ardent enemy is your evil self who resides within
your body’ (collected by Al Bukhari1, cited in Athar ,2003).

During this stage the client experiences thoughts and feelings

which guide him towards unwanted actions, e.g. suicide.

2. The reproaching soul (Nafs al Lawwamah)

This is when the person starts to blame the self or others.
According to the Holy Quran:
And I do call to witness the self-reproaching spirit; eschew
Evil. (75:2 cited in www.Al-Islam.com)

This soul is conscious or aware of evil, resists it, asks for Allah’s
grace and pardon, repents, tries to make amends and hopes to
achieve salvation (Athar 2003 www.quranicstudies.com).
According to the Holy Quran:

1
See glossary.
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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

Others [there are who] have acknowledged their wrong

doings: they have mixed an act that was good with another
that was evil. Perhaps Allah (SWT) will turn unto them [in
mercy]: for Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (9:102 cited
in www.Al-Islam.com)

At this stage the client starts to feel unhappy with the self or others
and experiences negative feelings towards them.

3. The satisfied soul (Nafs al Mutmainnah)

This is the stage at which the person is ready to accept what Allah
(SWT) gives him and satisfies himself. As the Holy Quran says:
To the righteous soul will be said: ‘O [thou] soul, in
[complete] rest and satisfaction! Come back thou to thy Lord,
well pleased [thyself], and well-pleasing unto Him! Enter
thou, then, among My Devotees! Yea, enter thou My Heaven!’
(89:27-30 cited in www.Al-Islam.com)

According to Athar (2003) this is the highest state of spiritual

development. The satisfied soul is in a state of bliss, contentment
and peace. The client reaches the point where he becomes happier.
He is able to accept what he has as a fully functioning person.
However, a fully functioning Muslim needs to consider the whole
of society as well as his individual needs. This commences,
though, with the self as pointed out by Al-Rashidi2 (1995).
Despite the fact that Al-Rashidi is not optimistic about applying
person-centered counseling in an Arab/Islamic society, his
interesting book Self-Management: A New Model of Counseling and
Mental Health (1995) highlights the importance of encouraging
individuals to work from within and take responsibility for
themselves (p.17). Only then can they change unwanted behavior
or thoughts. In addition to this Al-Rashidi considers that it is
essential to love and respect the self in order to be able to build
self-confidence and live more satisfactorily.

2
A well-known Arab counselor and psychological writer who has
made remarkable contributions in this field.
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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

Al-Rashidi (1995, p.17) states:

No one is able to change a person unless the person wants to
change himself. As one gets older it is not easy for others to
change him.

Even though Al-Rashidi (1995) is interested in reality therapy as an

appropriate approach for an Arab/Islamic society, he points out the
importance of developing and improving the self, encouraging
individuals to communicate with the self positively as part of this
growth and self-awareness and to accept and take care of
themselves. It is clear that Al-Rashidi is interested in working from
within, with individuals taking an active part in achieving
happiness; yet another aspect overlapping with the PCA.
Al-Shennawy (2001) disagrees with much of Western psychology
and particularly with the PCA for focusing on elements such as
self-actualization, freedom and individualism. In his book Studies
in Islamic Guidance to Counseling Therapy (2001) he suggests a
method of Islamic counseling based on Islamic teaching and the
Holy Quran. He views Islam as a complete system that, single-
handedly, is sufficient to help Muslims in all aspects of their lives
without referring to Western approaches.
Al-Shennawy (2001) claims that the PCA is the closest approach to
Islamic counseling, as it focuses on the counseling relationship and
encourages clients to be active and take responsibility for their
lives as a whole, . as stated by Rogers (1961):
…there is an increasing quality of acceptance of self-
responsibility for the problems being faced, and a concern as
to how this has to be contributed. There are increasingly freer
dialogues within the self, an improvement in and reduced
blockage of internal communication. (p.142)

In his book Do Not Be Sad (2002), the Muslim writer, Al-Qarnee

discusses how Muslims should put their trust in Allah (SWT)
regardless of difficulties they may face in their lives. The writer
states that enjoying life, taking care of the self by loving and
respecting it, putting Allah (SWT) first and then others, living in

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 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

the present and learning from experience is essential in Islam (see

also Al-Qarnee, 2002 and Rashidi, 1995:17).
Another overlapping aspect is focusing on the present. Living in
the moment is an aim of both Islamic and PCA counseling as
indicated by both Al-Shennawy (2001) and Rogers (1961),
respectively:
Al-Shennawy (2001):
If you are truthful with yourself and have a firm, solid
resolve, you will undoubtedly convince yourself of the
following: today is my last day to live. When you attain this
attitude, you will profit every moment of your day, by
developing your personality, expanding your abilities, and
purifying your deeds. (p.33)

Rogers (1961):
…the process which for me is the good life is that which
involves an increasing tendency to live fully in each moment.
(p.188)

However, from the Islamic perspective, living in the present means

enjoying each moment while maintaining a good relationship with
Allah (SWT).

Applying the core conditions in an Islamic context

Islam invites individuals to work perfectly, to accept others, to be
genuine in their behavior and to do their best to understand others.
The PCA is based on the counselor’s attitude towards the client and
to the therapy as a whole. Chaleby (1999) believes that empathic
understanding is very important in helping clients with life
difficulties:
In this kind of therapy, empathy is central. It is considered as
a healing agent in itself. It is one of the most potent aspects
of therapy, because it allows even the most frightened
patient to feel like a human again, a person who can be
understood and has a sense of belonging (p.135).

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Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

He believes that the person-centered relationship can be

considered an effective element for helping people.
The PCA also believes that the client’s insight develops gradually
to reach a point where he is able to accept all aspects of the self, as
in the Islamic third stage Nafs al Mutmainnah, mentioned earlier.
According to Haq (2008), at this stage the Muslim reaches a level of
acceptance and satisfaction where he is surrounded by Allah’s
(SWT) love and support and is moreover at peace with the Divine
Will. The realization of the Ultimate Reality and freedom from
sensuous desires occur at this stage, emancipating man’s soul from
all kinds of influences alien to his nature. Thus the personality is
free to develop and actualize all its latent attributes and potentials
along the lines of its natural patterns.
Muslims have to move from one level to the next to reach
happiness, satisfaction and acceptance of their life. It is the
greatest jihad3 because Muslims have to fight with themselves and
with their desires to reach worship. It is the same in the counseling
relationship: the Islamic counselor helps the client to develop and
grow a healthy relationship with his Allah (SWT). Moreover,
Islamic counseling considers the use of life events as a means of
personal growth and development. Applying knowledge of material
contained in the Holy Quran is a model of counseling that seeks to
place clients in the context of personal, social and spiritual
evolution. The human and spiritual faculties highlight the main
purpose of life, which is to consciously choose to serve Allah
(SWT).
Both approaches highlight the humility of the counselor. In both
models, this humility allows compassion for the human condition
and for the possibility of the counseling process to be a partnership
between client and counselor. In both approaches the counselor is
aware of the limitations of the counseling relationship. Both have
similar goals in seeking to establish a counseling relationship with
the client based on the core conditions. Both are concerned with
helping the client move towards his goals. Both are based on a
belief that an individual is aware of a problem, is tense because of
it, seeks help to resolve it and can enter into a relationship with

3
See glossary.
24    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

another individual – the counselor – who is accepting and allows

the client to freely express his emotions and feelings.
In an article entitled ‘Can the Psychotherapy of Muslim Patients
Really be Helping them without being Islamised?’ Badri (2007)
compares Islamic and person-centered principles. He argues that
the principles of PCA are not new for Muslim clients because the
role of the person-centered counselor is to a high degree similar to
the Prophet’s methods of dealing with others. For example, the
warm and friendly relationship exists Islamically. He adds that
both the Holy Quran and Prophet’s teaching about being warm,
friendly and accepting are very clear in the personality and life of
our Prophet (PBUH).
Badri adds that modern Muslim psychologists can find the highest
values and lessons about how to be friendly brothers and sisters to
their clients and patients in the Holy Quran. Just one verse is
enough to summarize this whole field of Islamic counseling and
exhibit its uniqueness. The verse describes the character of the
Prophet (PBUH) in dealing with his followers:
It is from the Mercy of Allah that you deal gently (and warm)
with them (his followers). But if you were severe and harsh-
hearted, they would have broken away from you. So pass over
their faults and pray for their forgiveness and counsel them
in affair before taking a decision and when you decide put
your trust on Allah for Allah loves those who put their trust
in Him. (3:159 cited in Badri 2007)

Badri interprets the above verse from a psychological point of view

as saying that the Islamic counselor has to be warm, loving and
gentle to the client. Badri sees the Islamic counselor as merciful
and more comprehensive and spiritual than the Western counselor.
Nevertheless, he suggests that there are similarities because the
main elements, ‘warmth and friendliness’, are applied in both
approaches.
According to Al-Qarnee (2002), gentleness and goodness are
essential in making relationships with the self and others healthy
and effective, as the Prophet (PBUH) stated:

  25  
Chapter 1: Overview of the Person-Centered Approach

Whenever gentleness is present in something, that thing is

beautified; when gentleness is removed from something, that
thing becomes spoiled. (p.437)

I believe that gentleness and goodness in the counseling

relationship are unquestionably important, and this is what both
the person-centered and the Islamic counselors share in their
counseling relationship with their clients.
According to Badri (2007), Muslim counselors should be grateful to
Allah (SWT) for being chosen to help and support other Muslim
brothers and sisters psychologically and socially. He sees Muslims
as depending on each other and not thinking individually. He also
believes that Muslims should take care of themselves and others.
He argues that using the term ‘self-actualization’ in an Islamic
society can be problematic. Arguably, Muslims have to be aware of
their needs as individuals as well as considering the needs of
others.
To sum up, PCA-based core conditions, view of the self,
importance of warmth and gentleness are applicable within an
Islamic context. The discussed similarities, especially that of the
“self actualization”, can be modified when counseling a Muslim
client to accommodate Islamic values, the Holy Quran and
Prophetic teachings. Furthermore, it is worth adding that Rogers’
(1980) positive view of life and the individual indicates an
underlying spirituality which is religious in character (Al-Bahadal
2004, p.121).

26    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

Chapter 2
The Islamic Perspective of Wellbeing and
Islamic Counseling
KEY CONCEPTS
• The aim of Islam regarding human beings
• The Prophet’s (PBUH) attitude towards achieving healthy
relationships with others
• Islamic methods used to help Muslims
• Arab and Islamic views of counseling

The aims of Islam regarding human beings

This section focuses on the aims of Islam from the humanistic and
religious points of view. It is crucial to commence by explaining
how Islam provides individuals with help and support to enable
them to live happily with the self and with others. Islam is
considered a way of believing and trusting in Allah (SWT), the only
creator and the most merciful. Islam is a way of living based on
Islamic principles and morals through the Quran and the Prophet’s
teachings.
All three monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam
aim to guide, help and support their followers to embrace life’s

  27  
Chapter 2: The Islamic Perspective of Wellbeing and Islamic Counseling

difficulties, lead them towards happiness and show them how to

achieve happiness thereafter.
In an Islamic society Muslims are supported by society as well as by
their clerics. The Imam4 should guide and direct them by teaching
them the Quran and showing them how to apply it in their daily
lives. He strengthens this teaching by explaining how the Prophet
lived and taught others. Islam is a peaceful religion which aims to
improve Muslims’ lives religiously, spiritually and physically, both
individually and collectively. Muslims are encouraged by the fact
that their faith aims to protect them against physical and mental
illness and promotes taking care of the self.
With an interest in dealing with Muslims clients’ relationships with
themselves, it is worth mentioning that the word ‘self’ is
mentioned in 295 verses in the holy Quran; ‘soul’ is mentioned in
22 verses; ‘mind’ in 49 verses and the ‘heart’ in 132 verses
(Mansour and Abo Abah, 1996 cited in Al-Malki, 2002, p.18). The
current study indicated that encouraging Muslim clients to be
aware of themselves was an important factor in enabling them to
move on with their lives.
Al-Malki (2002) states that Islam guides individuals and groups to
seek benefit in their lives without harming or destroying the rights
of others. Islam encourages people to overcome their illnesses and
disorders and enjoy their life, with the aim of living a long life. Al-
Malki (ibid) emphasizes the importance of encouraging individuals
suffering from psychological problems to take all possible
measures to overcome and face up to their problems and to find
solutions. Islam cares for the Muslim family; it is the basis of the
collective Arab society. The importance of the Muslim family has
been emphasized by many writers such as Moracco (1978), who
points out the importance of considering the family when
counseling Muslim clients, especially when the client comes from
an extended family, as is the case in most Arab societies. When
dealing with Arab clients, counselors have to be aware of the
differences between Islamic and Western societies. Moracco claims
that in the West, feelings of isolation and alienation are common
and are part of the process of modernization. Making choices and

4
See glossary.
28    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

decisions in the West depends on individuals’ needs regardless of

values and traditions, whereas in the Middle East, values and
traditions need to be considered (Moracco 1978).

The Prophet’s (PBUH) attitude towards achieving healthy

relationships with others
The Quran says:
Ye have indeed in the Messenger of Allah a beautiful pattern
(of conduct) for any one whose hope is in Allah. (33:21)

As the Prophet (PBUH) was and still is the best role model for
Muslims, this section presents how he dealt with people
throughout his relationships with others. The Prophet (PBUH) was
a prophet, teacher, guide and counselor who helped and supported
his followers religiously, spiritually, emotionally, socially and
financially. He (PBUH) used different approaches with different
people based on their background, age and belief. He
communicated with them directly, indirectly and non-verbally and
by telling stories or giving examples. Below are some of the
Prophet’s (PBUH) characteristics.
The Prophet (PBUH) made his speeches clear so as not to be
misunderstood by others. As narrated by Anas (a companion of the
Prophet5):
Whenever the Prophet (PBUH) spoke a sentence, he used to
repeat it thrice, so that the people would understand it
properly from him, and whenever he asked permission to
enter [he used to knock on the door] thrice with a greeting.
(Stapley & Bederi 2003 p.537)

The tone of voice is important when talking to people as well as the

way of talking. The Prophet talked directly and indirectly to his
followers in order to interact with them. I believe that the
Prophet’s attitude is similar to that of the counselor who tries to
speak clearly or reflect what has been said by the clients to avoid
being misunderstood. Speaking clearly helps the communication

5
See glossary.
  29  
Chapter 2: The Islamic Perspective of Wellbeing and Islamic Counseling

process go smoothly and improves the quality of the therapeutic

relationship.
According to AlBukhari6, the Prophet used to attract his listeners’
attention indirectly in many ways, such as by starting his speech
with general questions; by using the word ‘Behold’; by sitting up
from a reclining position and repeating it directly and often, etc
(Stapley & Bederi 2003 p.538). The Prophet did not want people
only to listen; rather he wanted them to listen and understand.
The Prophet’s attitude towards counseling, as mentioned above,
helped him build healthy relationships with others. So do
counselors in general and Muslim counselors in particular need to
pay attention to the clients’ verbal and non-verbal communication
in order to understand them better.
The Prophet often summarized speeches and was brief and to the
point in order not to be misunderstood by others, as narrated by his
wife, A’isha:
The Prophet used to talk so clearly that if somebody wanted
to count the number of his words, he could do so. (Stapley &
Bederi 2003 p.540)

He also used non-verbal communication to share his feelings and

acceptance of others. Again as narrated by Aisha:
I never saw Allah’s Messenger laughing loudly enough for me
to see his uvula, but he used to smile only. (Stapley & Bederi
2003 p.543)

Smiling eases and builds people’s confidence. When the Prophet

wanted to communicate with others non-verbally he showed that
he was interested and cared by smiling. This is also the case in
counseling when the counselor and client meet without words.
Mearns and Cooper (2005) state that one method of non-verbal
communication is a laugh shared between counselor and client. It
is clear that the Prophet’s attitude was very important in his
relationships with both Muslims and non-Muslims. Moreover, his

6
See glossary.
30    
 An Islamic Modification of the Person-Centered Counseling Approach

attitude should not be applied only in the therapeutic relationship

but also as a way of life. According to Islam, it is very important for
the Muslim to have a good character and to aspire to follow the
Prophet, who was known for his good character, as mentioned in
the Quran:
And verily, you (O Mohammad!) (PBUH) have an exalted
standard of character!’ (68:4)

Allah (SWT) sent the Prophet to his people because of his honesty,
morality and generosity (Stapley & Bederi 2003).
In addition to endeavoring to emulate the Prophet’s attitudes
towards others, Muslims should feel grateful to Allah (SWT), who
loves and takes care of them, as shown in the following citation.
According to Abu-Hurariah, companion of the Prophet7, Allah’s
Messenger said that Allah (SWT) said:
And the most beloved things with which my slave draws near
to me is what I have enjoined upon him. My slave keeps on
coming closer to me through performing the optional acts of
worship (besides what is obligatory) until I love him. When I
love him, I become the sense of hearing with which he hears,
the sense of sight with which he sees, the hand with which he
grips, and the leg with which he walks; and if he asks Me [for
anything] I give him, and he asks My protection (Refuge) I
protect him (Take him in My Protection) and I do hesitate to
do Anything – as I hesitate to take the soul of the believer,
for he hates death, and I hate to disappoint him. (Collected
by Al-Bukhari, cited in Stapley & Bederi, 2003, p.362)

As a Muslim client is part of the whole of society, a Muslim

counselor encourages the client to love and take care not only of
the self but also of others. As narrated by Anas, the Prophet (PBUH)
said: ‘None of you will have faith until he likes for his (Muslim)
brother what he likes for himself’ (Stapley & Bederi (2003) p.26).

7
See glossary.
  31  
Chapter 2: The Islamic Perspective of Wellbeing and Islamic Counseling

Muslims believe that if they put their faith in Allah (SWT) and
believe in him, Allah will always be with them. As Abu-Hurairah
narrated that the Prophet (PBUH) said:
Allah (SWT) says I am as my slave thinks of me I am, (i.e. I am
able to do for him what he thinks I can do for him) and I am
with him if he remembers Me. If he remembers Me in himself,
I too remember him in Myself; and if he remembers Me in a
group of people, I remember him in a group that is better
than them; and if he comes one span nearer to Me, I go one
cubit nearer to him; and if he comes one cubit nearer to Me, I
go a distance of two outstretched arms nearer to him; and if
he comes to Me walking, I go to him running. (Collected by
Al-Bukhari, cited In Stapley & Bederi (2003), p.196)

It is clear that the Prophet encouraged Muslims to have a good

relationship with Allah (SWT) and this also reflects the importance
of a trusting and therapeutic relationship between counselor and
client. In my experience, during counseling sessions Muslim clients
need to be reassured by the counselor that by Allah’s will their
problems will be resolved.
As a Muslim counselor it is sensible to provide Muslim clients with
verses from the Holy Quran whenever appropriate. Some
appropriate examples include:
Say: ‘O my Servants who have transgressed against their
souls! Despair not of the Mercy of Allah: for Allah forgives all
sins: for He is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful’. (Holy Quran
39:53 cited in wwwAl-Islam.com)

On no soul doth Allah place a burden greater than it can bear.

It gets every good that it earns, and it suffers every ill that it
earns. (Pray) ‘Our Lord! Condemn us not if we forget or fall
into error; our Lord! Lay not on us a burden like that which
Thou didst lay on those before us; our Lord! Lay not on us a
burden greater than we have strength to bear. Blot out our
sins, and grant us forgiveness. Have mercy on us. Thou art
our Protector; help us against those who stand against Faith’.
(ibid 2:286 cited in wwwAl-Islam.com)

32    
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or, The Mystery: A Prophecy of the Future.
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 LADY EUREKA;

OR,

THE MYSTERY:
A PROPHECY OF THE FUTURE.

BY THE AUTHOR
OF

“MEPHISTOPHELES IN ENGLAND.”

IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. I.
 LONDON:
LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS,
PATERNOSTER-ROW.

1840.
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.
I. THE CITY OF THE WORLD.
II. ZABRA.
III. A PHILANTHROPIST.
IV. A FIRE AT SEA.
V. PERILS OF EMIGRATION.
VI. APPEARANCE OF THE AFRICAN COAST.
VII. CAFFRETON, THE METROPOLIS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.
VIII. THE PIRATES.
IX. CAPTAIN DEATH.
X. THE PIRATE’S RETREAT.
 INTRODUCTION.

“Guten Morgen, Wilhelm!” said I, as I entered the chamber of my

fellow student. “How are you this morning? You look better—your
eyes are brighter, and your cheek possesses more colour than
usual.”
“I am better, mein Freund,” observed the youth, raising himself up
from the bed till his back rested upon the pillows. “But what have
you there?”
“A fresh supply of flowers for you, Wilhelm,” I replied; “and I
bought them of the prettiest Mädchen I ever saw in the market
place.”
“Ich danke Ihnen für das Geschenk,” murmured the grateful
student. “You know I love flowers better than any thing upon earth.
They always fill me with ideas of beauty and purity and splendour,
above all other earthly things; and I love them because they are so
impartial in bestowing their favours: they confer their fragrance and
their loveliness with equal liberality on all who venture within their
influence. Put them in the vase, mein freund, and let me again thank
you for so welcome a gift.”
“And now let us converse, Wilhelm, if you feel strong enough;” I
exclaimed, as I took a seat by the bedside of the invalid. “Has the
physician been this morning? And what said he.”
“He preceded you but a few minutes, mein freund,” replied
Wilhelm, “and he said nothing. He shook his head, however, when
he looked at me, which I considered a bad sign.”
“There’s nothing in it, be assured,” said I, earnestly.
“In the head, or in the sign?” inquired my fellow student, with a
look of mock gravity.
 “In both,” cried I, laughing; “in both, no doubt. But I am glad to
see you so cheerful. Your appearance this morning makes me
entertain hopes of your speedy recovery, and I can almost convince
myself, that in a few days we shall be together pursuing our studies
and our ramblings, as we have so often and so happily done.”
“I have been entertaining a similar idea, mein freund,” observed
Wilhelm; “I feel more cheerful than I have felt for a long time past;
and I was beginning to flatter myself into a belief, that the insidious
disease was about evacuating its territory. I shall roam among the
walls of old Göttingen again. I shall associate with my ancient
comrades—shall I not?”
“’Tis a consummation devoutly to be wished by others as well as
myself,” said I; “but how liked you the book I lent you?”
“’Tis a brilliant production,” replied my friend; “and of that class of
works which affords me most pleasure. ‘Give me the enjoyment of
perusing a succession of new works from the graceful pen of
Crébillon, and I shall have no other want,’ said Gray. I exclaim, ‘Give
me the gratification of reading the finest productions in the
imaginative literature of every civilised nation, and there will be little
left for me to wish for.’ Nothing elevates and delights me so much as
the best of these works, especially if they be tinged with a tone of
high romantic feeling. What can be so charming as this mingling of
the ideal and the natural? What can take a firmer hold of the mind
and of the heart?”
“They certainly do, when ably written, create very powerful
impressions;” I observed.
“I have read a considerable portion of the imaginative literature of
almost every European nation,” said Wilhelm; “and an extraordinary
power of genius it evinces. The prose fictions of the present age
produced in Germany and England are wonderfully excellent and
abundant. I think the English exceed all others in the combination of
judgment with imagination, as seen in the best efforts of Scott,
Bulwer, and Godwin. After them come the Germans, and we can
proudly boast of Göthe, Lafontaine, Novalis, and Hoffmann. The
French have much imagination and very little judgment, as exhibited
in the writings of Victor Hugo, Mérimée, Paul de Kock, and Balzac,
and are usually distinguished by their sins against good taste. Of
Italian imaginative literature, the works I have met with that rise
above mediocrity, are, ‘I Promessi Sposi,’ of Manzoni, ‘Ettore
Fieramosca,’ of Massino D’Azeglio, and ‘Franco Allegri,’ which do not
soar very high. Of the modern fictions of Spain, Portugal, and
Holland, I know nothing; nor do I believe that there is any thing to
know; but I have seen one or two romantic novels from Russia that
possess considerable merit. What I object to in works of this nature,
written at the present time, is the too apparent satisfaction of their
authors in remaining in the beaten track. A vast majority fill their
volumes with characters that have been a thousand times repeated,
and with incidents and situations that are familiar to every reader.”
“What would you have them do?” I inquired.
“I would have them strike out a bolder class of subjects,” replied
the student. “Instead of being satisfied with attempting illustrations
of historical periods, or of an existing state of society, suppose they
attempt to describe an imaginary time as well as imaginary
characters. If a man possess a powerful imagination, let him
conceive the state of the world a thousand years hence, or at any
other time remote from the present. I do not mean that he should
merely delineate a state of society, or of any section of society; I
mean that he should take the most important portions of the
civilised world, and picture, as well as he is able, the changes they
may undergo, and the state of their peoples, governments, religions,
and philosophy.”
“I am afraid that such a work would be considered too serious for
the novel reader;” I observed.
“Impossible, mein freund!” replied the student. “Always, in works
of imagination, the ideal and the matter of fact should be so blended
as to make an interesting and amusing whole; and it matters not
whether the time sought to be illustrated be of the past, of the
present, or of the future: each may be made equally laughable,
equally pathetic, and equally philosophical.”
 “But the idea is too comprehensive to be done well;” said I. “To
draw an imaginary state of the world in any thing like consonance
with probability, requires more than ordinary talent in the
draughtsman; but to add to it pictures of an imaginary state of its
inhabitants, and an imaginary state of their philosophy, presents
difficulties which I should think are not to be overcome.”
“The imagination can conquer any difficulty;” exclaimed my
companion. “There is no power beneath heaven like imagination. It
can dive into the uttermost corners of the ocean, or ascend through
the trackless fields of air. It can fly where the eagle dare not move
its wing, and amid Alpine obstacles outclimb the chamois. It can
pass the great desert at a bound, and bear the four corners of the
world in the hollow of its eye. It seeth all things that nature
showeth; and after disclosing these, can show many things that
nature never beheld. It pierces into the most hidden things. It
flingeth a shining light into the most utter darkness. Locks, bolts, or
bars, cannot keep it out—laws, walls and chains cannot keep it in: it
is the only thing belonging to human life that is perfectly free. There
is nothing imagination cannot do; no matter whether it be good or
evil, reasonable or absurd, to it all things are alike easy. And as for
wealth or power or dignity, or aught of which the world thinks highly,
where is the greatness, and where are the riches that exceed those
of the imagination? Mechanics are proud of their engines, and think
them wonderful: they are mere playthings compared with the
imagination. Cannot imagination make the sea dry land, and the
earth ocean? Archimedes boasted that he would move the world,
could he place it in a convenient situation. Let imagination put forth
its powers, and the world becomes obedient to its law, moves when
required, crumbles into dust, and is re-created with increased glory.
Cannot it break the rock like a reed, and snap the gnarled oak of
many centuries like a rotten thread? Cannot it build cities on the
plain, and form a garden in the wilderness? Cannot it people the
solitude and confer happiness on the desolate? Cannot it make the
sands of the sea-shore glittering with gold; and of the leaves of the
forest create treasures far outvaluing the riches of the earth and
sea? And more than this, it can make the dead live and the living
die; it can raise the earthquake and the pestilence; it can fight
battles and win kingdoms; it can float upon the whirlwind like a leaf
upon the breeze; and pass through a consuming fire unscathed by a
single flame.
“These are the powers of the imagination; and what are its
pleasures? Let the most luxurious seeker after enjoyment take all
the delights reality will give him. Let him wrap himself up in roses;
lie in baths of milk; taste all that is delicious to the appetite; be
loved by the most lovely and the most loving of women; and pass
not a minute in which his soul is not lapped in ecstacy; and his
enjoyments will bear no comparison with those of the imagination.
Imagination can concentrate in a single moment the pleasures of a
thousand years: it possesses all the delights the world may produce,
in addition to raptures more exquisite of worlds of its own: it can
create forms clothed with a beauty far excelling the rarest of those
who have glorified the earth with their presence; its sunshine pales
the light of heaven; its flowers alone can bloom with a perpetual
fragrance.”
“Wilhelm, you must not excite yourself so;” said I, observing him
fall back exhausted against the pillow, from which he had raised
himself, and a violent fit of coughing follow.
“O du ewige Güte?” exclaimed the student, gasping for breath.
“Ah! I was afraid of this; you are too weak to allow yourself to be
carried away by the impetuosity of your feelings. Here! take some of
this drink. It will allay the irritation of the cough.”
“I am better now—I am better, mein freund,” murmured the
grateful Wilhelm; “and now let us resume our conversation.”
“I am almost afraid, Wilhelm, for I see it excites you so much;” I
observed.
“It has passed away. It is nothing:” replied my companion.
“Supposing then, that the idea you mentioned was attempted to
be worked out to its full extent, how is it possible to convey any
thing like a natural picture of the state of existing nations at so
remote a time?” I inquired.
 “By a reference to what is already known of the growth, maturity
and decay of nations,” said the student. “Every thing has its age.
The tree cannot flourish beyond a certain time—nor can a country.
Time passes his scythe over the verdant world, and wherever it
glides, the crop is cut down; and after the field has been left wild a
sufficient period, the seed is again sown, the produce is again
abundant, and the mower is again at work. Thus it has been from
the creation of the world; thus it will be for everlasting. How long
was the growth of Babylon, of Nineveh, of Tyre and Sidon, of Thebes
and Carthage? They had their season. Then came Pompeii, Etruria,
Athens, Rome, and Constantinople. How long did they last? Then
came Venice and Genoa, the Moorish kingdom of Grenada, and the
Arabian empire at Jerusalem; they had their day. After these came
the omnipotence of Popish Rome, the magnificence of Madrid, and
the splendour of Lisbon: they have departed. And now we have the
glories of London and Paris, and Berlin and Vienna, and these will
exist their period, and then gradually fall into decay. It must be
evident to any observer, that Spain and Portugal, once the two
greatest nations in Europe, in opulence, power, and intelligence, are
descending to the lowest degradation of poverty, insignificance, and
ignorance. The Roman empire in Italy, having passed into a number
of independent states, each of which has attained a considerable
degree of greatness, lies now prostrate at the foot of the great
European powers. Greece, the intellectual and the free, having for
many centuries been plunged in ignorance and slavery up to the lips,
shews signs of a regeneration. And the barbarians of the North are
making rapid approaches towards pre-eminence.”
“But the superior civilisation we enjoy, must prevent our
retrograding,” said I. “Think of our steam-engines, our rail-roads, our
wonderful discoveries in science and mechanics, and our
extraordinary advancement in intelligence; we are rising, and we
shall continue to rise.”
“We cannot rise above the top, mein freund,” observed my fellow
student with a smile; “and after that we must go down. There is a
point beyond which no nation advances, and to that point we are
tending. As for our superior civilisation, that remains to be proved.
Boast as we may of our machinery, we could neither raise such
monuments as were frequent among the Egyptians, or have we any
tools that can make an impression upon the stone out of which they
were sculptured. The gunpowder upon the discovery of which we
pride ourselves, has not been so destructive as the Greek fire, of the
composition of which we know nothing. In art, we are far from
excelling the ancients, and in learning we are obliged to
acknowledge our obligations to them.”
“But how far the intelligence of the multitude at the present day
exceeds that of any preceding time!” I observed.
“I am not convinced of that,” replied Wilhelm. “With the exception
of Germany, particularly Prussia, the education of the people, has
not been attempted on a plan likely to confer on them much
advantage, and the only sure way of judging of a superiority of
intelligence is by comparing the state of the public morals in
different countries. If it can be proved that the Greeks or the
Romans were a less moral people than are the English or the French,
then are the latter the most intellectual; but if, taking the amount of
population, it could be ascertained that a less amount of crime was
committed by the ancients, then must the moderns be considered
the least civilised.”
“I am afraid the philosophical character of such a work would not
be appreciated by the general reader, who takes up a book merely
for amusement,” said I.
“You are mistaken, mein freund,” replied the student; “there is
nothing which may be made so amusing as philosophy. Every good
book is philosophical; and the idle reader is continually being made
familiar with philosophy without knowing it, just as the worthy
gentleman in Molière’s comedy talked prose all his life, in perfect
ignorance of having done so.”
“Well, I can only say, I should like exceedingly to read such a
book,” I observed.
“You see that ebony chest there, upon that pile of books;” said
Wilhelm, pointing in the direction to which he had alluded. “Take it.
In it you will find a MS. It is a work such as I have described to you,
and I wrote it at intervals, whenever I could find time for the
employment.”
“You write such a work, Wilhelm!” exclaimed I with surprise. “I am
aware how much you have devoted yourself to study. I know that
you have completely ruined your health by your severe application in
the pursuit of knowledge; but I had no conception of your
attempting a production of such a character, upon a subject beset by
so many difficulties.”
“I have been ambitious,” replied my companion. “I was desirous of
attempting something out of the common path—I yearned for
literary distinction. Take and read it, mein freund, and let me know if
you think it worthy of publication. I have endeavoured to make the
story full of a deep and pleasing interest. The characters introduced
I have sought to create in a sufficient variety, and of various shades,
from the humblest in intelligence to the most exalted. The incidents
I have strived to make striking and powerful, and vividly drawn; and
the opinions you will there find expressed, while I wished to make
them natural and true, I have been anxious that they should possess
a claim to originality. It has been my aim to combine wit, humour,
pathos, and philosophy in such a manner as I hope cannot fail of
being thought at once amusing and instructive, and if I live to see
realised the aspirations I have entertained, if I can but behold the
work I have laboured to produce, in popular estimation, I do not
care how soon this feeble frame dissolves into its parent dust. I must
live to see that! mein freund; I must live to see that!”
“I have not a doubt but what you will, Wilhelm;” I replied. “The
genius I know you to possess has only to exhibit itself fairly before
the public, to be considered a public property, and become an object
of general estimation. The learning you have laboured so diligently
to obtain, will then stand you in good service; and the liberality of
your sentiments, your deep love of virtuous principle, and your
earnest desire for the diffusion of truth, then cannot long remain
without exciting the admiration you covet.”
He made no reply.
 “Look!” I exclaimed. “There are Gerhard Kramer, and Hugo
Messingen, smoking their meerschaums out of the opposite
window.”
He did not move.
“Are you asleep, Wilhelm?” said I, advancing from the window to
the bedside, and gazing in the face of my now silent companion. His
head was sunk in the pillow, with his light hair falling in waving curls
around it. There lay the calm blue eyes, the fair smooth cheek, the
delicate moustache, and the mouth so exquisitely small, half open,
giving a glimpse of the white teeth within it.
“Are you asleep, Wilhelm?” I repeated, taking the hand that rested
outside the bed clothes.
He was asleep: and from that sleep he never awoke. He now lies
in the left hand corner of Göttingen churchyard—a familiar place to
me; for while he was the most studious, he was the most amiable of
all my fellow students. He had become a martyr to his love of study,
and the world closed upon him just as he exhibited those signs of
extraordinary merit, which in time would have made him one of its
most distinguished ornaments. That his death was quite unexpected
by himself was evident, but in the progress of his illness he had
drawn up a will, in which he had made me his executor, and in it
expressed his desire that I should prepare his manuscript for the
press. I have done so, and the result is before the reader. I have left
the first chapter as I found it, giving notes to illustrate a few phrases
that required explanation; but imagining that these phrases, though
perfectly characteristic, might perplex the reader in his progress with
the story, I made such alterations in the rest of the MS. as I thought
would bring the work nearer to the taste of the time.
 EUREKA;

A PROPHECY OF THE FUTURE.

 CHAPTER I.

THE CITY OF THE WORLD.

More than usual activity was observable in the tiers of shipping of

various nations that crowded the port of Columbus. The sun shone
with extraordinary splendour, throwing a golden light over the broad
waters of the river that spread out as far as the eye could reach,
bearing on their bosom vessels of every description used in
commerce or warfare (some coming into port, others leaving it for a
distant destination), that were diminishing in size as they receded
from the view, till they assumed the appearance of a mere speck
between the horizon and the wave; and the spreading sails of those
in the distance, and the many-coloured flags streaming from the
masts of those closer to the shore, with their various builds, sizes,
costume and characteristics of their crews, and the variety of
employments in which the latter were engaged,—infused such a
spirit of animation into the scene, that the stranger would have
found it impossible to have looked on without an earnest and
delighted attention. Nearer the shore boats were passing to and fro
—from the graceful Swan (1.) and rapid Fish, full of gay parties of
pleasure, to the gigantic Hippopotamus and slow Tortoise, bearing
burthens of various kinds of produce towards the wharfs that lined
each side of that noble river; and many other boats of different
dimensions, some impelled by oars, others by sails, and others by
machinery, were passing from ship to ship, from the ship to the
shore, or from the metropolis to the neighbouring villages.
If the appearances on the water were gratifying to the eye, those
on the land assumed a character equally cheerful, various, and
magnificent. Well might Columbus be styled The City of the World. In
its dimensions, in its splendour, in its riches, in the myriads of its
inhabitants, and in the multitudes of strangers who flocked from all
parts of the globe to witness its greatness or share in its traffic, it
was worthy of being considered an empire rather than a metropolis.
Beyond those unrivalled quays that stretched along each side of the
river, connected by colossal bridges, whose arches spanned from
shore to shore with such an altitude that under them the largest
vessels might pass with ease, were seen the proud palaces of the
merchants—the lofty domes for the administration of justice—the
stupendous edifices for the conveniences of commerce—the vast
temples for the worship of the Deity—the imposing halls for the
diffusion of science—every description of dwelling suitable to the
wants of a free, industrious, enlightened, and multitudinous
population of various ranks, interspersed with noble monuments in
commemoration of admirable actions—exalted statues personifying
the highest degree of excellence—parks, fountains, gardens, and
public walks between rows of lofty trees; rising above these, on the
elevated land on which the city was erected, might be observed,
placed at considerable distances from each other, and adorned with
all the graces of architecture, the villas of the wealthy; and at the
very crown of the hill the obelisks, urns, and other monuments that
peered above its summit pointed out the cemetery of the city, and
the mausolea of its dead.
Through the numerous streets the tide of population seemed
hurrying with an anxious eagerness; and the vehicles of luxury and
of industry were passing each other in the broad thoroughfares, in a
similar crowd and with a similar haste. Here came the votary of
pleasure, seeking only the enjoyment of the present—there went the
accumulator of wealth, enjoying no delight save in the prospect of
the future; and they were passed by the plodding antiquary, living
only in his associations with the past. The toil-worn mechanic—the
enthusiastic student—the venerable sage—the solemn priest—the
proud soldier—and the bustling citizen, took their separate ways
through the crowd, with an apparent thoughtlessness of all things
except their own immediate objects; and thus had they gone on for
ages, each pursuing his own course, and every one heedless of the
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