THE CHANGES FROM LATE STONE AGE TO

EARLY IRON AGE.

Iron Age tools Foods
- Knobkerries.
- Hoes. - crops.
- Axes. - meat. - honey.
- Spears. - fish. .
- Chisels. -fruits. -milk.
- Machetes. - vegetables. - locusts
- Hammers. - birds’ eggs. - insects.
- Arrow heads. - mushrooms. - frogs.
- Scrappers. - roots.
- Grinding stones. - bulbs.
- Fishing hooks. - mopane worms.
- Knives. -lizards.
- Adze.
- Razor.
- Digging sticks.
Minerals . Domestic animals.
- Gold. - goats.
- Tin. - sheep.
- Copper. - cattle.
- Iron . - dogs.
- Silver. - cats .
– pigs.

Archeological sites. Animals hunted.

- Great Zimbabwe. - Antelope.
- Tsindi. - Zebra.
- Khami. - Rhino.
- Matopos. - Hippos.
- Chipadze. - Duiker.
- Mabveni. - Elephants.
- Ziwa. - Rabbits.
- Gokomere. - Impalas.
- Leopard’s Kopje. - Kudu.
- - Buck.
- Wild Pigs.
- Buffalo.
- Giraffe.

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Crops grown. Economic activities.
- Bulrush millet. - hunting.
- Finger millet. - pastoralism or livestock keeping.
- Sorghum. - gathering.
- Rapoko. - mining.
- Pumpkins. - internal and external trade.
- Gourds. - tribute.
- Cowpeas. - agriculture.
- Melons. - craftwork e.g.pottery, weaving,basketry and
- Beans. drum making.
- raiding.
- fishing.

ECONOMIC CHANGES FROM THE LATE STONE AGE TO THE

EARLY IRON AGE.
NB: Words to use: more, better, bigger, began, new, larger and
greater.
- The modes of production improved in the Early Iron Age as a result of
new technology.
- New tools improved the way of life.
i) Hunting - Hunters were able to use better tools like spears, arrowheads
to kill bigger animals e.g. elephants.
They got more meat, skins and ivory.
- The diet improved because of more meat which increased proteins.
ii) Fishing - Iron hooks replaced bone hooks. (made fishing easier).
- Axes were used to make wooden boats (canoes).
- Weapons like axes and spears provided security for hunters from
dangerous water animals e.g. crocodile, hippo and snakes.
- Fishing led to the improvement of the diet through proteins.
iii) Crop cultivation.
- began in the Iron Age.
- Axes were used to clear the forest.
- Hoes were used to till the land.
- Agriculture provided more food e.g. sorghum, millet, rapoko,
pumpkins, cowpeas, beans and melons.
- More food security because of surplus food.
- People now developed permanent settlement.

2
 - Hoes made the work fast and easy.
iv) Mining was a seasonal activity done in the dry season after the rains.
- They mined minerals like gold, tin, copper, silver and iron.
- Simple tools were used to mine e.g. ropes, hoes and wooden bowls.
- The miners first studied the rocks, soil, vegetation and the colour of
the water.
v) Specialization developed because of division of labour based on skills.
Craftwork led to specialization e.g. iron working, smelting, weaving,
basketry, carving, tanning, masonry (stone building) and blacksmithing.
vi) Livestock keeping – Shona people kept animals like cattle, goats,
sheep and dogs.

Importance of cattle.
- For labour. - skins for clothes, drums, shields and
- Wealth. mats.
- For cultivation. - trade.
- For paying tribute. - meat.
- Fines. - milk.
- Rituals. - skins.
- Traditional ceremonies. - loan cattle.
vii) Trade developed in the Iron Age.
a) Internal Trade e.g. Iron tools for cattle.
b) External Trade e.g. cloth for gold.
viii) Raiding began as a result of stronger weapons. Powerful states got
richer from raids. Raiders captured livestock, women , children, grain, food,
minerals, ivory and tools.
ix) Tribute payment.
- The rulers demanded tribute from weaker groups. The ruling class
became richer.
- Tribute was paid in many forms.
Items / forms/ commodities used to pay tribute.
- Minerals :- gold, tin and silver. - animal skins.
- Crops :- pumpkins, beans and millet. - salt.
- Tools :- axes and hoes. - cloth.
- Cattle (livestock). - baskets.
- Labour. - Crafts e.g mats & clay pots.
- Wives. - young men and women.
- ivory.

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x) More wealth in the Iron Age.
SOCIAL CHANGES FROM THE STONE AGE TO THE IRON AGE .

-There was division of labour based on sex.

Men’s work: Hunting, mining, fishing, basketry, carving, clearing the land,
tanning, iron working, building huts and kraals.
Women’s work: gathering, fetching firewood, looking after children,
cooking, farming, pottery and weeding.
- Classes developed in the Iron Age. There were class of rich and poor
people because of accumulation of wealth .e.g. Blacksmiths became
richer because they produced iron tools.
- Exploitation of the poor people began e.g. Loan cattle (kuronzera
system) was practiced by those with more cattle.
- Women were exploited by men. For example most work in agriculture
was done by women and children e.g. weeding and harvesting.
- The family sizes increased and there was increase in population.
- Axes were used to build pole and dagga huts. The shelter in the Iron
Age improved to replace caves & temporary huts.
- Agriculture led to permanent settlement (Nomad life was replaced).
The Shona villages were based on the Lineage system. (a group of
related families according to totem).
- Village cooperatives made work easier (nhimbe).
- Hoes and cattle were now used to pay lobola.
- A man was allowed to marry many wives. This means polygamy was
practiced.
- Totems became important because it brought unity.
- The status of a man was brought by having many wives, children and
cattle. Daughters and wives were a form of wealth.
- A man married from a different lineage.
- Clothing continued to be made of animal skins.
- Woman decorated their bodies with jewellery. (necklace, bangles and
earrings).
- The Shona had many beliefs which were important in their life.
- They worshipped a high God called Mwari the creator of men.
- They believed in ancestral worship.
- Spirit mediums communicated with the ancestors and God.
- Mediums conducted rainmaking ceremonies in times of drought.
- Succession disputes were solved by the mediums.

4
 -
NB J2015: Items used to pay Lobola in Late Stone Age.
- e.g. grain, cattle, hoes, hammers, spears, axes, gold, ivory, labour,
goats, pottery and skins.
- The Shona believed that spirits lived in forests, rivers, pools,
mountains i.e. sacred places.
- Rest days were important to honor the ancestors of ruling (class)
family. The days were called Chisi.
- There was belief in witchcraft which caused bad luck e.g. barreness,
illness, mental illness, bad luck, death.
- The Shona religion brought unity because the Shona believed the King
had devine power.
- There were family, regional and national mediums. (3marks).
- Mediums installed the king.
- There was belief in life after death.
- Beer offering to ancestors.
- There was belief in avenging spirits (ngozi).

POLITICAL CHANGES IN THE IRON AGE

- The rich began to gain power over the poor.
- Ironsmiths used hoes and other tools as gifts to gain supporters &
followers.
- People who could control iron mines were able to get iron weapons.
The weapons were used to attack areas without iron.
- Ruling families began to demand tribute from the poor
- The number of raids increased.

Tribute (Tax) was important because it showed:

i. respect.
ii. Allegiance and obedience.
iii. Loyalty.
iv. Made the rulers rich.
- Rise of Iron Age communities e.g. Ziwa, Mabveni and Gokomere.
- Growth of villages leading to chiefdom formation.
- Wars increased to control hunting areas and gold.
- Population growth led to clans (lineage)- group of families with same
totem).

5
 - The chiefs demanded respect for their ancestors. For example, chisi
(rest days) were there to respect the founders of the ruling class.
Religion strengthened the political authority of the chiefs or rulers.
i. The Chief/ King’s power was devine. The result was that rulers were feared
and respected.
ii. Mediums solved succession disputes so this brought peace.
iii. Installation of a new ruler was the duty of the mediums hence the rulers
were feared and respected.
iv. Rain making ceremonies brought good yields in the fields.
v. Mediums communicated with God and the ancestors.
vi. Mediums gave advise in times of drought, war & disease.
- Rulers had authority over others because of powerful armies. The
armies had important functions:
* Collecting tribute. * Protecting the state and king.
* Punishing rebels. * Controlling external trade.
* Raiding. * Hunting elephants for the king.
* conquering new areas. * Maintained peace and order
- Intermarriages brought unity. The king married wives from the Chiefs
and sub – Chiefs.
- Loan cattle (kuronzera) were used to gain followers. The Ironsmiths
and the ruling lineages were the wealthiest people so they gained
power over others.
- New States began to rise in the Early Iron Age e.g. Mapungubwe and
Great Zimbabwe.

Part (C) questions on the Iron Age.

Question: To what extent did Iron technology benefit

people in Southern Africa?
Answer: Iron technology benefitted people in Southern Africa.
- work become easier.
- more food from agriculture.
- More meat, skins and ivory from hunting.
- More proteins from fishing.
- Iron weapons provided security from dangerous animals.
- Better shelter.
- Permanent settlement.
- Rise of chiefdoms.

6
 - State formation.
- More wealth from trade.
However, the changes in the Iron Age brought harm.
– exploitation of women and children.
- exploitation of man by man.
- development of classes of rich and poor.
- mining caused land degredation.
- Poor people were forced to pay tribute.
- The number of raids and wars increased leading to death of people.
Question: How far did trade contribute to state formation in
Southern Africa during the Iron Age?.

Answer: Trade contributed to state formation in Southern Africa

during the Iron Age.
- Communities fought to control sources of trade goods like gold mines
and forests with elephants leading to formation of large states.
- Communities fought to control trade routes and expanded states.
- Rulers demanded tribute in the form of valuable goods.
- Wealth and power developed from trade.

C2 Other factors.
- ambitious leaders.
- succession disputes.
- state formation resulted from need to control fertile soils.
- Need to control pastures.
- Loaning of cattle to other communities led to spread of influence.
- Polygamy was an important source of labour.
- Marriage alliances were a source of power.
- Strong armies helped in state formation.

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THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE.
Sub-topics.
a) The reasons why Great Zimbabwe was built.
b) The factors that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe.
 Economic factors.
 Social factors.
 Political factors/ military.
 Decline of Great Zimbabwe.
Uses of cattle in the Great Zimbabwe State (Nov 2011).
- Trade.
- Ritual purposes: rain making, appeasing spirits, symbol of ancestors.
- Payment of lobola (bride price).
- Form of wealth/status symbol.
- Tribute payment.
- For food: meat, milk.
- Form of transport/draught power.
- Skins: mats, clothes, blankets, making shields, drum making, sandals.
- Paying fines.
- Manure for agriculture.
- Fuel from manure e.g. in blast furnaces.
- Doing for polishing floors.
- Ropes.
- Loaning cattle for political influence.
Crafts practised by the people of Great Zimbabwe.
- Drum making.
- Building in stone (masonry).
- Making jewellery.
- Carving.
- Iron smelting.
- Blacksmithing.
- Ornament making.
- Pottery.
- Basketry.
- Weaving.
- Sculpture.
- Leather tanning.
Nov 2014.
2a) Identify any six artefacts that were discovered at Great Zimbabwe –
NB made by people for use.
- Beads.
- Figurines.

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 - Iron tools: spearheads, hoes, axes.
- Porcelain dishes.
- Chinaware (dishes, plates, cups).
- Shells.
- Iron gongs.
- Bangles.
- Soapstone bowls.
- Anklets.
b) Construction and functions of Great Zimbabwe as a city.

bi) Describe the Construction of Great Zimbabwe as a city.

- It was built by the local Shona people.
- They used granite rocks. It was heated, cooled, spilt and shaped into
blocks.
- No mortar was used.
- The rulers could have used slave labour.
- Masons shaped the stones.
- Skilled people were rewarded/paid for their labour.
- Walls with many patterns e.g. chevron pattern
bii) Functions./ purposes/reasons why Great Zimbabwe was built
- King’s Headquarters/Capital.
- Defence or protection from enemies.
- cultural centre.
- expression of power/status.
- Religious centre.
- Prestige and greatness.
- Expression of fertility and success.
- for receiving visitors.
- Trade.
- administrative centre;
- used by king’s wives.
- Storage centre for grain and minerals.
- Enclosure for animals.
c) How important was the King in the Construction of the walls?
C1 – importance of the King.
- He was organiser of the labour.
- Leader in the construction.
- Responsible for paying the skilled workers.
- Commander of the labour.
However, other factors were important.
- Labourers.
- Officials.
- Vassal chiefs.
- Availability of pastures, water and granite.

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THE FACTORS WHICH LED TO THE RISE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE
ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND POLITICAL FACTORS LED TO THE RISE.

Economic Factors Which Led To The Rise Of Great Zimbabwe.

- Availability of mineral wealth e.g. gold, iron and copper.

- Iron mining led to the development of iron technology. Iron tools
made work easier e.g. agriculture, hunting and mining.
- The availability of abundant fauna (wild life). This means the area had
enough meat, skins and ivory.
- Availability of salt deposits. People had enough salt for cooking,
tanning, drying meat etc.
- Abundant water sources e.g. Mutirikwi river. It provided water
transport for trade and fish for their domestic animals.
- Availability of high rainfall promoted agriculture.
- Availability of optimum/ good temperatures led to agriculture.
- The area was free from tsetse flies. This made it a good area for
livestock keeping e.g. cattle, sheep and goats. The area was free from
nagana.
- Availability of fertile pastures (grasslands) led to the development of
livestock keeping e.g. cattle, sheep and goats.
- Availability of arable or fertile soils led to the development of
agriculture e.g. sorghum, bulrush millet, rapoko, cow peas and
pumpkins.
- Availability of woodlands or timber provided fuel or firewood.
- The area was central so it had access to local and international trade.
Great Zimbabwe had access to trade with the Swahili, Arabs and
Persians who come from East Coast (Sofala). International trade
brought jewellery, cloth, wine, glassware, chinaware and glass beads.
- Tribute payment made the rulers rich. Raiding brought wealth e.g.
livestock, women, minerals.
- Raiding brought wealth which led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe.

POLITICAL FACTORS THAT LED TO THE RISE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE.

- The hill top was chosen as a defense site in times of war.
- Availability of granite rocks led to the construction of Great Zimbabwe.
- The nearby Nemanwa/ Manwa hill provided protection.

10
 - The army collected tribute, raided, punished rebels, maintained law
and order, protected the king and the state.
- There were powerful/ influential and ambitious leaders who began to
control other lineages.
- The ability of the ruling families to demand tribute from weaker
lineages. Tribute brought wealth e.g. cattle, grain and women.
- Raiding was used to get more wealth for the ruling lineage.
- Rulers were feared and respected because it was believed they were
divine rulers.
- Intermarriages brought unity and peace in the state.
- Great Zimbabwe’s rise was associated with the fall of the Mapungubwe
state across the Limpopo river.

SOCIAL FACTORS THAT LED TO RISE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE.

- Intermarriages/ marriage alliances – these brought many lineages
together. The king married the daughters of the lesser chiefs. This
brought unity.
- Polygamy led to population increase.
- Population began to increase. This brought increase of manpower.
- Loan cattle brought unity and peace – kuronzera.
- The people spoke the same language Karanga brought unity.
- Religious factors were important.
- They worship one God together so it brought unity.
- Mediums conducted rainmaking ceremonies in times of drought.
- Rest days were important to honour the ancestors. These days were
called Chisi.

THE REASONS/PURPOSES WHY GREAT ZIMBABWE WAS BUILT.

- For, honour and greatness.
- King’s dwelling/capital/ residence.
- Defence or protection against enemies/A fortress in times of war. e.g.
Hilltop and intimidating stone walls.
- For external trade with the Arabs/Swahili.
- To show the power and prestige of the rulers.
- To display the wealth of the rulers.
- To control the movements of cattle.
- A religious centre to worship Mwari. There is the conical tower, altar,
bowls, soapstone birds/ Hungwe bird carvings as evidence.

11
 - As a king’s court (administration center).
- It was an expression of fertility and success e.g. shape of conical tower
represents the male sex organ. The V shape on the stone walls
represent the female sex organ. Some historians claim that the conical
tower’s shape represents a grain bin.
- For protection against bad weather e.g. wind.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES/ ECONOMY.

- Hunting.
- Gathering e.g. vegetables, honey, milk, locust, insects, bulbs.
- Fishing with iron hooks, nets, traps.
- Raiding.
- External trade with the Swahili, Arabs brought cloth, wine, glass beads
Internal trade.
- Crafts were practised at Great Zimbabwe are tanning, weaving,
pottery, basketry, smelting, carving, sculpture, drum making, masonry
and iron smithing.
- J 2013 – Agricultural activities of the people at Great Zimbabwe.
- Livestock keeping e.g. cattle were important because they had many
uses e.g. tribute, meat, milk, manure, paying lobola, loan cattle, fine,
trade, rituals, wealth, status.
- Mining e.g. iron, copper, gold and tin.
- Agriculture: millet, sorghum, rapoko,beans, pumpkins and cow peas.
Tribute payment: grain, minerals, cattle, labour, tools, cattle, labour
and wives.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
- There was division of labour which was based on sex.
- Men’s work: hunting, mining, fishing, basketry, carving, clearing
land, iron working, building huts and kraals.
- Women’s work: gathering, fetching firewood, looking after children,
cooking, farming, pottery, looking after children, cooking, farming,
pottery, weeding.
- Lobola was paid using cattle.
- The status of a men was brought by having many wives, children and
cattle.
- A man married from different lineage.
- Polygamy was practiced.

12
 - Clothes were made from animal skins.
- They lived in pole and dagga huts.
- Intermarriage brought unity. The king (ruling class) married wives
from chiefs and sub-chiefs.
- There were classes of rich and poor people
- Loan cattle system was practiced.
- Exploitation of man by man.
- NB. Social classes/ groups at Great Zimbabwe (Nov 2007).
- farmers.
- traders.
-hunters.
-miners.
-Spirit mediums.
-potters.
-herbalist.
- war captives.
- blacksmiths.
-masons.
- They worshiped high God called Mwari.
- They believed in ancestral spirits.
- Succession disputes were solved by mediums.
- Mediums installed the king.
- Spirit mediums communicated with the ancestors and God.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
-kingship was hereditary.
The kings duties.
- The king was a religious leader who led in religious ceremonies.
- Controlled tribute.
- Was the head of the state.
- He was the commander of the army.
- Controlled external trade.
- Protected the state through the army.
- Punished rebels.
- He had the right of life and death.
- Fed the people in times of drought.
- He distributed land.
- Highest judge.

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 - Marriage alliances brought unity. The king married the daughters of
the lesser chiefs.
- King appointed and dismissed chiefs.
- Tribute payment was important
i) it showed loyalty.
ii) it showed respect.
iii) it showed allegiance.
iv) it brought wealth which the rulers gave as
gifts to loyal subjects e.g. generals.

- Tribute – forms of paying tribute (3 examples 1 mark).

- Army brought stability and order: (3 examples).
- Religion strengthened the political system.
i) Spirit mediums solved succession despites so it brought unity and
peace.
ii) Installation of rulers by mediums led to respect and fear of the king.
ii) Advice in times of crisis (trouble) e.g. drought, war and disease.
iv) Mediums communicated with the ancestors.
v) The king had divine power.
- Loan cattle ( kuronzera) brought more followers to the rulers.
- One language, (karanga) bought unity.
- Economic factors were important in the political system e.g.
 Mining brought weapons for war.
 Agriculture fed the army.
 Trade brought wealth.

THE DECLINE AND FALL OF GREAT ZIMBABWE.

- Economic, environmental and political factors led to the decline and fall
of Great Zimbabwe. People under Mutota migrated to the Dande –
Chidima area in the North.
Environmental factors.
- Overpopulation/ (10 000 or 18 000 people) increase in population.
The pressure led to shortage of resources.
- Shortage of salt.
- Shortage of pastures.
- The soils became poor and infertile for cultivation hence there were
poor yields.
- Firewood and timber shortage.

14
 - Shortage of gold for external trade.
- Shortage of wild life- shortage of ivory, meat and skins.
- The Mutirikwi and Save rivers became silted and this affected external
trade.
- Drought affected agriculture and livestock keeping.
- Cholera outbreak caused by poor sanitation.
- A great fire broke out and burnt the buildings.

Economic factors.
- Environmental problems apply e.g. shortage of resources.
- The trade routes shifted northwards to Mazoe and Zambezi Valley. This
led to decline in external trade. There was now less wealth at Great
Zimbabwe.
- The shortage of ivory and gold led to the decline of external trade.
- Droughts affected agriculture and livestock.

Political factors.
- Weaknesses of the ruling family:
- People refused to pay tribute.
- Weak leaders.
- The state was attacked by neighbouring groups.
- Succession disputes in the ruling family e.g. when the King died they
fought for who succeeded him. After the death of Chibatamatosi there
was civil war- led to the migration of Nyatsimba Mutota to the Dande
area. Torwa migrated Westwards.
- Ambitious leaders broke away e.g. Nyatsimba Mutota.

Social factors.
- The population increased to about 10 000 People – Great Zimbabwe
become overpopulated.
- Diseases affected the people e.g. cholera and small pox.
- Cattle were affected by diseases like nagana.
- A great fire destroyed the buildings.

15
THE MUTAPA STATE/MUNHUMUTAPA STATE
( C. 1450-1900).
- Also called Monomutapa state.

THE FACTORS THAT LED TO THE RISE OF THE MUTAPA STATE.

- The Mutapa state was able to rise as a result of many factors. The
factors include the decline and fall of Great Zimbabwe State, the
favourable conditions of the Dande area, and the military
achievements of Nyatsimba Mutota.

a) The decline of Great Zimbabwe State:

-The Mutapa State was an off– shoot (direct successor) of the Great
Zimbabwe State.
- Mutota and his followers migrated from Great Zimbabwe as a result
of succession disputes and civil wars.
- Environmental problems at Great Zimbabwe led to the migration
e.g. the shortage of salt, pastures, arable land, mineral wealth,
firewood, timber.
- Drought at Great Zimbabwe also led to poor yields and hunger.
- A great fire at Great Zimbabwe could have burnt down the capital.
- Weak leadership weakened the state at Great Zimbabwe.
- The Great Zimbabwe state was attacked by neighbouring groups.
- The trade with the Swahili declined at Great Zimbabwe. This was
caused by lack of resources and the Shift of the trade routes
northwards to the Mazoe-Zambezi Valley.

b) The Dande - Chidima area had favourable conditions:

- Fertile land for agriculture in Dande.
- Rich grassland for livestock in Dande.
- Mineral wealth e.g. gold and silver for external trade in Dande.
- Wildlife e.g. elephants were abundant- meat, ivory, skins.
- Salt deposits in Dande area.
- Favourable climate e.g. high rainfall in Dande area.
- The Dande area was underpopulated. There were small groups of
Tonga, Tavara and Korekore. There were weak.
- The Dande area had access to external trade with the Swahili and the
Portuguese through/ via the Mazoe and Zambezi River.

16
c) Mutota’s military achievements.
- Nyatsimba Mutota was the founder of the Mutapa state.
- He left Great Zimbabwe around 1450 with a strong army.
- He used his army to conquer the Tonga, Tavara and Korekore gps in
the Dande – Chidima area.(3 marks).
- Mutota established his capital at Chitako Hill.
- The army was used to conquer, protect the king, raided, control trade.
- He was the commander of the army.
- The Tonga gave him the praise name Munhumutapa which means the
ruler of the conquered.

d) Economic factors also led to the rise.

- Agriculture feed the people.
- Hunting brought ivory which was used for trade.
- External trade brought wealth.
- Mining produced tools and weapons.
- Raiding brought wealth e.g. cattle.
- Tribute payment brought wealth.
- Livestock keeping.

PROVINCES OF THE MUTAPA STATE/CHIEFDOMS

- Dande. - Guruuswa (Butua).
- Chidima. - Uteve.
- Mbire. - Manyika.
- Barwe. - Mudanda / Madanda/ Sedanda.
- Sanga. - Chiraramuro.
- Shangwe

NAMES OF RULERS OR MUNHUMUTAPAS (KINGS) NOV 2009.

-Mutota.
-Matope.
-Kapararidze.
-Kasoro.
-Mavhura Mhande.
-Gatsi Rusere.
-Mukombwe.
-Negomo Mupunzagutu.
-Chikuyo Chisamarengu/ Chomunyaka
-Nyahuma.

17
-Chioko.
- Nyamhita Nehanda.
- Neshangwe
THE EXPANSION OF THE MUTAPA STATE.
- Nyatsimba Mutota’s son, Nyanhewe Matope, was responsible for the
expansion of the Mutapa State.
- Matope conquered new Chiefdoms/ provinces e.g. Barwe, Manyika,
Guruuswa, Sanga, Uteve and Mudanda.
- The military maintained law and order, raided, protected the state,
controlled external trade e.t.c.
- At its highest peak, the Mutapa State extended from Limpopo to
Zambezi rivers and from the East coast of Mozambique to the Kalahari
desert (Botswana).
- Matope established an alliance/ friendship with the Tavara high God,
Dzivaguru. This brought peace and unity in the state. Matope was
helped to rule by his half sister, Nyamhita Nehanda.
- Matope used marriage alliances to strengthen the state. He married to
the daughters of lesser chiefs.
- Tribute payment was a method used to bring wealth and to establish
loyalty and allegiance. Vassal chiefs paid tribute to the Munhumutapa
in many forms e.g. minerals like gold, crops like millet, tools, labour,
wives, ivory, baskets, mats, clay pots, salt, skins, cloth and jewellery.
- The system of loan cattle strengthened the state because the
Munhumutapa got followers. It also brought together both the rich and
poor.
- Religion was a factor which bought stability/ peace.
i) They worshipped one God.
ii) Succession disputes were solved by mediums.
iii) Installation of rulers by spirit mediums.
iv) All people gathered for rain making.
v) Mediums give advice in times of crises.
vi) The mediums treated sick people.
-Vassal chiefs were forced to light their own fires from the royal fire (moto
mutsva) every year. It was a sign of loyalty and allegiance to the King.
-The Munhumutapa was helped to rule by many government officials.
-Head door keeper. -Senior son in law ( mbokorume).
-Court chamberlain. -Nengomasha (commander of the army).
-Head cook. -Mukomohasha.

18
 -Queen mother. -Treasurer.
-King’s nine principal wives. -Priests.
-Head drummer.
-Messengers.

Economic system
- Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. It provide food to feed
the Shona people.
- Livestock keeping: cattle, sheep and goats were the banks of the
Shona. Livestock had important functions e.g. paying lobola, tribute,
meat, milk, skins.
- Mining of iron, gold, silver, copper. It provided iron tools weapons for
the army. Minerals like gold led to the rise of external trade.
- External trade with the Swahili and the Portuguese. The state become
rich through foreign goods e.g. cloth, jewellery, guns, sugar, umbrella,
sea shells, chinaware, candles, tobacco, mirrors, wines etc.
- Hunting it brought wealth e.g. ivory, meat, skins. This improved
external trade.
- Raiding brought wealth e.g. cattle.
- Gathering e.g. vegetables, honey, milk, locusts.
- Crafts were practised e.g. tanning, carving, weaving, pottery,
sculpture and iron smithing.
- Fishing.

THE MILITARY ORGANISATION OF THE MUTAPA STATE

- The army headed/led by the king as chief commander of the soldiers.
- He was helped by an appointed commander given the title
Nengomasha. He was the second most powerful official in the Mutapa
State.
- There was a War Council (dare rehondo). The council ratified/made
War decisions and conscripted soldiers. It also gave advice to the
Munhumutapa.
- The state had a large army which assembled only when need arose.
- However, the Mutapa State maintained a small army of 200 to 500
soldiers to protect/guard the state and maintain peace and order.
- Drums/Signals were beaten and Hwamanda/trumpets/parapanda was
sounded to assemble the Mutapa soldiers.

19
 - N’angas (spiritual healers) were consulted by the army before it went
to war. They doctored the soldiers to make them brave. They also
treated sick soilders.
- Weapons used included spears, bows and arrows, swords, catapults,
knobkerries, guns, battle axes (gano).

Importance of religion (Part C).

- It gave authority to the Munhumutapa. The king was allied to the
religious leaders.
- He was a divine king so he was feared and respected.
- Religious leaders and spirit mediums chose the king (installation of the
king).
- Mediums solved succession disputes so it brought peace and stability.
- Religion united the people e.g. all people gathered for rainmaking
ceremonies.
- The people also worshipped one God so there was one unity.
- The king was the intermediator between spirits and the people.
- The king was a religious leader. He led national ceremonies. As a
result he was respected for his religious powers.
- Mediums advised the rulers in times of war, drought and disease
epidemic. Mediums were consulted .

THE RESIPONSIBILITIES OF THE KING (MUNHUMUTAPA).

- Head of state/ he ruled the state.
- Distribution of land.
- Highest judge.
- Religious leader.
- Chief administrator.
- Custodian of state property e.g. cattle.
- Appointed lesser chiefs and dismissed them (2 marks).
- Commander in chief of the army/ leader of the army.
- Receiving and sharing tribute (2 marks).
- Signing treaties e.g. with the Portuguese.
- Loaning cattle.
- Controlled external trade/ protected the trade routes.
- Protected the state/ citizens from enemies.
- He controlled mining activities.
- Received foreign visitors.

20
 - He presided the Council/ chaired.
- Declared war.
- Fed the people in times of drought.
- Punished rebels.
- Right of death and life.

THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE MUTAPA STATE .

- Internal and external factors or influences contributed to the decline
and fall of Mutapa State.

a) Internal factors (problems).

i. Political problems
- Succession disputes in ruling house divided and weakened the state as
claimants fought each other.
- Weak leaders came to power. They signed treaties which were unfair
with the Portuguese.
- Puppet Munhumutapas like Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande came to
power. They were incompetent kings.
- Nyahuma was too young to rule the state hence he was an
incompetent king.
- Civil wars weakened the state.
- The state become too big. The provinces became independent and
refused to pay tribute e.g. Manyika and Guruuswa.
- Changamire Dombo broke away and established the Rozvi state.
- Dombo was a rebel.
- Weak armies.

ii. Economic factors/ the lack of resources

There were shortage of resources:
- The number of elephants declined due to hunting using guns. This led
to decline in external trade because of shortage of ivory.
- Soils became poor – infertile.
- Shortage of gold and silver. The mines became exhausted. Others
were filled with water. Same mines became too deep and dangerous
for the Shona (unsafe).
- The Shona also kept the mines secret to avoid the Portuguese who
used forced labour to extract the minerals.
- Unfair trade between the Shona and the Portuguese caused decline
of external trade.

21
 - Drought led to poor yields in agriculture. Poor pastures led to death of
livestock.
- People moved to areas with higher rainfall because of drought.

b) External factors – outside forces/influences.

- The activities of the Portuguese weakened the Mutapa state. It was
also attacked by the Maravi, the Zimba and Nguni gps e.g.s

i. Political Interference/ activities.

- The Portuguese were involved in the succession disputes and civil
wars.
- When the Munhumutapa died they chose weak puppets.
- Supplied guns during civil wars.
- They supplied armies called Chikunda.
- Puppet Munhumutapas came to power e.g. Mavhura Mhande and Gatsi
Rusere.
- The Portuguese refused to pay CURVA (tribute).
- They demanded tribute from the Munhumutapa.
- Prazeros took the powers of the chiefs.
- They took lands in the Zambezi Valley and controlled gold & silver
mines.
- Prazeros were rude, lawless, arrogant and disrespectful.
- Signed treaties which gave them mining rights and land.

ii. Social activities of the Portuguese.

- The Prazeros raped African women.
- Ill-treatment of African workers e.g. sjambok was made from the hide
of a hippo to beat Africans.
- Raided African villages and took the people for slavery.
- There was no payments for mining so Africans fled from the areas with
minerals (forced labour).
- Social evils e.g. grew marijuana and brought alcohol.
- Led to children of mixed blood (totemless children called Mulattos –
children of mixed blood).
- Christianity divided Africans e.g. Silveira’s work in Mutapa’s court.
(iii) It was attacked by the Zimba, Maravi and Nguni groups.
(v)The influence/ activities of the Swahili Muslims/ Islam) divided the
people.

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THE PORTUGUESE IN THE MUTAPA STATE.
Aims of the Portuguese/ Reasons for Portuguese penetration.
- To trade.
- To mine.
- To replace Swahili trade.
- To drive away the Muslims.
- To spread Christianity and Civilization.
- To obtain slaves.
- To obtain land for agriculture.
- To hunt animals.
- To find Prestor John.
- To colonise the Mutapa.

Trade centres/ market places/ feiras/ posts established by the

Portuguese.
- Massapa. - Sena.
- Luanze(Ruhanje). - Dambarare.
- Manyika. - Tete.
- Rimuka/ Marimuka. - Zumbo.
- Chitomborwizi. - Manzovo.
- Bukutu. - Matafunya.
- Masekesa. - Chipiriviri
- Mutare.
- Makaha. .

Economic activities of the Portuguese.

- Farming.
- Mining.
- Livestock keeping.
- Hunting for ivory.
- Raiding.
- Trade.
- Gathering.
- Tribute payment.
- Fishing.
- Craftwork.
- Slave trade.

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Names of Portuguese men/ nationals who visited the
Mutapa State.
- Fernendez. - Silveira.
- Francesco Barreto. - Vasco Homem.
- Perreira. - Caiado.
- Gouveia. - Lobo.
- Meneses . - Gomes.
- Fr Luiz. - Bocarro.
- Fr Sardinha. - Dona Katarina.
- Madeira.

THE METHODS USED BY THE PORTUGUESE TO GAIN CONTROL OF

THE MUTAPA STATE.
- Forced the King to push out / expel the Swahili.
- Established trade posts e.g. Sena, Manyika, Dambarare and Zumbo.
- Took control of the trade in the Mutapa State.
- Controlled credit system.
- Silveira converted Mutapa Mupunzagutu and some of his subjects to
Christianity. He was baptised and given the name Sebastin. His
mother, Chiuyu , was now called Maria.
- Encouraged and took part in civil wars.
- Use of brutality-illtreatment e.g. men were beaten in front of children
and wives.
- Portuguese names were given to Africans e.g. Sebastin, Don Fillipe,
Miguel, Alfonzo, Jaachim and Joao.
- Bad – mouthed the Africans.
- Sent Mutapa’s sons to India for education e.g. Dam Miguel.
- Helped to install puppet rules e.g. Mavhura Mhande & Gatsi Rusere.
- Signed treaties with Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande.
- Created private armies called CHIKUNDA. Hunted, took part in civil
wars, raided, protected the Prazo system.
- Introduced the Prazo system:
 They took large areas of land.
 Establish private prisons.
 Raided Africans.
 Forced Africans to pay tribute.
 Took over the administrative duties of chiefs in the
Mutapa state.

24
  They refused to pay curva.
 Intermarriage e.g. Mulatos were born.
 Slave trade was introduced were slaves were sold in
Mozambique.They were then transported to Brazil.
 Raped African women.

THE ACTIVITIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE MUTAPA

STATE.
- Contacts/ relations between the Portuguese & the Shona changed with
time sometimes they were cordial (good) and sometimes they were
bad.
- The Portuguese carried out economic, social and political activities.
a) Economic activities.
Trade.
- The Portuguese brought foreign goods in exchange for local
commodities. They brought goods like cloth, guns, mirror, sea shells,
chinaware, jewellery, knives, sugar, tobacco, umbrella and new seeds.
- The Shona give the Portuguese commodities like ivory, gold, minerals,
castle, skins, meat, slaves, ostrich feathers and carvings.
- Portuguese traders established trade posts/markets e.g. Tete,
Manyika, Rimuka, Dambarare, Sena, Zumbo and Luanze.
- African middlemen called vashambadzi were used. They moved from
village to village using barter trade.
- The Munhumutapa demanded a special tax called curva from the
Portuguese.
- He chose one of the traders to be Captain of the Gates at Massapa.
Duties of the Captain of the Gates.
- He settled problems between the Portuguese and Africans.
- Ensured obedience to Munhumutapa.
- Made sure the Portuguese paid tribute.
- Advised the Munhumutapa on matters concerning the Portuguese.
- He informed the government of Portugal on activities in the Mutapa
State – Hence he was an ambassador.
- Controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa State.
- Served as an interpreter.
- He linked the Portuguese and the Mutapa.
- Represented the Portuguese government in the Mutapa State.
- He submitted the gifts from the King of Portugal to the Munhumutapa.

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THE PRAZO SYSTEM.
Prazero was the land owner or prazo holder.
Prazo was the land or estate.

How did they get the land?

- Rewards from the king for support in succession disputes and civil
wars.
- Prazo holders grabbed land by force.
- Farming new crops e.g. maize, marijuana, rice, sugarcane wheat and
cassava
- New fruits, e.g. apples, paw paw, guava, mango, oranges, lemons,
avocado and bananas.
- New farming methods e.g. crop rotation.
- Mined minerals e.g. Silver and gold.
- Forced labour was used- no payment.
- Raided Africans.
- Demanded tribute e.g. labour, chickens, crops, ivory, minerals.
- Gathering.
- Fishing.
- Hunted elephants for ivory, meat and skins using private armies –
CHIKUNDA.

Social activities.
- Slavery – Africans were sold to slave dealers in Mozambique
- Prisons.
- Ill- treatment/ brutal to Africans e.g. beaten using sjambok.
- They bad mouthed Africans.
- Rape of Africans ---Mulatos ,( mixed blood).
- The Portuguese married African women.
- The Portuguese use African women as concubines.
- Marijuana was smoked.
- Fed on exotic meat and expensive wines.
- Prazeros refused to pay curva.
- Lived in plastered huts.
- Prazeros were rude, arrogant, disrespectful to the Munhumutapa
hence they were a multitude of sinners.
- The life for prazeros was more comfortable compared to Africans.
- Christian work was practiced.
- They built a few small schools to educate Africans.

26
Political activities.
- After the death of Silveria in 1561 the Portuguese declared war on the
Mutapa State. The government of Portugal sent an army led by
Barreto to avenge the death. The invasion was unsuccessful because
of many reasons :
i) Heat.
ii) Malaria.
ii) Fever.
iv) Heavy clothes.
v) Lack of Knowlwdge of the area.
vi) The Portuguese were attacked by the Maravi.
- Another army was sent, led by Vasco Homem. It was also
unsuccessful.
- The Portuguese were involved in the succession disputes and civil wars
of the Mutapa State.
- They helped weak claimants like Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande to
come to power.
- The Portuguese signed treaties/ Alliances with the two puppet rulers.

The alliance with Gatsi Rusere.

- The Portuguese helped Rusere to come to power in 1596.
- They help him against attacks by the Maravi kingdom.
- The Portuguese promised to suppress rebellions in the Mutapa State.
- In return, Rusere gave the Portuguese the right to mine gold and to
take land.
- The Portuguese got hunting rights.
- They were allowed to trade freely.
- Rusere’s sons were to be sent to India for education.
- Rusere agreed to ban the Muslims.

The alliance with Mavhura Mande:

- The Portuguese helped Mavhura Mhande against Kapararidze in a civil
war.
- Mavhura made land grants to the Portuguese.
- The Portuguese were allowed to trade freely.
- Portuguese missionaries were allowed to build churches and to preach
where ever they liked.

27
 - The missionaries were allowed to build schools.
- The captain of Massapa was given authority over everyone in the area
whether black or white.
- The Portuguese would maintain Mavhura Mhande on the throne.
- The Portuguese demanded that Mavhura Mhande pay tribute to the
government of Portugal.
- The political activities of the Portuguese led to the decline of the
Mutapa State.

The effects/ results of Portuguese presence in the Zambezi

Valley and the Zimbabwean plateau (the area between the
Zambezi of the Limpopo.

Benefits to Africans. Non benefits.

/disadvantages/harmed.
- Education. - bad mouthed Africans .
- Christianity. - raped.
- New farming methods e.g. - mulatos.
Crop rotation. - forced labour.
- New crops. - social evils e.g. marijuana.
- New fruits. - unfair trade.
- Trade- foreign goods (cloth). - brutality.
- Guns for easy hunting. - prisons.
- Protection. - slavery.
- Women were married. - loss of land.
- Better mining methods. - loss of mines.
-loss of cattle.
- succession disputes.
-civil wars.
- loss of power by chiefs and
Munhumutapa.
- loss of identity e.g. Portuguese
names.
- christianity weakened/
undermined African religion.
- Christianity divided Africans.
-led to the decline of Mutapa State.

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QN: To what extent did Portuguese political activities lead
to the decline of their influence in the region?
C1 – Political activities.
C2 – Other factors led to the decline.

C1 – They caused tension(bad relations) with Africans.

- Took land.
- Raided.
- Forced Africans to pay tribute.
- Africans kept mines secret.
- Africans fled from forced labour.
- It led to war with the Africans.
- Market places were destroyed.
- Attacked by Maravi and Changamire Dombo.
C2 –However other factors led to the decline of the influence of the
Portugues
- Poor soils.
- Drought.
- Minerals became exhausted.
- Slavery.
- Civil wars.

QN: How important was military power in Portuguese

control of the region?
C1 – Military power.
- The Chikunda armies: hunted elephants.
 Raided.
 Protected the Prazeros.
 Collected tribute.
 Civil wars.
 Helped weak claimants.
 Helped the Munhumutapa against local enemies.
(uprisings).

C2 – Other factors were important in Portuguese control of the

region (other methods).
 Prazo System.

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  Christian work of Missionaries.
 Alliances/ treaties with Rusere and Mavhura Mhande.
 Trade centres/ market places.
 Forced labour.
 Marriages.
 Ill-treatment.
 Slavery.

The factors that led to the decline of the Prazo system

- Divisions among the prazeros. They fought among themselves.
- Africans fled from slavery and forced labour.
- Over hunting led to shortage of ivory.
- Soil became infertile.
- Exhaustion of mines / minerals.
- Unfair trade.
- Prazeros adopted African culture e.g. polygamy, many children,
language, shelter, foods, crops, belief in n’angas , economic activities.
- The prazo system become corrupted by African beliefs and activities.
- Malaria.
- Lack of Industry.
- Prazos became centres of corruption.
- Droughts affected agriculture & livestock.
- Harsh climate e.g. hot, humid.
- Prazo system became Africanized.
- Attacks by the Maravi and Nguni groups of Mfecane.
- The land was given to concession companies e.g. the Portuguese East
African Company.
- The BSAC occupied some of the areas in the Zambezi Valley.

30
THE ROZVI STATE.
(C. 1650-1840). Nov 2014
Six Chiefdoms conquered by Changamire Dombo.
- Zvimba.
- Torwa.
- Nyashanu.
- Barwe.
- Chiweshe.
- Bocha.
- Marange.
- Uteve.
- Madanda/Sedanda.
- Mutema.
- Chikanga
- Mutasa.
- Makoni.
- Manyika.
Rozvi capitals/ centres of power.
- Khami.
- Naletale.
- Danamombe / Dhlodhlo.
- Manyanga.
- Nhava ya Tumbare.
- Insukhamini.
- Jere.
- Matendere.
- Great Zimbabwe.

Names of Rozvi rulers.

- Changamire Dombo.
- Chirisamhuru 1.
- Chirisamhuru 11
- Nechagadzike.
- Changa.
- Dyembeu.
- Gumboremvura.
- Nechasike.
- Tohwechipi.
- Rupanda Manhanga.
- Mutinhima.

31
THE ORIGINS OF THE ROZVI STATE.
- There are different theories which explain the origins of the Rozvi
State.
- It was an off shoot of the Mutapa State.
- The Rozvi State was founded by a leader whose name was Dombo of
the Mwoyo totem.
- Changamire Dombo was a headman under Mutapa Mukombwe.
- In the 1670s Dombo gathered followers around himself and declared
independents from Mutapa Mukombwe. Dombo was a rebel.
- Used loan cattle to gain followers.
- He was a cattle thief who changes the colour of cattle.
- Dombo used supernatural power to gain followers of a rainmaker.
- He was a cattle thief who changes the colour of cattle.
- He seized Mutapa lands and a serious civil war broke out in the Mutapa
Empire.
- Dombo was forced to move away from the Mutapa towards the South
West in the Torwa area.
- He fought, conquered and absorbed the Torwa and Kalanga people.
- Dombo established his powerful state in the area of Butua (Butwa) /
Guruuswa and established his capital called Danan’ombe.
- The state adopted the name “Kurozva” they were given this name
because of the nature of their conquest of the subject people. They
were destroyers.
- West Zimbabwe the Rozvi embarked/began on military the conquest.
- The army was very helpful in conquering the number of chiefdom and
it saw the Rozvi growing until it covered the rest of Zimbabwe.
- Dombo was a charismatic leader loved by his followers.
- His powerful army used the cow horn formation
- Detected the Portuguese and drove them out of the Zimbabwean
plateau.
- Dombo’s military achievements led to the rise of the Rozvi State.

32
Tribute items
- Livestock.
- Grain/ crops.
- Labour.
- Minerals.
- Ivory.
- Skins.
- Meat.
- Daughters.
- Iron tools.
- Cloth.
- Jewellery.
- Salt.
- Mats.
- Baskets.
- carvings.
J 2012
Three exports from Rozvi State
- Pigs, sheep, cattle, gold, ivory, crops, ostrich feathers, animal
skins/hides, tools, pottery, crafts.

Imports into Rozvi State

- Cloth.
- Glass beads.
- Guns.
- Gunpowder/ammunition/bullets.
- Liquor/wines/alcohol.
- Maize, rice, beans (Max 2).
- Fruits/examples (Max 2).
- Tobacco.
- Mirrors.
- Ceramics.
- Knives.

QN: Was raiding important in the Rozvi economy?

C1 –Raiding brought wealth.
- It brought farming tools.
- Livestock e.g. cattle, sheep and goats.
- Women captured provided labour.

33
 - Young men provided cattle herders.
C2-Other economic activities were important.
– Agriculture was important because crops provided food.
- Mining brought iron tools.
- Gold was used for external trade.
- Cattle were a form of storing wealth.
- Social life of the Rozvi State
- Loan cattle.
- Marriage × 3 marks for explanation.
- Clothes- Skins.
- Shelter- Pole and dagga huts.
- Religion.
- Social classes of rich and poor people.
- Status of a man.
- Village cooperatives.
- Exploitation of women.
- Division of labour based on sex.
- The Shona were patrilineal.
- Moyo totem used by Mambos.

- Religion.
- They believed in Mwari.
- The Shona believed that the spirits lived in forests, mountains and
pools.
- The spirit mediums choose the King (installation).
- Mediums gave advice in times of war, drought, disease and famine.
- They believed that there was bad luck e.g. barrenness.
- King was a divine ruler.
- The Shona had family, regional and national mediums.
- Traditional healers doctored the soldiers before war.
- Believed in life after death.
- Ceremonies were held to appease the ancestors e.g. rain making.
- Ancestral bulls. The shona offered beer to the ancestors.
- Belief in avenging spirit called “Ngozi”.
- The rest days (Chisi).
- Believe in life after death.
- Beer was offered to the ancestors.

34
Political Organisation of the state.

- The title of the king was Mambo or Changamire.

- The Mambo was the head of the state.
- The Mambos were of the Moyo totem.
- His position was hereditary. It passed from father to son.
- The mambo was the commander in chief of the army/ leader of the
army.
- He was also the religious leader of the kingdom and he was installed
by the religious/ spirit mediums.
- Mambo was highest judge.
- The Mambo was assisted in his administration by a Council consisted
of representatives of the priest hood, military leaders, provincial
governors and the members of leading royal houses.
- The King had a council of advisors and this included senior wives, elder
sons and chief priest.
- Provinces fell directly under the administration of provincial chiefs and
the mambo was in charge of their instillation.
- Under provincial chiefs were district headmen.
- Loan cattle brought unity
- Tumbare was an important official eg he collected tribute, he was
army commander and acted as Mambo when the king was too ill or
died.
- The king appointed and dismissed chiefs.
- Tribute was paid in the form of gold, ivory, beads, tobacco, axes,
hoes, food stuffs, cattle and animal skins.
- The army was important in the political system.
- Religion was important in the political system:
-worshipped one God so there was unity.
-the king was a devine leader.
-rain making brought unity.
-mediums solved disputes so there was
peace.
-mediums gave advice in time of drought
and war.
-mediums chose Mambo.
-

35
The military organisation/ system.

- The leader of the military/army of the Rozvi was called Tumbare.

- The army had a lot of responsibilities these include:
- Conquering new areas.
- Collecting tribute from the subjects.
- Punishing those who would failed paying tribute.
- Protecting the Rozvi State from external forces.
- Protected the king.
- Small standing army.
- Communication in the army e.g. smoke, trumpet and drums.
- Maintained peace and order within the Rozvi State.
- It controlled trade that is making sure that trade flowed smoothly both
at the coast and trade centres/protected trade routes.
- It was Tumbare the army leader who stood in as king when the
Changamire had died until a new Mambo was installed.
- This was to take care of succession disputes.
- The mambo however was the army commander.
- Rozvi armies used weapons e.g. guns, spears, knobkerries, bows and
arrows.
- Rozvi army used the cow horn formation.

b) The factors that caused the decline of the Rozvi State

Internal: Political factors:-
- death of Changamire Dombo.
- Successors were weak and uncharismatic.
- Succession disputes after the death of Mambo.
- Civil wars divided the state.
- The state became too big (vast) so there was poor communication.
- Rebellions (some vassal chiefs like Uteve and Madanda broke away
and refused to pay tribute).
- Tumbare became ambitious, corrupt and biased.
Economic factors.
- Exhaustion of gold mines.
- Elephant hunting using guns led to shortage of ivory/exhaustion of
hunting grounds.
- Fall in external trade in gold and ivory.
- Successive droughts disturbed agriculture and livestock keeping;
population loss. Droughts forced people to migrate to areas with high
rainfall.

36
 External factors/Aggression
- Portuguese pressure e.g. military attack; they took land and mines,
they practices unfair trade.
- Attacks from the Hiya of Dondo area disturbed trade and agricultural
activities.
- Attacks from 6 Mfecane/NGUNI GROUPS/MIGRANTS.
- They raided for livestock, women, grain, young men.
1. Ngoni of Zwangendaba.
2. Ngoni of Nxaba.
3. Ngoni of Maseko.
4. Soshangane.
5. Ngoni of Nyamazana – she killed Mambo Chirisamhuru by skinning him
alive to see if he had two hearts. No new Mambo was chosen after the
death of Chirisamhuru.
6. Finally, the Ndebele led by Mzilikazi defeated and absorbed the Rozvi.

THE NGUNI STATES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.

Ethnic groups found in Nguniland before Mfecane wars.
- Mthethwa.
- Ndwandwe.
- Ngwane/Swazi
- Zulu.
- Langeni.
- Khumalo.
- Mpondo.
- Xhosa.
- Pedi.
- Hlubi.
- Dhlamini.
- Qwabe.

THE MFECANE.
- This was a time of crushing, a time of plunder and destruction.
- In Nguniland it can be also called Difecane.

37
Causes of Mfecane –see Nov 2014.
- Population expansion or overpopulation in Nguniland leading to
pressure on land.
- Competition for grazing and cultivation land and minerals.
- Desire to control ivory, skins and cattle trade with with the
Portuguese.
- European expansion in the interior from the cape blocking Nguni
expansion line Southwards. The Boers from the Cape.
- Demand for labour by Boers and Portuguese led to raid for slaves.
- Madlatule long drought led to shortage of food and this led to hunger
and famine.
- Rise of ambitious leaders like Tshaka Zwide, Sobuza and Dingiswayo.
- Tshaka’s military reforms.

Benefits of Mfecane.
- It led to the rise of strong leaders like Dingiswayo and Sobhuza.
- Strong states like the Zulu, Ndebele, Gaza and Lozi were created.
- Several tribes that fled went and created strong states elsewhere in
other parts of Africa.
- It reduced population in Nguniland.
- Resources become easy and manage to control since a lot of people
ran away e.g. land.
- Powerful rulers gain prestige e.g. Soshangane, M,oshoeshoe, Tshaka,
Muzilikazi and Sebitwane.
- Zulu state become united, wealthy and strong.
- Spread of Zulu culture and traditions in Southern and Central Africa.

Non-benefits of Mfecane.
- There was wide spread death and destruction.
- People lost homes and property.
- Problem of refugees.
- Fear and insecurity.
- There was loss of grain and cattle.
- Loss of grazing and cultivation land.
- Agriculture was disturbed.
- Great famine as more time was spent on fighting.
- Hunger led cannibalism.

38
 - Some people forced to live on mountain tops.
- Weakened Africans so colonization by Whites become easy.

The big three in Nguniland.

- The Mfecane wars saw three leaders rising as the best because of their
military tactics these were
i) Dingisiwayo - Mthethwa.
ii) Sobhuza – Ngwane.
iii) Zwide – Ndwandwe.

Describe the Rise of Tshaka to the Zulu Kingship

(J2012 and Nov 2013)
- Tshaka was the son of Senzangakona, the Zulu Chief.
- He was a product of Mfecane Wars.
- He was drafted into Dingiswayo’s army.
- He distinguished himself as an able fighter e.g. bravery, tactics.
- Shaka was appointed commander of a regiment.
- He advised Tshaka on military matters.
- Senzangakona died in 1816. This presented an opportunity to Tshaka.
- Tsaka was helped by Dingiswayo to overthrow/ kill Sigujana.
- He assumed kingship of the Zulu.
- Dingiswayo was killed by Zwide in battle.
- Shaka betrayed Zwide when he arrived late and did not fight the Battle
against Zwide.
- Shaka got the opportunity to enlarge the Zulu.
- He conquered the Mtetwa and combined the Mtetwa and the Zulu
chiefdom to form the Zulu kingdom.
- He defeated Zwide in 1819 and broke the Ndwandwe kingdom.
- Tshaka introduced military reforms.
- Kingdom extended from Tugela River to Pongola River.
- Military ability was important in his rise e.g.
 he was brave and strong.
 Courageous and innovative fighter.
 Effective commander who advised the king.
 Developed new fighting skills.
-Attacked and defeated Mtetwa.

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TSHAKA’S MILITARY REFORMS.
Weapons (June 2013)
- Battle axes.
- Assegais (short stabbing spears) ikiwa.
- Long shields/ isijula.
- Knobkerries.
- Guns.
- Tshaka introduced a stabbing spear called assegai for close combat.
He introduced use of a long spear.
- A soldier who lost the assegai was killed.
- Tshaka banned the use of wooden sandals for speed.
- He used barefooted soldiers.
- He trained his soldiers to run in thorns for them to harden their feet.
- Tshaka introduced baggage carriers who would carry mats and food for
soldiers. This was done in order to avoid making the soldiers getting
tired before the battle.
- Tshaka introduced the cow-horn formation to encircle the whole
enemy completely.
- Tshaka send out spies to check on the enemy.
- No marriage before the age of 40. This was because he did not want
family issues to disturb his military strategy.
- All soldiers stayed in barracks or regiments to be always ready and
prepared for war.
- Female regiments grew crops.
- Tshaka introduced mobile doctors who treated soldiers when they get
injured during war.
- Tshaka introduced smoke signals for communication.
- Soilders who had wounds at the back were killed by Tshaka.
- Tshaka instilled total discipline in the army. His soldiers did not involve
themselves with women during the period in army.
- If this rule was breached (broken) it was punished by death.
- Any women who became pregnant along with her lover would
immediately put to death.
- There was an element of total warfare.
Features of total warfare (J2013).
- Burning of homesteads.
- Absorbed enemy’s women and children killed the royal family of the
enemy.
- Captured the enemy’s livestock.

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 - Destroyed/ took the enemy’s food reserves.
- Poisoned the water resources.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE ZULU.

- The king was a dictator.
- Tshaka created a highly centralized state in which power was
concentrated in his hands.
- The Zulu king was the absolute ruler and chief judge.
- Religious leader.
- Military settlements in the state unde Indunas.
- Military commanders in charge of amabutho.
- King’s female relatives commanded female regiments and acted as
agents who reported to Tshaka.
- He was the commander in chief of the army.
- He allocated land, distributed cattle and was the leader of all religious
ceremonies.
- Tshaka killed rainmakers.
- He had an advisory council which had Indunas who discussed with him
all important issues but the final decision was made by Tshaka.
- All people were forced to speak Zulu language.
- Tshaka received tribute. (Give three examples)
- Failure to pay tribute meant total destruction.
- Total warfare. J 2013.
- Inkhata dress brought unity.
- No marriage before the age of 40 for the solders.
- He punished cowards e.g. soldiers with wounds at the back.
- Inxwala ceremony for unity.
- Standing army: army carried annual raids.
- vassal chief rewarded to remain loyal.

THE DEATH OF NANDI: (QUEEN ELEPHANT).

- it shows that Tshaka was cruel.
- Nandi was Tshaka’s mother and when she died there a lot of suffering
in Zululand
- Tshaka,s mother was buried with ten beautiful girls alive.
- Every cow which gave birth to a calf was killed so as the calf to feel the
pain of losing a mother.
- people who did not cry were killed immediately.
- Tribes who did not attend the funeral were punished.

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- No one was allowed to cultivate crops for a year.
- Children were not allowed to be breast fed.
- People were forced to contribute something towards the funeral and failure
meant destruction.
- Sex was banned for one year.
People who plotted the downfall/ death of Tshaka.
- Dingane.
- Mhlangane.
- Mbopa.
- Mkabayi.
- Mfokozana.

Reasons why they killed Tshaka.

- Shaka’s cruelty.
- His dictatorship.
- Jealous.
- Exhaustion from the wars.
- Death of his mother.
- Ambitious leaders.
- Ruthless military reforms.
- He was an illegitimate king.
- Absence of the army.

QN: To what extent was Tshaka responsible for his own

downfall?
C1Tshaka was responsible for his assassination.
-Tshaka took the throne which was not his it was for Sigujana
(Tshaka’s half brother.).
- Tshaka was a dictator that is all power was in his hands.
- Tshaka ignored traditional chiefs.
- Tshaka was cruel. For example, when Nandi died several people lost
their lives.
- Refuse to work with his half brothers and sisters who should have
assisted him.

C2 Other factors led to the downfall of Tshaka.

- Rise of ambitious leaders who also wanted to rule.
- Jealousy brothers and sisters.
- Soldiers were tired of fighting.
- Enemies were learning Zulu methods so Zulu army was now loosing
battles.

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Part C: To what extent did ZULU people benefit
from Tshaka’s leadership?
C1- benefit
- He united the Zulu through one language and inkhata.
- Wealth e.g. tribute brought livestock.
- More grazing lands.
- Fertile soils.
- Regimental towns defended the people.
- Raids brought wealth e.g. livestock and grain.
- Strong and superior army which controlled Natal.
- He defeated in Ndwandwe.
- He brought political stability.
- Promoted able soldiers.
- Increased population from raids.
- Access to trade.
C2 Non – benefits because the methods were cruel.
- People forced to speak Zulu language.
- Late marriage.
- Fear of Tshaka.
- Dictatorship/All power centred on Tshaka.
- Exploitation of women.
- Continuous wars led to tiredness and dissatisfaction.
- Killed many people.
- Loss of culture.
How important was the army in the political
system?
C1 – importance of the army in the political system.
- Used to expand the state.
- Collection of tribute.
- Raided for wealth – livestock.
- Protected the king and the state (2 marks).
- Protected trade routes and hunting grounds (2marks).
- Hunted elephants for the King.
- Maintained law and order.
- Punishment of rebels.
C2 Offer factors were important in the political system.
- -chiefs, councilors and female relatives helped to administer the state.
- External trade brought foreign goods.
- Marriage alliances.
- King’s personality e.g. He was a no nonsense leader.
- Charismatic.

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 - tribute payment was a sign of loyalty and allegiance.
- religion united the state.
- Inxwala ceremony united people.
- Use of Zulu language as a national language.
- Loan cattle united the people.
- Inkhata dress was a symbol of unity.

THE MIGRATION/ JOURNEY OF THE NDEBELE

(1822-1840).
SUBTOPICS.
a) Reasons why the Ndebele fled from Nguniland.
b) Outline/ describe the journey.
c) Ndebele settlements/ place names – places where they stayed.
d) Groups which the Ndebele fought.
e) Problems faced during the journey.
f) Why was Mzilikazi able to lead the Ndebele for long (1822-1868).
g) Were the Ndebele affected by the migration?
h) Did the Ndebele settlement bring security to the Ndebele?
i) The reasons why the Ndebele settled in western Zimbabwe.

Groups which the Ndebele fought during the

migration.

- Kololo. - Pedi. - Kabokwena.

- Khoisan. - Sotho. - Ngwaketse.
- Griqua. - Rolong. - Zulu.
- Kora. - Boers. - Taung.
- Korana. - Hlapin. - Kwena.
- Tswana. - Hurutshe. - Ndzundza.
- Kalanga. - Rozvi.

Ndebele Settlements.
- Ekupumuleni.
- Mosega.
- Tshwenyane.
- Endinaneni.
- Egabeni.

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 - Enkuqini.
- Gibixhegu.
- Inyati.

Problems faced by the Ndebele during the journey.

- Attacks/ wars by other groups e.g. Sotho, Rolong, Boers(Max 2).
- Attacks by wild animals e.g. lions, leopards and elephants.
- Hunger and starvation – shortage of food.
- Death caused by diseases e.g. malaria.
- Death due to war.
- Tsetse flies – sleeping sickness attacked people.
- Nagana killed cattle.
- Homes were burnt.
- Shortage of pastures for livestock.
- Loss of women and livestock to other groups.
- Drought.
- Agriculture was disturbed by wars.
- They crossed big mountains e.g. Drankensberg mountain.
- Different groups joined so there was language barrier e.g. Sotho,
Tswana – communication breakdown.
- The Ndebele fought whites who had better weapons e.g. guns and
horses. Ndebele had poor weapons.
- Trade was disturbed.
- Tiredness/fatigue because of walking long distances.
- Succession disputes – Mzilikazi’s son Nkulumane was installed to be
the Ndebele king. Mzilikazi executed (killed) Nkulumane and the
Indunas responsible.
- Crossing flooded rivers.
- Lack of water when travelling in the desert.
- Constant fear of being attacked.
- Trade was disturbed.

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DESCRIBE THE NDEBELE MIGRATION FROM
NGUNILAND TO WESTERN ZIMBABWE.

- Mzilikazi was chief of the Khumalo. The Khumalo were under the rule
of Tshaka.
- In 1821 Mzilikazi raided the Sotho and kept the booty.
- He cut the plumes of the messengers sent by Tshaka to collect the
booty. It was a sign of disobedience/ disloyalty.
- Tshaka sent an army to punish the Khumalo. The small army was
defeated.
- Mzilikazi decided to leave Nguniland before Tshaka sent s bigger army.
- He left with about 300 followers.
- They crossed the Drakensberg mountains and reached the land of the
Sotho – movement Westwards.
- Mzilikazi established a settlement called Ekupumuleni. It means the
place of rest.
- The Sotho gave the Khumalo the nickname “Matebele”. It means men
of long shields or people from the East.
- The Ndebele raided the Sotho for livestock, grain and women.
- Mzilikazi was forced to leave/abandon Ekupumuleni because of
problems:
- i) Zulu attacks.
- ii) drought.
- iii) lack of pastures.
- He moved into the Transvaal and established settlements like
Mhlahlandlela, Egabeni and Tshwenyane.
- The Ndebele were attacked by the Zulu, Griquas, Boers, Kora, Khoisan
and Rolong.
- He met Robert Moffat, a missionary. The two become friends.
- The Ndebele established a settlement called Mosega in the Transvaal.
- Moffat advised Mzilikazi to leave the Transvaal.
- They were defeated by a combined force in 1937 e.g. Boers, Griquas,
Kora, Tlokwa and the Zulu (Max 2).
- Mzilikazi decided to leave Mosega.
- He divided or split his people into two groups:
- The main group was led by Induna Gundwane Ndiweni. It included old
people, children, Mzilikazi’s wives, livestock.
- It also included Mzilikazi’s sons e.g. Nkulumane and Lobengula.

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 - Moved Northwards across Limpopo.
- The group followed a shorter route.
- It followed the Muzingwane river valley.
- The group settled at Gibixhegu near the Matopo hills.
- They lost hope of uniting with Mzilikazi and installed Nkulumane as
king.
- The 2nd group was led by Mzilikazi. It was smaller.
- it moved from Mosega in a Westward direction through the territory of
the Ngwato.
- Mzilikazi was following the Kololo.
- He failed to defeat the Kololo and faced attacks by tsetse flies.
- He moved Southwards to meet the main group.
- Mzilikazi heard about the installation of Nkulumane.
- He rushed to Gibixhegu.
- Ndiweni and other Indunas responsible for the installation of
Nkulumane were executed (killed) for treason.
- What happened to Nkulumane is unclear. Some historians say he was
killed. Others say he fled southwards.
- Mzilikazi established his capital at Inyati near modern day Bulawayo.
- Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had broken away
from Zwangendaba.
- The local shona people offered less resistance and fell under Mzilikazi’s
control.

Qn: To what extent did Ndebele settlement in

Western Zimbabwe bring Security to them?

C1–The Ndebele settlement in Western Zimbabwe brought security.

-the Ndebele settled in Rozvi country where there was little resistance
(weak Shona/Rozvi groups).
- Mzilikazi married Nyamazana who had killed the Rozvi king,
Chirisamhuru II.
- The neighbouring Tswana were weak.
- They were far away from enemies like the Boers, Griqua, Pedi, Zulu
(No Maximum marks).
- Favourable climate – sunshine.
- Fertile soil for agriculture.

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 - Availability of resources e.g. pastures for livestock.
- Free from tsetse flies.
- Good pastures.
- Mineral wealth e.g. gold.
- Availability of wild animals.
- Access to trade with the Portuguese and Arabs.
- The area was sparsely populated.
- Exhaustion from previous war.

C2 –However there was insecurity.

- The Rozvi resisted Ndebele rule. Some moved away.
- Shona chiefdoms in the East resisted.
- The Boers of the Transvaal raided the Ndebele.
- The area was affected by drought.
- Coming/ Infiltration of white traders hunters, miners and concession
seekers disturbed piece.
- Attacks by the Lozi.
- The Ndebele were attacked by the Ngwato of Khama.
- Finally the Ndebele were defeated by the BSAC in the Anglo-Ndebele
War of 1893-4.

Qn : To what extent did wars with other groups

unite the Ndebele?

C1 – Unity as a result of war.

- The Ndebele created a strong army for defense.
- They protected their property e.g. livestock.
- The strong army was used to raid other groups for livestock, crops,
women and young men.
- The fear of Zulu attacks united the Ndebele.
- The Ndebele established the strong nation.
- The Ndebele became aware of the importance of guns e.g. wars with
the Boers.

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C2 - Unity caused by other factors.
- Intermarriages united them e.g. Shona, Sotho and Tswana.
- The Inxwala ceremony (festival of the first fruits).
- loan cattle.
- The hardships which were faced as a group from Nguniland to Western
Zimbabwe e.g. drought.
- Religion e.g. The Ndebele adopted the worshipping of Umlimo.
- There was fear of Mzilikazi. He was a no nonsense or strict leader
hence he was fered.
- Leader who heavily punished people who were disloyal e.g. he
executed Induna Gundwane Ndiweni and his own first son,Nkulumane.
- Mzilikazi had good leadership qualities e.g. he rewarded soldiers with
livestock and women. He was generous so he was loved by his people.
- The army was divided into regiments which included people of
different origion eg Tswana, Sotho, Kora and Shona.
- People who were absorbed were forced to speak Sindebele language.
- The group become bigger and had pride in being called Nebele.
- Mzilikazi used Zulu tactics of war and weapons to defeat enemies.
- The Ndebele adopted the culture of other groups like Sotho, Shona
and Tswana e.g. worshiping Mwari through priests at Njelele.
- Mzilikazi made use of Shona Medicine Men.
- Tribute payment was used to show loyalty.
- Mzilikazi used his relatives to control the people. They become chiefs
(indunas).
THE ORGANISATION OF THE NDEBELE STATE.
a) Economy/economic organisation.
- Agriculture. - Hunting.
- Gathering. - Mining.
- Trade (internal/ external). - Raiding.
- Fishing. - Tribute payment.
- Livestock keeping. - Craftwork (give examples).

49
Qn: To what extent did raiding contribute to the growth of
the Ndebele?
C1– Importance of raiding.
- Wealth e.g. livestock, women, grain.

C2–Other factors contributed to the growth of the

economy.
- Mining brought iron which was used to make hoes.
- External trade brought wealth e.g. cloth.
- Tribute made the king rich.
- Hunting brought ivory, meat and skins.
- Loan cattle.
- Inxwala ceremony united the people.
- Army; intermarriages, same language. (3 points).

b) Social organisation.
- lobola paid using cattle.
- Polygamy was allowed.
- Shelter – pole and dagga huts.
- Loan cattle.
- Classes of rich and poor.
- Exploitation.
- Patrilineal – they followed the father line.
- Religion – NB all religious aspects apply here.
- Clothes - skin clothes.
- Village cooperatives.
- Division of labour based on sex (give examples).
- The Ndebele had three 3 social classes: Zansi, Enhla and Hole.

i) Zansi – those from the South.

- These were the original Khumalo who came from Nguniland.
- They were the king’s relatives.
- They were about 15% of the population.
- They were the ELITE (top class).
- The Zanzi occupied the important positions e.g. Indunas and members
of the king’s Council.
- At first they were not allowed to many other classes.

50
ii) Enhla.
- These were people absorbed during the journey from Nguniland e.g.
Tswana and Sotho origin.
- There were 25% of the population.
- They were the middle class.
iii) Hole.
- These were people of Shona origin.
- They were the bottom class.
- They were the inferior (they were considered as a lower class).
- They formed the majority of the population.
- 60% of the population.
- They were the cattle herders.
- Joined the regiments as soldiers.
- The Hole was used in the frontline during battles.
- A few of them rose to important positions as Indunas.
- Not allowed to marry the Zansi people at first.
- The Hole were given loan cattle.
- They began to speak Sindebele.
- They adopted Ndebele customs like names e.g. Mpofu for Mhofu and
Ncube for Soko.
- The Nguni custom of piercing men’s ears.

Question: Part C.
To what extent did the Ndebele social system beneficial to
all the classes/people?
C1 – benefits.
- Poor people given loan cattle.
- Intermarriages united people of different origins.
- Inxwala brought the whole nation together.
- They spoke one language, Sindebele.
- Mixing/ adoption of Shona customs e.g. the worshipping of Mwari.
- Village cooperatives brought villagers together.
- Worshipped one God so there was unity.

C2 – harmful/ non- benefits.

- The Hole were exploited as cattle herders.
- Hole people were used in the frontline during battles.
- They were classes of rich and poor people.

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 - Most of the Hole could not occupy important positions such as
Indunas.
- Marriages were not allowed at first between Hole and Zansi.

c) Political organisation.
-The Ndebele system was centralized / the king had the total control.
-The King was an absolute king or a dictator.
-He had many responsibilities/ roles: [3marks].
 He made the final decision on important issues like
raids, war and treaties.
 The army commander.
 The religious leader.
 Controlled external trade and hunting of elephants.
 Distribution land.
 He has the right of life and death.
 He appointed and dismissed indunas (chiefs).
 Punished rebels.
 Highest judge.
- The kingship was hereditary. The king was succeeded by his eldest son
- Tribute was paid to the King by the defeated groups e.g. Shona. It was
paid in many forms: Cattle, grain, iron tools. (3 examples).
- The Inxwala ceremony united the Ndebele. The whole nation
gathered at Bulawayo for the festival of the first fruits.
- Importance;
i) It showed Ndebele unity.
ii) It was time to thank the ancestors for the new crops.
ii) Attendance of the Indunas was a sign of loyalty and
allegiance.
iv) It showed the growth/ fertility of the state.
v) It was time to display the military strength of the.
Ndebele army. Ndebele regiments were displayed.
vi) The king led the dances and rituals so it showed his
power.
vii) The king displayed his wealth. A lot of cattle were
killed to feel the nation. He showed he was generous.
- The king was assisted by two Councils to get advice.
i) The Umphakati – The king presided/ chaired.

52
 - It was made of close relatives and elders known for their wisdom and
knowledge about Ndebele customs.
ii) The Izikulu
- It was made up of Indunas.
- The army was important in the administration of the state.
- The army was important in the political system:
 Soldiers were united by staying in regiments. The
regiments were made up of people of different
origin.
 Army raided.
 Punished rebels.
 Collected tribute.
 Protected the state and the king.
- Loan cattle brought unity.
- Intermarriages: the king married daughters of lesser chiefs.
- Mzilikazi sent female relatives to stay in the regimental towns. They
reported the events in the outlying areas.

NDEBELE MILITARY SYSTEM- AMABUTO ( J 2012)

- The Ndebele army was led by commanders called Indunas appointed
by the king.
- The army was divided into regimental towns
- Each regiment was given a name e.g. Indubu, Zwangendaba,
Empandeni, Sijeba, Insukhamini, Inyati and Amaweni.
- Soldiers were allowed to marry.
- The king had his own regiment. It was made up of recruits or young
men from the regimental towns and captives.
- The amabuto had many responsibilities:
 Protected the state and the king (security).
 Raiding – it brought young men, women, livestock,
grain and minerals.
 Protecting foreign traders.( trade routes).
 Maintaining peace and order.
 Collected tribute.
 Ndebele armies numbered about 20 000.
 Same head gear and colour of shields for each
regiment.
 Agricultural work.

53
  Protected people and properties.
Weapons : assegai, bows and arrows, shields, knobkerries, battle axe
Methods of war e.g. cow horn formation .
 Surprise attack e.g. attack at dawn.
 Smoke signals for communication.
 The use of spies.
- The army harvested.
- The army soldiers were miners.
- The army herded cattle in peace times.
- The army provided labour in king’s fields.
- The king was the commander in chief. He made the final decision on
raiding and war.
- The king consulted the Umphakati and the Izikulu before war. He
received advice.
- Ndebele armies were doctored by traditional healers before war to
make them brave.
- Chants and war cries were used to create fear among enemies – they
intimidated the enemies.
- The king distributed booty to the loyal and brave men e.g. livestock
and women
- Defeated groups near the Ndebele were absorbed in the regiments.
- Royal women were placed in the regimental towns to report on
developments.
- Army was divided into age regiments.
- Women were used in the army as prostitutes and cooks.

NDEBELE- SHONA RELATIONS.

- The relations were sometimes cordial and sometimes they were bad.
- The general view in the past was that the relationship was that of
master (Ndebele) and servant (Shona). This is inaccurate or a myth.
Colonical historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona.
- The Ndebele were regarded as warlike and blood thirsty.
- The Shona were as cowards, peace loving and victims of the Ndebele.
- Historians like D.N. Beach have argued that this view is inaccurate.
NB. DISTANCE FROM THE CENTRE OF THE NDEBELE STATE
CONTROLLED THE RELATIONS.

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Why way the myth accepted?
Reasons.
i) Missionaries who failed to spread Christianity in Matebeleland wrote
negative reports about the Ndebele because missionary work had failed.
- They wanted their mother countries to destroy the Ndebele religion and
political system first.
- These missionaries include John Moffat, C.D. Helm and Carnagie.
ii) Rhodes wanted to justify the colonization. The colonizers wanted to be
seen as saviors of the Shona.
iii) The Ndebele king, Lobengula, wanted to be seen as a great king. He
claimed total control over all the Shona in the East. He exaggerated his
power or influence.
iv) The Shona exaggerated the effects of the Ndebele raids to gain
sympathy.

The truth/ reality about Ndebele – Shona relations.

- The Ndebele had total control of the Shona who lived within a radius of
about 80 kilometers from the centre. These Shona were assimilated or
absorbed into Ndebele society. They became the Hole:
- changed names e.g. Mpofu for Mhofu.
- Accepted Nguni customs.
- Married the Enhla and Zansi.
- Customs like piercing the ears.
- Received loan cattle.
- Language, Sindebele.
- The Shona religious beliefs were accepted. The Ndebele believed in the
Mwari cult. It had shrines at Matonjeni, Matopos and Njelele.
- The Ndebele used Shona medicine men.
- Shona areas traded with the Ndebele e.g. the shona provided tobacco
and iron tools in exchange for cattle.
(i) Cattle for grain.
(ii) Cattle for iron tools like spears, arrows, axes, hoes.
- Shonas near the Ndebele state were forced to pay tribute e.g. grain,
cattle.
- Raids were done on Shonas who resisted payment of tribute.
- Some Shonas actually raided the Ndebele.

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 - Areas far away from Matebeleland were independent. They never had
contact with the Ndebele. They were free of Ndebele control e.g. East
of Harare – Mutoko, Murewa and Manicaland were never raided.
- Some Shona groups fought on the side of the Ndebele against the
BSAC in the Anglo- Ndebele war and Umvukela 1. This shows the unity
between the two.
- Nemakonde and Chivi were killed by Lobengula for failing to pay
tribute.

Internal problems in the Ndebele state.

- There was succession disputes after the death of Mzlikazi in 1868.
- Some Indunas wanted Lobengula to succeed Mzilikazi.
- Others claimed Nkulumane was alive.
- A man came from South Africa claiming to be Nkulumane. His name
was Kanda.
- Civil war broke out in the Ndebele State. Finally Lobengula was
installed as king in 1870.
- Droughts affected the area.
- Outbreak of disease e.g. rinder pest killed cattle.
- Resistance from the Shona.

External problems in the Ndebele state.

- Attacks by the Boers of the Transvaal.
- Shona chiefs attacked the Ndebele.
- Attacks by the Ngwato (Tswana) led by Khama.
- Attacks by the Lozi from Zambia.
- The coming in and out of concession seekers disturbed the Ndebele
state e.g. Boers, hunters, miners and traders.
- Lobengula had sleepless nights because of the many Whites who
visited him so he became confused.
- Missionaries threatened the peace in the Ndebele state.
i) they preached against Ndebele religion and customs.
ii) They supported concession seekers like Rhodes.
ii) They persuaded Lobengula to sign treaties.
iv) J. Moffat, C. D Helm wrote negative reports about the Ndebele.

56
MISSIONARY WORK IN ZIMBABWE (1850-1900).
Sub – Topics:
- The aims of missionaries.
- Names of missionary societies/ organizations / groups.
- Names of Pioneer missionaries’.
- Names of Pioneer mission stations.
- Outline the work of the missionaries in Matebeleland and Mashonaland.
- Problems faced by missionaries.
- Reasons why Africans resisted missionary influence.
- Methods used by Africans in resisting missionary (Christian) influence?
- Did Christianity benefit Africans?

The aims of the missionaries.

To convert the heathen to Christianity or spread Christianity.
-
To civilize the Africans- bring civilization to Africa.
-
To assist African peasant farmers to turn to commercial producers e.g.
-
teaching them to read, write and arithmetic.
- To teach Africans to be crafts men e.g. carpentry, metal work,
building.
- To develop an indigenous middle class to maintain and staff churches.
- To end slave trade / de – campaign the slave trade.
- To promote legitimate trade (commerce).
- To promote equality.
- To promote 3Rs: reading, writing and arithmetic.
- To pave way for European colonizers e.g. C.D Helm and John Morffat
assisted Rhodes to colonies Matebeleland.
Names of missionaries who visited Zimbabwe (1850 – 1900).
- C. D. Helm. - Coillard.
- Thomas Morgan Thomas. - Sykes.
- Robert Moffat. - Michael Buys.
- John Moffat. - Sehahabane.
- Bernard Mizeki. - Thomson.
- Samuel. - Knotshe.
- Father Law. - David Carnage.
- Barthlomeo Kroot. - Knight Bruce.
- Schellnus.
- Madzima.

57
Names of Pioneer African evangelists/ Catechists {J 2012}
- Bernard Mizeki. - Madzima.
- Samuel. -Shumba Chekai.
- Sehahabane. -Knotshe.
- Joshua Morudu. - Isiah Khumalo.
- Petros Morudu. -Funzane.
- David Molia. -Makgatho.
- Petros Khobe.

Missionary groups/ societies/ organisations.

- Roman Catholic Church Father Law, Kroot.
- London Missionary Society (LMS) John and Robert Moffat and C.D
Helm.
- Presbyterian Church.
- Dutch Reformed Church. (DRC) Madzima, Samuel.
- Anglican Church/ the church of England Bruce.
- United Methodist Church (UMC).
- Church of Christ.
- Paris Evangelical Society Coillard.
- Berlin Missionary society Knotshe and Schellnus.
- The Lutheran Church.
- Seventh Day Adventist.

Pioneer missionary stations.

- Inyati, 1859, London Missionary Society.
- - Gutu (Dutch Reformed Church).
- Hope Fountain, 1870 London Missionary Society.
- Gokomere (Roman Church).
- Empandeni, Jescuits (Roman Catholic).
- St. Augustines (Anglican).
- Zimuto (Dutch Reformed Church)
- Old Mutare ( Hartzel) United Methodist Church.
- Mutambara (United Methodist Church).
- Regina Coeli.
- Marist Nyanga, (Roman Church).
- St Faith (Anglican).
- Chisjhawasha (Roman Church).
- Chikowore (Church Of Christ)].

58
 - Mt . Selinda (Church Of Christ).
- Nhowe. (Church Of Christ).
- Selous (Seventh Day Adventist).
- Panda Matenga.
- Chibi/ Chivi.
- Mposi;
- Pfumbi.
- Matibi.
- Baremba.
- Mzila.

Describe the work of the Christian missionaries in

Matebeleland between 1850 and 1900.
- Mzilikazi allowed the LMS to establish a mission station at Inyati
(1859).
- Lobengula allowed the LMS to built Hope Fountain mission (1870)
- LMS missionaries included John Moffat, Sykes C.D Helm, Thomas
Morgan Thomas and Carnagie.
- Inyati and Hope Fountain missionaries taught Africans to read and
write (LITERACY). They built schools.
- Techinical skills were taught e.g. capentry, building, agriculture metal
work, needlework and innoculation of cattle.
- They preached to Africans to cornvert them to Christianity. They
attacked traditional customs e.g. beer drinking, smoking and killing of
albinos.
- Decampaigned slavery and slave trade.
- The bible was translated to local language.
- Local hym books were printed.
- They trained African catechists.
- They printed Sindebele books for children.
- Cultivated/grew their own crops on land given by the King e.g. maize,
rice and beans.
- Missionaries helped Mzilikazi and Lobengula to:
Repair guns.
Repair wagons.
Inoculate cattle (treated).
-Treated sick people from malaria, fever and sleeping sickness. They
built hospitals and clinics.

59
 - Treated Lobengula who suffered from gout, and sore eyes.
- Wrote the King’s letters.
- Interpreters/translators.
- gave advise to Lobengula and Mzilikazi on how to deal with Whites.
- the Jescuits opened a station at Empandeni. Another one was opened
near Bulawayo.
- Missionaries paved way for the colonization of Matebeleland (Agents of
colonization).
- Helm and J. Moffat signed treaties with Lobengula.
- They acted as agents of Rhodes.
- Acted as false witnesses.
- Persuaded Lobengula to talk to Rhodes’ men.
- Wrote negative reports about the Ndebele.
- Their preaching divided the Ndebele.
- White hunters, traders, miners first visited their white friends at
mission stations.
- Missionaries hunted elephants for ivory.
- Cleared roads.
- Traded with Africans.
- Gathering.

Problems faced by missionaries.

Contribution of Africans rulers
- killed missionaries.
- killed converts and punished converts.
- delayed giving permission.
- expelled missionaries.
- sent converts to remote areas.
- Continued raids which caused fear among the missionaries.
- Accused missionaries for causing natural disasters and using forbidden
routes.
- Discouraged attendance of church.

Other problems/factors caused the failure of the missionaries.

- there was poor communication with the Ndebele because of language
barrier.
- poor communication with home countries.
- attacked by wild animals like lions.
- Harsh climate e.g. The heat and humidity.

60
 - They were few (shortage of manpower).
- They walked long distance – shortage of transport.
- Shortage of basic European goods e.g. food, clothes, tools, medicine.
- Cultural differences so Christians had difficulty in converting people.
- Tropical disease e.g. malaria, fever and sleeping sickness.
- Local people were hostile.
- Competition from other religions e.g. Islam.
- African people could not read and write.
- They were associated with colonizers. They were treated with
suspicion.
- They was lack of shelter.
- Missionaries were not familiar with the geographical terran (areas).

Questions to Part C.
To what extent were missionaries able to solve these problems at
that time?
C1 – missionaries were successful in solving their problems.
- they brought medicine guanine to fight malaria.
- Taught African children to read and write.
- Learned to speak African language which helped in communication and
preaching.
- They cleared roads.
- They established friendship with African rulers.
- They built clinics to cure diseases.
- They grew their own crops.
- They used African preachers (evangelists).
- They translated the bible and hymn books to local languages.
- They worked together with Rhodes in the colonization of Matebeleland.
- They converted one leper on his death bed in Matebeleland.

C2 Missionaries were not able to solve their problems. They failed.

NB. use problems faced by missionaries.
- Converts were few.
- Poor roads and poor communication.
- Africans continued in their customs i.e. beer drinking and smoking.
- Harsh climate.
- Wild animals.
- Shortage of manpower and basis goods e.g. clothes, medicine and
foods.

61
Question: How successful was African resistance to
missionary influence.
C1 – African resistance was successful.
- they refused to attend church services.
- they refused to give missionaries land.
- they refused to change their customs.
- they were few converts.
- they killed converts.
- they accused missionaries of causing natural disasters e.g. droughts
and locusts.
- they refused to receive gifts from missionaries e.g. sugar and sweets.
- They refused to attend school and church services.
- They accused missionaries of using forbidden roads.

C2 Africans failed to resist.

- a few Africans were converted.
- missionaries became friends to Lobengula.
- Helm and Moffat assisted Rhodes.
- Some Africans received gifts from missionaries.
- They built missionary schools.
- A few Africans attended school.
- They built churches.

Reasons why African local people resisted missionary

Christian influence.
- it was against their customs and religion e.g. polygamy, raiding, beer
drinking and witch hunting.
- Christianity was meaningless to traditional life.
- Africans suspected that missionaries had political aims. There was
mistrust.
- They feared that their trade was to be disturbed.
- Africans did not want to learn a new language.
- Whites were blamed for the natural disasters which affected Africans
e.g. drought, rinderpest and locusts.
- There was influence from traditional leaders e.g. spirit mediums.
- Chiefs opposed Christianity.
- Education was very hard for Africans.
- Africans expected to receive gifts and payments for attending school.

62
 - They was influence from Islam/competition of other religions.
- Christianity attacked African administrative system e.g. preaching
about equality.
- Fear of being punished or killed by rulers.

Outline the ways used by local people to resist missionary

influence in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900
- Refused to give food to the missionaries.
- Accused missionaries of being spies.
- Punished or killed potential converts.
- Accused missionaries of using forbidden routes.
- Missionaries were expelled.
- Some Africans continued to practice Islam.
- Africans continued to trade with Muslims.
- Missionaries were not allowed to move freely.
- African leaders discourage people from attending church services.
- African refused to work for the missionaries.
- African refused to accept gifts from missionaries.
- Africans moved far away from missionary settlements.
- Africans continued to practice traditional religion.
- Raids continued.
- Refused to attend school.
- Missionaries were killed.
- Missionaries were relocated to remote areas.
- Missionaries were accused of causing natural disasters e.g. drought,
locusts and rinder pests.

J2015: Were missionaries to blame for the colonization of

Zimbabwe?
C1 Missionaries were to blame.

- They signed treaties with African rulers on behalf of mother countries

e.g. Moffat signed the Moffat treaty.
- They recommended conquest of African rulers like Lobengula.
- They were used as translators and interpreters.
- They treated sick whites.
- Christian preaching divided Africans.

63
 - They was use of mission stations by white visitors like soldiers,
hunters, miners and traders.

However other factors caused the colonization of Zimbabwe

- Disunity among Africans.

- Africans were illiterate so they were easily cheated.
- Cecil John Rhodes had the Cape to Cairo dream.
- Lobengula’s desire for material goods.
- Lobengula’s indunas were bribed.
- Africans had poor weapons.
- The industrial revolution in Europe led to the desire for markets
and raw materials.

Scramble and partition of Southern Africa.

Subtopics.

- causes of the scramble.

- powers interested in Southern Africa.
- Kingdoms colonized.
- Names of European agents.
- Steps taken by Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe.
- Treaties signed by Lobengula and Europeans.
- Reasons for the defeat of Africans.

A1 Powers interested in Southern A2 Respective colony.

Africa.
(i) Portugal. Mozambique, Angola.
(ii) Germany. Namibia.
(iii) Boers of the Transvaal. Transvaal.
(iv) Britain: - Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).
- Bechuanaland (Botswana).
- Northern Rhodesia (Zambia).
- Lesotho.
- Nyasaland (Malawi).
- South Africa.

64
Six African Kingdoms colonized by the whites during the Scramble
for Southern Africa.

(i) Ndebele State.

(ii) Gaza State.
(iii) Zulu State.
(iv) Ngwato.
(v) Sotho.
(vi)Pedi.

Six wars of African resistance to colonialism in Southern between

1870 and 1900.
(i) Anglo- Ndebele War (1893 – 1894).
(ii) Chimurenga I (Umvukela 1of 1896-7).
(iii) Battle of Blood River.
(iv) Anglo – Zulu War.
(v) The Nama rising.
(vi) The Herero rising .
(vii) Sotho Resistance.
(viii) The War of Guns.
(ix) Griqua – Hlapin rising.
(x) British – Pedi War.

Concession seekers who visited Matebeleland between 1850 and

1900.
- Piet Grobler.
- Friedrick Grobler.
- Charles Rudd.
- Edward Lippert.
- Rotchfort Maguire.
- Francis Tompson.
- Thomas Baines.
- Swineburn.

African leaders who resisted colonization.

- Lobengula.
- Setshwayo.
- Ngungunyana.
- Dinizulu.

65
 - Moshoeshoe.
- Shona leaders e.g.Mangwende, Makoni, Mapondera, Mashayamombe
and Seke.
- Witbooi.

African leaders who sought Protection (collaborated).

- Moshoeshoe.
- Lewanika.
- Khama.
- Maherero.
- Mswati.

The causes of the Scramble for Southern

Africa.

Economic. Political and Social Factors caused the scramble for

colonies.
A. Economic Factors.
- Need for land (fertile soil) for agriculture.
- Need for livestock and pastures of the Africans.
- Africa had favourable climate for agriculture e.g. sunshine, high
rainfall.

The industrial revolution contributed the scramble.

- Desire for markets.
- Demand for raw materials like ivory, mineral wealth, timber.
- Need to invest surplus capital.
- Need for cheap labour
- New medicine like guinine made it easy to live in areas affected by
malaria.
- The new machines caused unemployment in Europe. Governments
wanted to resettle unemployed people.
- Fast moving ships were produced. They transported soldiers and
Weapons e.g. Maxim guns and seven pounders.
- Better communication e.g. telegraphs.

B. Social factors.
- There was desire to stop the slave trade and slavery.
- Need to spread 3cs: Christianity, Commerce and Civilisation.
- Europeans believed they had superior race. Africa was seen as the
dark continent. The Africans were regarded as barbaric and salvage
people.

66
 - Desire to spread Western education 3Rs: e.g. reading, arithmatic and
writing.
- There was need to resettle excess population and troublesome citizens
e.g. thieves, murderes and riff raffs.

C. Political Factors.
- Need for military bases.
- There was need to protect strategic routes and areas. There was need
to control sea route to India.
(i) Egypt and the Suez canal.
(ii) The Cape.
(iii) The missionaries’ road via Bechuanaland.
- Need for prestige and pride.
- Need for greatness.
- Local agents like Rhodes played an important role.
- Africans had poor weapons.
- Disunity or divisions among Africans.
- Poor strategy.
- Others remained neutral.
- Others signed treaties e.g. Lobengula.

List of Treaties signed by Lobengula and Europeans

(1870-1891).
- Tati Concession, 1870.
- Baines Concession, 1871.
- Grobler Treaty, July 1887.
- Moffat Treaty, Feb 1888.
- Rudd Concession, Oct 1888.
- Lippet Concession, 1891.

The Grobler Treaty, July 1887.

- It was signed by Lobengula and Piet Grobler, a representative of
the Boers of the Transvaal.

Terms (promises).
- It was a treaty of friendship.
- Lobengula agreed to help the Boers with soldiers whenever he
was asked to help.
- Lobengula to allow Whites with passports from the Transvaal to
enter Matebeleland.
- Lobengula agreed to give protection to Boer hunters and traders
in Matebeleland .
- A representative of the Boers to stay at Bulawayo.

67
 - Lobengula agreed to send back criminals who fled from the
Transvaal.
- The Boers agreed to recognize Lobengula as King of the
Ndebele.
- There was going to be everlasting peace between the Boers and
the Ndebele.
- Boers to hunt and trade freely in Matebeleland.

Qn. To what extent was the Grobler Treaty responsible for

the colonization of Matebeleland?
C1- The Grobler Treaty led to the colonization of Matebeleland.
– it showed that Lobengula was illiterate e.g. X-signature.
- Lobengula was insecure so he was looking for friends (allies).
- It triggered other rivals to take action e.g. Rhodes.
- At alarmed Rhodes.
- It led to the signing of the Moffat treaty.
- It showed Lobengula was losing influence (control).

C2 – other factors caused the colonization of Matebeleland.

- Rhodes wanted to build a railway line from Cape to Cairo.
- Lobengula wanted luxurious goods.
- The Moffat Treaty and the Rudd Concession.
- Poor weapons of the Ndebele.
- Rhodes used bribery.

The Moffat Treaty of February 1888 .

- It was signed by John Smith Moffat and Lobengula.
- Moffat was on agent/representative of Cecil John Rhodes.

The terms.
- It cancelled the Grobler Treaty.
- Lobengula promised to be a friend of the Queen of Britain.
- Lobengula promised not to sign any treaty with another power
without the knowledge of the British.
- Lobengula not to give any part of the country without consulting
the British.
Comments.
- Moffat pretended to be a friend of Lobengula.
- Moffat was now an agent of Rhodes.
- Rhodes used him because he was a family friend to Lobengula.
- Moffat pretended to represent the Queens of Britain. He
represented Rhodes.

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The Rudd Concession, October 1888.
Rhodes sent 3 men to go to negotiate.
(i) Charles Rudd – a business partner and friend of Rhodes.
(ii) Rotchfort Maguire – a lawyer.
(iii) Francis Thompson – a fluent Ndebele speaker nicknamed
“Matabele.” He was used as an interpreter.
- They spent 5 weeks without getting the chance to speak to
Lobengula. Lobengula had sleepless nights caused by concession
seekers so did not want to talk to this delegation.
- Lotshe and Sikombo were bribed (trusted indunas) to persuade
Lobengula to talk to them.
- Missionaries persuaded Lobengula to sign e.g. Helm.
- Helm acted as a false witness.

Terms of the Rudd Concession [written and verbal terms].

Written terms.
Promises made by Rhodes.
 100 pounds per month or a monthly salary/Money per month.
 1000 rifles – guns.
 100 000 rounds of ammunition – bullets.
 A gunboat to patrol the Zambezi river or 500 pounds.

Lobengula’s promises.
 He promised to give all minerals rights to Rhodes.
 He gave power to the British to do what they deemed necessary to
protect their interest.
 Lobengula promised not to sign any other treaties without permission
from the British.
 Rhodes given power to collect and enjoy mineral profits.

Verbal terms.
 British visitors were going to surrender weapons and obey Ndebele
laws and customs.
 Not more than 10 white men at a time.
 British to dig one hole at a time.
 British not to dig near towns.
 Rhodes was to put notices in South African newspapers to warn other
countries to keep out of Ndebele country (Rhodes was based in Cape
Town).
 No miners were to enter Matebeleland before the 1st monthly salary
was paid.

69
 Qn. Did Lobengula and the Ndebele benefit from terms
of the Rudd Concession?
C1
– lobengula benefitted from the Rudd Concession.

He received the first monthly salary.

He received some guns.

He established friendship with Britain.

Lobengula and the Ndebele were no longer bothered by other white
people who wanted to control Matebeleland e.g. Boers.
 Lobengula was treated by Doctor Leander Star Jameson e.g. gout.
 He traded with the whites.
 The Ndebele received material gains e.g. cloths, blankets, umbrellas
and mirrors.
C2 Non – benefits of the Rudd Concession.
 The Ndebele lost control of land and minerals.
 Lobengula now understood the white people as crooks who cheated to
achieve their aims.
 The Ndebele were cheated by Concession seekers.
 Lobengula stopped trusting his indunas.
 It led to the death of Lotshe and Sikombo.
 Lobengula did not receive the gun boat.
 There was loss of independence.
 Loss of cattle.
 The treaty led to the invasion of the country because it gave Rhodes
the right to occupy Matabeleland.
 Led to disunity.
 Loss of power.
 It led to death of Lobengula during the Anglo-Ndebele war.
 It led to the destruction of the Ndebele state.

Qn. Was Lobengula to blame for the colonization of

Zimbabwe?

C1- Lobengula should be blamed.

 He over trusted missionaries e.g. Helm and Moffat.
 He loved luxury goods.
 He also tried to use whites against each other.
 He thought if he gave rights to Rhodes, he would have no problems in
future from other Europeans.
 He put his x-signature to documents he did not understand.
 He put his elephant seal to the documents.

C2 – Lobengula should not be blamed

 He used delaying tactics.

70
  Missionaries become false witness.
 Close indunas were bribed: Lotshe and Sikombo.
 he was illiterate.
 Signing or not signing the Ndebele state was going to be colonized.
 Rhodes had too much money to bribe rivals.
 Lobengula took steps to avoid colonization e.g. he killed Lotshe and
Sikombo. He also died while fighting the British in the Anglo- Ndebele
war.

People who assisted Rhodes to get the British South Africa

Royal Charter in 1889 [Nov 2010].
- Queen Victoria.
- Duke of Abecorn.
- Duke of Five.
- Lord Grey/Early Grey.
- Lord Salisbury.
- Prince of Wales.
- Baroness Burdette Coutts.

Companies which amalgamated to form the BSAC.

- De Beers and Exploiting and Exploring Company

Lobengula’s reaction after discovering that he

had been cheated in the Rudd Concession
(J2012).
- E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated.
- Lobengula wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd
Concession.
- He demanded the return of the original document.
- He also wrote a letter to the High Commissioner in Botswana.
- Prevented Maguire and Thompson from leaving until the return of the
original document.
- He sent two representatives to the Queen . Their names were Mshete
and Babyane. They were accompanied by E.A Maund.
- Lobengual killed Lotshe and Sikombo and their families and
descendants.
- He invited some Whites at Bulawayo to explain the meaning of the
Rudd Concession.
- He continued to emphasise the verbal agreements of the Rudd
Concession to those at his court.

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 - He signed the Lippert Concession.
- Lobengula publicly renounced the Rudd Concession.
- He sent a search party to look for Maguire.

Provisions of the Royal Chapter (J2012)

Given to Rhodes by the Queen in 1889.
- To ban sale of liquor to locals.
- To preserve peace and order.
- To establish banks.
- To make roads, railways, telegraphs and harbours.
- To preserve peace and order.
- To issue mining concessions.
- To promote trade and commerce.
- To respect local customs, laws and religion.
- To abolish slave trade.
- To monetarise the economy.
- To make laws.
- It empowered Rhodes to hold on to the Concession for 25 years. After
25 years it would be reviewed after every 10 years.
- The company to have the headquarters in Britain.
- Directors of the Company to be subjects of Britain.

The Terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884 – 1885

[Nov 2010]
- A country should inform other countries when one has been occupied.
- Freedom of navigation on major rivers such as the Niger, Nile, Congo
and Zambezi (Max 3).
- Recognition of existing spheres of influence by European countries e.g.
Congo and Niger Delta. Africa was divided into 20 territorial Units.
- Congo to be given to Leopold II.
- Agreed to define boundaries of sphere of influence.
- Hoisting of national flags.
- Independent witnesses.
- Agreed to ban slavery and slave trade.
- Signing treaties with Africans and among themselves.
- Agreed to develop spheres of influence.
- Agreed to effective occupation.

72
The Pioneer Column, 1890
Sub – Topics.
- Selection.
- Recruitment.
- Organisation.
- Leaders of the Pioneer Column.
- The Journey/March of the Pioneer Column.
- Problems of the Pioneer Column.
- Reasons for easy occupation of Mashonaland.

Selection and recruitment

- The BSAC advertised in newspapers in the British Commonwealth e.g.
Britian, Canada, South Africa and Australia.
- It wanted 200 Pioneers.
- Requirements needed:
- (i). Skills e.g. journalists, hunters, miners, farmers, bakers,
carpenters, cricketers, doctors and prospectors.
(ii) Young men below the age of 30.
(iii) People with a spirit of adventure.
- The BSAC promised: (i) land – 3000 acres per person.
(ii) Gold – 15 gold claims per person.
(iii) Cash payment: 7 shillings and 6 Pence per
day.
Organisation
- There were 200 Pioneers.
- 500 Policemen.
Leaders of the Pioneer Column:
 Frank Johnson – recruited the Pioneers.
 Colquhoun – company representative.
 Colonel Pennefather – commander of the BSAP.
 Heany. Assisted Pennefather.
 Maurice and Henry Borrow.
 Selous – scout to guide the Pioneer Column of the route.
 Jameson – personal representative of Rhodes.
- The Pioneer Column assembled in Bechuanaland.
- Each Pioneer was given military training.
- The Pioneer Column planned to complete the journey before the rain
season.

73
The March/Journey of the Pioneer Column into Mashonaland (Nov
2010).
- Leaders (max 2).
- The Pioneer Column began the March on 27 June 1890.
- They wanted to complete the 640km journey before the rains began.
The destination was Mt Hampden, near Harare.
- They crossed the Maklautse River.
- Selous led the Pioneers as the scout.
- 500 BSAP provided security.
- The 1st stop was at Shashe River where they built Fort Tuli.
- Pioneers avoided the Ndebele state for fear of attacks.
- Supplies of the pioneers were carried in 117 wagons.
- Scouts patrolled area ahead.
- They travelled 16km per day.
- Laagers were built at night for protection.
- Searchlights were also used at night.
- Travelled by day and rested at night.
- Lobengula protested at the Pioneer Column invasion.
- Pioneers often met small groups of Ndebele warriors.
- A mobile clinic treated the sick.
- Forts were built: e.g. Tuli, Fort Victoria, Fort Melsetter, Fort Charter,
Fort Salisbury, Fort Martin, and Fort Rixon.
- Khama sent men who cleared the road, looked after oxen and horses.
- The Pioneer Column reached F. Salisbury on 12 September 1890.
- The Union Jack was raised to show that Mashonaland was now under
British rule.

Problems/Difficulties faced by the Pioneer Column.

- The column took a lounger route to avoid the Ndebele.
- Diseases e.g. Malaria and sleeping sickness.
- Crossed large rivers.
- Insecurity (fear of Ndebele).
- Land clearance not easy.
- Failed to settle at intended destination of Mt Hampden.
- Mud slowed speed.
- Injuries to Pioneers.

Question C: Did the Pioneers find it easy to reach their destination?

Nov 2011.

C1Reasons why occupation was easy.

- Assistance from the Ngwato who cleared roads and looked after cattle.
- They were led by Selous who knew Mashonaland.
- It planned the journey

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 - It was well equipped with provisions like food and medicines.
- 500 policemen protected the Pioneer Column.
- Heavily armed with 7 pounders and maxim guns.
- There was reliable transport (wagons).
- Laagers and searchlights provided security.
- South African experience.
- No resistance from the Ndebele and Shona.
- Shona were weakened by years of Ndebele raids.

Nov 2014: Describe the activities of the Pioneer settlers in

Mashonaland between 1890 and 1893.

- The Pioneers began to peg farms after raising the Union Jack.
- Others searched for gold.
- They signed a treaty with Chief Mutasa to stop the Portuguese in the
East.
- Mashonaland was divided into districts. Each district was under a
magistrate.
- Some Pioneers sold land.
- Built houses using mud, poles and grass.
- They set up towns, post offices, newspapers and bakeries.
- They employed African labourers on their mines and farms.
- Laid roads and streets.
- Established a police force.
- Built Churches.
- Built Schools.
- Built Health centres.
- They set up boundaries between the Shona and Ndebele.
- Introduce taxes.
- Appropriated cattle.
- Forced labour (Cheap labour).
- Hunting.
- Farming.
- Mining.
- Monetarised the economy.

How were Africans affected by these activities?

C1 – positive effects.
- Protected the Shona from the Ndebele.
- Roads made transport easier.
- Africans bought manufactured goods.
- Market for their grain.
- New skills like building, weaving and farming.
- Employment.

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C2 – Negative (Non – benefits).
- Loss of land.
- Loss of cattle.
- Taxation.
- Forced labour.
- Ill- treatment.
- Chiefs slowly lost power.
- Abuse of women.
- Loss of culture.
- Decline of trade with the Portuguese.

THE ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR (1893-1894).

Other names.
 The Matebele war.
 The War Of Dispossession.

Sub Topics on the ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR.

- Causes.
- Course (events).
- Results or effects.

The Causes of the ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR.

-The ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR was caused by long term causes and short
term causes.
(1) The Long Term Causes.
- Rhodes’ aims or interests were the main causes of the war. The
settlers were also to blame.
- Rhodes wanted to build a railway line from Cape to Cairo.
- He wanted the map of Africa to be painted red. It means he wanted
the whole of Africa to be under British rule.
- He also wanted to encircle the Boers of the Transvaal.
- Rhodes wanted the livestock of the Ndebele e.g. cattle, sheep and
goats.
- The need to obtain the Second Rand in Matabeleland – e.g. wanted
Gold. There were exaggerated reports about the Mineral wealth in
Matebeleland for example there belief that Bulawayo itself was built on
a hill of gold.
- Need for cheap labour.
- Need for the pastures – grasslands/grazing lands of the Ndebele.

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 - To obtain raw materials e.g. ivory, skins.
- To find markets for finished goods e.g. cloth, jewellery, knives,
tobacco.
- To spread the 3Cs– commerce, Christianity and civilisation.
- Rhodes wanted pride and personal glory (greatness).
- The BSAC wanted to improve its share value.
- Missionaries also wanted the Ndebele state to be destroyed.

Reasons Why the missionaries wanted the destruction of Ndebele

State.
- The Ndebele people refused to accept Christianity.
- Converts were punished or killed.
- Converts were also sent to remote areas.
- The King expelled some missionaries from Matebeleland.
- Missionaries were not allowed to preach freely in Matebeleland.

The Ndebele were also to blame.

 They ignored the boundary and continue to raid the Shona.
 They continued to demand tribute from the Shona.
ii) The short – term causes of the Anglo- Ndebele War.
- Ndebele – Shona relations were the immediate causes of the Anglo –
Ndebele war of 1893 – 1894.
- The question was: Who “owned” the Shona?
- The Ndebele ignored the boundary and continued to raid the Shona.
This disturbed agriculture and mining of the whites.
- Some of the Shona stopped paying tribute to Lobengula.
- Lobengula punished Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute. Chief
Chivi and Chief Nemakonde (Lomagundi) were killed by the Ndebele
army. It increased tension between the Ndebele and BSAC.

The immediate or Short – term causes of the Anglo-

Ndebele War.
- The Victoria incidents were the immediate causes of the War. This
involved two Shona Chiefs.
(i) Headman Gomara.
(ii) Headman Bere.

The Gomara Incident.

- 500 yards of telegraph wire was stolen between Fort Tuli and Fort
Victoria.
- It is believed Gomara’s people stole the wire to make snares.

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 - The BSAC accused Gomara’s people of stealing the wire. The BSAC
demanded a fine. Gomara used Lobengula’s cattle to pay the fine.
Lobengula demanded the return of the cattle.
- Jameson returned the cattle. The event increased tension between
Lobengula and the BSAC.

The Bere incident.

- Headman Bere lived West of Fort Victoria.
- He stole Lobengula’s cattle.
- Lobengula sent a regiment of about 2000 to punish Bere and recover
the cattle.
- The Ndebele warriors were led by two young commanders, Munyao
and Mgandani.
- The Ndebele attacked the Shona in the Fort Victoria area. Shona
villages were burnt, crops destroyed and people killed.
- Many of the Shona fled to Fort Victoria for protection.
- The magistrate of Victoria, captain Lendy, gave protection to the
Shona.
- The Ndebele were ordered to withdraw and cross the boundary within
2 hours. The Ndebele ignored the ultimatum.
- The Ndebele moved slowly. They were stubborn especially Mgandani
who ignored the ultimatum.
- Captain Lendy’s men attacked. Mgandani and 30 Ndebele soldiers were
killed.
- The death of the Ndebele soldiers increased tension between
Lobengula and the BSAC.
- Lobengula and the Amajaha became very angry. However Lobengula
Prevented/stopped the Amajaha from attacking the Whites.

Preparations for War by the BSAC.

- The BSAC bought wagons, horses and guns in South Africa.

- Whites in the Fort Victoria made the Victoria Agreement to attack
and destroy the Ndebele state.
- The BSAC recruited volunteers to join the BSAC forces.
- The volunteers who were chosen were promised three things.

The Promises

1. 15 gold claims – Gold.

2. 6 000 acres of land – Land.

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 3. To share half of the livestock to be captured from the Ndebele.
- Some white people were recruited from Johannesburg.
- Some of the volunteers were Shonas and Cape Coloureds.

Lobengula’s response (Preparation) Defence.

- Lobengula was cautious or careful because he tried to avoid war with

the BSAC
- He was under pressure from the Amajaha.
- He sent messengers to Cape Town to explain that he did not want war.
One of the messengers was Mshete. Unfortunately Mshete never
returned.
- He controlled the Amajaha.
- However, Lobengula made sure the Ndebele state was ready for
defence.
- He recalled a powerful regiment from Barotseland (Zambia). It had
about 6000 warriors.
- The Ndebele army was on standby on the boundary between
Matebeleland and Mashonaland waiting to defend the Ndebele state.

The Events of Anglo – Ndebele War (1893 – 1894).

- The BSAC forces attacked the Ndebele state in 3 directions
(Columns).
1. Fort Salisbury Column – led by Major Forbes.
2. Fort Victoria Column – led by Allan Wilson.
3. Fort Tuli Column – led by Goold Adam.
- There were 3 500 soldiers for the BSAC

1 100 whites.
2000 Tswana.
400 Shonas and Cape coloureds.
- There were about 18 000 Ndebele fighters.
- The Fort Victoria column and the F. Salisbury Column met at Iron Mine
Hill near Kwekwe.
- The first Battle between the BSAC and the Ndebele was at Lalapanzi.
The Ndebele were defeated.
- The first major battle was the Battle of Shangani.

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The Battle of Shangani.
- The Ndebele attacked and killed Africans who were sleeping outside
the laager.
- No white died.
- Nearly 500 Ndebele soldiers died.
- The seven pounders and the maxim guns killed many Ndebele people.
- The Ndebele were defeated.

The Battle of Singuesi River.

- The Ndebele attacked the laager of the Southern Column.
- The Ndebele lost the battle because of gunfire.

The Battle of Bembesi River.

- It was fought near Bulawayo. The Ndebele’s best regiments were
defeated e.g. Imbizo, Ingubu and Ugukamini.
- After the battle of Bembesi the King realized he had lost the war.
- Lobengula burnt his capital, Bulawayo. He fled northwards with a few
followers.
- The BSAC sent the Wilson Patrol to persue Lobengula.
- Lobengula sent messengers with two bags of gold to ask for peace.
The gold was stolen by white soldiers. The hunt for Lobengula
continued.
- The Wilson Patrol was ambushed which means surprise attack. Wilson
was killed together with 30 others and all their horses.
- Soon after Lobengula died. The causes were unknown. Possible
reasons include the following:
(i) Malaria.
(ii) Small pox.
(iii) He committed suicide.
- After the death of Lobengula the Ndebele began to surrender because
they had lost morale.

Reasons why the Ndebele were defeated.

- The Ndebele lost the war because of their weaknesses and strength of
the BSAC.

Ndebele Weaknesses. Whites Strength.

- Inferior (poor) weapons e.g. Superior or better weapons e.g.
assegais. maxim guns and seven pounders.
- Poor mobility or speed – foot. Better speed – wagons and horses.

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 - Poor communications e.g. Better communication e.g. telegraph
drums, fire/smoke or trumpets. wire.
- Many commanders or indunas.
- Direct war.
- Small pox affected soldiers. One commander.
- No leader after Lobengula’s ……………………..
death. ……………………..
- Open Grasslands with a few Searchlight at night.
hills and mountains so there …………………….
was nowhere to hide Laagers for protection.
- Ndebeles were divided so there
was lack of unity. …………………….

Results of the Anglo-Ndebele war.

- Loss of land and creation of two reserves: Gwaai and Shangani.
They were dry, hot, tsetse infested and mosquito infested.
- Loss of cattle. The Ndebele were left with about 40 800 cattle out of a
total of 280 000. The BSAC claimed the cattle belonged to Lobengula.
- Forced labour (isibalo). Ndebele men were forced to work for no
payment in mines, farms, construction of roads and railway.
- Abuse of women e.g. rape. This was done by the white settlers and
Shona policeman.
- Introduction of Hut tax of 10 shillings per year.
- Loss of independence : The chiefs lost their power the Ndebele were
not allowed to choose a new king to replace Lobengula. Hence the
Ndebele monarchy was destroyed. Chiefs who held the meetings to
choose a king were arrested. Nyamanda failed to succeed Lobengula.
- Ill-treatment /settler brutality: Ndebele chiefs and men were beaten
with the sjambok in front of women and children men. Hence there
was loss of pride.
- Loss of weapons which were surrendered to the BSAC e.g. guns and
assegais. .This disarmament angered the Amajaha.

THE CAUSES OF UMVEKELA I (NDEBELE UPRISING) OF

1896.
THE NDEBELE UPRISING HAD LONG – TERM CAUSES AND SHORT
TERM CAUSES.
The results of the Anglo-Ndebele War were the long term causes.
- Loss of cattle.
- Loss of land.

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 - Forced labour.
- Taxes.
- Loss of independence or the destruction of the Ndebele monarchy .
- Abuse of women.
- Ill-treatment.
- Disarmament – weapons were taken away.
a) The short Term or immediate causes.
i) Natural disasters: drought, locusts and rinderpest – a cattle
disease.
ii) The Jameson Raid.

The Jameson Raid.

- Jameson and Rhodes organized the Jameson Raid. The raid failed. The
invaders and their horses were captured in the Transvaal.
- The Ndebele got the chance to begin war with the whites. The whites
in Matebeleland had poor protection.

The events of the Ndebele uprising.

- The war began in March 1896.
- The Ndebele attacked isolated forms, stores, mines, police posts,
missionaries and local African collaborators.
- 144 people were killed in two weeks. Whites were taken by surprise
- The reaction or steps of the whites were quick. 150 soldiers left
Salisbury for Bulawayo. They were led by colonel Beal.
- Volunteers assembled in Mafeking and Natal in South Africa.
- Khama sent men from Bechuanaland to help the whites.
- Patrols were sent out to look for survivors and to bury the corpses
- Laagers were built at Bulawayo, Gwelo, Mberengwa, Bulima and
Mangwe.
- Priests of the Mwari cult told the Ndebele that the bullets of the white
men would not harm them.
- The Priests also told the Ndebele to leave the route from Bulawayo to
the South open so that whites would use the route to escape.
However, whites used the open road to bring more supplies
(reinforcements) e.g. soldiers, food, weapons and medicines.
- Indunas and spirit mediums acted as the leaders of the Ndebele
Uprising.
- Indunas: Nyanda, Dhliso, Sikombo, Ndiweni, Somabulana Dhlodhlo
and Gampo.

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 - Religious leaders: Mkwati, Tengera, Umlugulu and Siginyamatshe.
- The BSAC slashed crops and burnt granaries. The Ndebele faced food
shortage leading to hunger and starvation.
- The Ndebele were defeated at the Battle of Umguza.
- Ndebele fighters retreated the Matopo Hills. They began to use guerilla
War hit and run war.
- The young warriors joined Mkwati at his headquarters at NTABA ZIKA
MAMBO meaning the Hill of Chiefs.
- Rhodes came from South Africa and began meetings with Senior
Ndebele leaders to end the war.

Indaba at Matopo Hills.

Who attended?

1) Whites: Cecil John Rhodes.

- Colenbrender.
- Vere Stent.
- Seur.
2) Ndebele leaders
- Umlugulu.
- Sikombo.
- Mguni.

The terms of the Indaba at Matopo Hills – What they agreed.

- The Ndebele agreed to stop fighting and raiding the White settlers.
- The religious leaders were going to be punished for their role in the
Ndebele uprising e.g. Mkwati, Umlugulu, Tengera and Siginyamatshe.
- Ndebele warriors and people who killed or committed crimes during
the uprising were going to be punished.
- Weapons like assegais and guns were going to be surrendered to the
BSAC.
- Rhodes agreed to do the following:
1. To withdraw soldiers from Matebeleland. The soldiers were to be
replaced by the BSAP. The BSAP would maintain peace in
Matebeleland.
No African police, especially Shona, would work in Matebeleland
without the approval of the Ndebele.

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 - Rhodes agreed to give the Ndebele grain and seeds for the new
season.
- The Ndebele were promised seeds for new planting season.
- The BSAC accepted or recognized Ndebele chiefs and headman.
- Ndebele chiefs were promised a salary/money per month.

Question:
Did the Ndebele benefit from the Matopo Indaba?
Yes the Ndebele benefited.
- Chiefs were promised salaries.
- Chiefs and headman were recognized.
- Peace was restored to Matebeleland.
- Ndebele people received seeds for the new planting season.
- Ndebele received grain and food. This reduced hunger.
- However, the Ndebele did not benefit from the Indaba at Matopos.
- There was loss of land.
- There was loss of cattle.
- Weapons were taken away.
- Taxes continued to the Ndebeles –Dog tax, Hut tax, Wife tax and Dip
tax.
- Forced labour.
- Loss of Independence/freedom.
- Ill treatment continued e.g. beating of man in front of their women
and children using the sjambok. The sjambok was made from the hide
of a Hippo.

THE ROLE OR PART PLAYED BY RELIGIOUS LEADERS/SPIRIT

MEDIUMS IN THE NDEBELE UPRISING.
- -They told the Ndebele that natural disasters were caused by white
man e g. drought, rind pest and locusts.
- They told the Ndebele to kill the whites.
- The mediums told people that the bullets of the whites were going
to be harmless.
- Africans were encouraged to unite and fight.
- Organized strategies to attack the whites.
- Their shrines were used to get information.
- People pretended to look for locusts medicine from Mkwati

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 - Ndebeles were told to leave the route to South open. The whites
were going to escape using the open route.
- Unfortunately, the whites used the open route to bring more
soldiers, weapons, food and medicines.
- Mkwati moved around encouraging Indunas to start the war.
- Chiefs visited Mkwati pretending to look for medicines for locusts.
- Mkwati provided morale and confidence to Ndebele fighters.
- Religious leaders become symbols of resistance.
- Mkwati was based at Manyanya (Ntaba Zika Mambo/The hill of
chiefs.

THE SHONA UPRISING (CHIMURENGA 1).

Shona leaders of Chimurenga 1.
- Makoni. - Bonda.
- Mbuya Nehanda (Charwe). - Nyashanu.
- Kaguvi (Gumboreshumba). - Zvimba.
- Mangwende. - Svosve.
- Mapondera. - Chihota.
- Kunzvi Nyandoro. - Seke.
- Mashayamombe. - Chinamhora.
- Nyamweda.

THE EVENTS OF CHIMURENGA (THE SHONA UPRISING) IN

MASHONALAND.
- The Shona were led by many chiefs.
- The war began in June 1896 and the reason was that they had
finished harvesting.
- Chimurenga began in Mashayamombe area of Chegutu.
- The Shona attacked the white settlers on farms, mines, traders and
missionaries.
- Local collaborators were killed.
- Fires were lit on mountain tops as a signal to start the war.
- Roads were blocked using trees.
- The war spread Eastwards from Chegutu.
- Chief Makoni fought bravely at his mountain headquarters of
Gwindingwi.
- Chief Mangwende was also another great hero of Chimurenga 1. He
fought bravely from Maopo.
- Spirit mediums played an important role in the war.

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 THE PART PLAYED BY SPRIT MEDIUMS.
- Mkwati worked together with Shona Chiefs. He united the Shona
Chiefs.
- Nehanda operated from the Mazoe area. She persuaded the Shona
to kill the whites.
- Mediums chaired the meetings to plan the war. They organized
strategies to attack whites.
- They cured the sick and the injured.
- Nehanda became a symbol of resistance because she was able to
avoid being captured for a long time.
- The BSAC used dynamite to kill the Africans who were hiding in
camps.
- Crops were slashed and granaries were burnt. As a result, there
was serious hunger.
- Captured fighters were tortured to get information.
- The BSAC was assisted by reinforcements from South Africa.
- Chief Makoni was finally captured and killed.
- Nehanda and Kaguvi were finally captured and killed (hanged).
- Chief Mapondera continued fighting until 1903 but the rest
surrendered.
- The Shona uprising ended in the defeat of the Shona in 1898.

THE REASONS WHY THE SHONA WERE DEFEATED IN CHIMURENGA 1.

- The Shona had poor weapons like spears, bows and arrows, shields
and knobkerries.
- Whites had superior/better weapons like machine guns e.g. maxim
guns and seven pounders.
- Africans had poor communication e.g. smoke, fire and drums.
- The BSAC used telegraphs for better communication.
- The Shona had lack of Unity (disunity) meaning they were divided.
 Some chiefs did not fight.
 Others collaborated or joined the whites during the war.
 According to D.N. Beach, there were many Zvimurengas which
means each chief fought for himself. There was no unity at all.
- Africans had poor mobility (speed) they moved on foot. The whites
had better mobility in the form of horses and wagons.
- Leaders of Chimurenga were captured and killed e.g. Nehanda,
Kaguvi and Chief Makoni.

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 - Shona fighters were captured and tortured to give whites
information.
- Some fighters used direct war.
- There was hunger and starvation because granaries were burnt and
crops were slashed.
- Dynamite was used to kill Africans hiding in caves.
- The BSAC was given more reinforcements or soldiers who came
from South Africa.

OUTLINE THE RESULTS OF THE 1ST CHIMURENGA WAR OF 1896-7

- Ndebele were given seeds and grain.
- Defeat of the Shona and Ndebele.
- African traditional politics destroyed.
- Punishment of African chiefs who took part.
- Demotion of some chiefs.
- Deaths or execution of Makoni, Nehanda and Kaguvi.
- Mashonaland was divided into districts each under a Native
Commissioner who was above a chief.
- Reserve system was extended to Mashonaland.
- Kunzvi Nyandoro and Mapondera continued with resistance but
were later defeated.
- Many Africans turned to Christianity.
- Forced labour continued.
- Shona forbidden to build houses in mountains and hilltops.
- Creation of the local government.
- Police to maintain order in districts.

QUESTION ;HOW WERE THE SETTLERS AFFECTED BY THESE

RESULTS?
(i) Positive effects.
- cheap labour.
- more losses of land and cattle.
- Security.
- Unity.
- more revenue.
(ii) Negative effects.
- International condemnation especially by Britain.
- Blame for various acts of oppression.
- Hatred between blacks and whites intensified.
- African leaders of Chimurenga 1 because symbols of resistance
leading to Chimurenga 2.

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