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MATRIX METHODS
 The Student Solutions Manual is now available
online through separate purchase at
www.elsevierdirect.com/companions/9780123744272
MATRIX METHODS:
Applied Linear Algebra
Third Edition

Richard Bronson
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Teaneck, New Jersey

Gabriel B. Costa
United States Military Academy
West Point, New York

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Copyright © 2009, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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selecting “Support & Contact” then “Copyright and Permission” and then “Obtaining Permissions.”

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

APPLICATION SUBMITTED

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-0-12-374427-2

For information on all Academic Press publications

visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com

Printed in the United States of America

08 09 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 To Evy...again.
R.B.

To my brother priests...especially Father Frank Maione,

the parish priest of my youth...and Archbishop Peter
Leo Gerety, who ordained me a priest.
G.B.C.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface xi

About the Authors xiii

Acknowledgments xv

1 Matrices 1
1.1 Basic Concepts 1
Problems 1.1 3
1.2 Operations 6
Problems 1.2 8
1.3 Matrix Multiplication 9
Problems 1.3 16
1.4 Special Matrices 19
Problems 1.4 23
1.5 Submatrices and Partitioning 29
Problems 1.5 32
1.6 Vectors 33
Problems 1.6 34
1.7 The Geometry of Vectors 37
Problems 1.7 41

2 Simultaneous Linear Equations 43

2.1 Linear Systems 43
Problems 2.1 45
2.2 Solutions by Substitution 50
Problems 2.2 54
2.3 Gaussian Elimination 54
Problems 2.3 62

vii
viii Contents

2.4 Pivoting Strategies 65

Problems 2.4 70
2.5 Linear Independence 71
Problems 2.5 76
2.6 Rank 78
Problems 2.6 83
2.7 Theory of Solutions 84
Problems 2.7 87
2.8 Final Comments on Chapter 2 88

3 The Inverse 93
3.1 Introduction 93
Problems 3.1 98
3.2 Calculating Inverses 101
Problems 3.2 106
3.3 Simultaneous Equations 109
Problems 3.3 111
3.4 Properties of the Inverse 112
Problems 3.4 114
3.5 LU Decomposition 115
Problems 3.5 121
3.6 Final Comments on Chapter 3 124

4 An Introduction to Optimization 127

4.1 Graphing Inequalities 127
Problems 4.1 130
4.2 Modeling with Inequalities 131
Problems 4.2 133
4.3 Solving Problems Using Linear Programming 135
Problems 4.3 140
4.4 An Introduction to The Simplex Method 140
Problems 4.4 147
4.5 Final Comments on Chapter 4 147

5 Determinants 149
5.1 Introduction 149
Problems 5.1 150
5.2 Expansion by Cofactors 152
Problems 5.2 155
5.3 Properties of Determinants 157
Problems 5.3 161
5.4 Pivotal Condensation 163
Problems 5.4 166
Contents ix

5.5 Inversion 167

Problems 5.5 169
5.6 Cramer’s Rule 170
Problems 5.6 173
5.7 Final Comments on Chapter 5 173

6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 177

6.1 Definitions 177
Problems 6.1 179
6.2 Eigenvalues 180
Problems 6.2 183
6.3 Eigenvectors 184
Problems 6.3 188
6.4 Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 190
Problems 6.4 193
6.5 Linearly Independent Eigenvectors 194
Problems 6.5 200
6.6 Power Methods 201
Problems 6.6 211

7 Matrix Calculus 213

7.1 Well-Defined Functions 213
Problems 7.1 216
7.2 Cayley–Hamilton Theorem 219
Problems 7.2 221
7.3 Polynomials of Matrices–Distinct Eigenvalues 222
Problems 7.3 226
7.4 Polynomials of Matrices—General Case 228
Problems 7.4 232
7.5 Functions of a Matrix 233
Problems 7.5 236
7.6 The Function e At 238
Problems 7.6 240
7.7 Complex Eigenvalues 241
Problems 7.7 244
7.8 Properties of e A 245
Problems 7.8 247
7.9 Derivatives of a Matrix 248
Problems 7.9 253
7.10 Final Comments on Chapter 7 254
x Contents

8 Linear Differential Equations 257

8.1 Fundamental Form 257
Problems 8.1 261
8.2 Reduction of an nth Order Equation 263
Problems 8.2 269
8.3 Reduction of a System 269
Problems 8.3 274
8.4 Solutions of Systems with Constant Coefficients 275
Problems 8.4 285
8.5 Solutions of Systems—General Case 286
Problems 8.5 294
8.6 Final Comments on Chapter 8 295

9 Probability and Markov Chains 297

9.1 Probability: An Informal Approach 297
Problems 9.1 300
9.2 Some Laws of Probability 301
Problems 9.2 304
9.3 Bernoulli Trials and Combinatorics 305
Problems 9.3 309
9.4 Modeling with Markov Chains: An Introduction 310
Problems 9.4 313
9.5 Final Comments on Chapter 9 314

10 Real Inner Products and Least-Square 315

10.1 Introduction 315
Problems 10.1 317
10.2 Orthonormal Vectors 320
Problems 10.2 325
10.3 Projections and QR-Decompositions 327
Problems 10.3 337
10.4 The QR-Algorithm 339
Problems 10.4 343
10.5 Least-Squares 344
Problems 10.5 352

Appendix: A Word on Technology 355

Answers and Hints to Selected Problems 357

Index 411
Preface

It is no secret that matrices are used in many fields. They are naturally present
in all branches of mathematics, as well as, in many engineering and science fields.
Additionally, this simple but powerful concept is readily applied to many other
disciplines, such as economics, sociology, political science, nursing and psychology.
The Matrix is a dynamic construct. New applications of matrices are still
evolving, and our third edition of Matrix Methods: Applied Linear Algebra
(previously An Introduction) reflects important changes that have transpired since
the publication of the previous edition.
In this third edition, we added material on optimization and probability theory.
Chapter 4 is new and covers an introduction to the simplex method, one of the
major applied advances in the last half of the twentieth century. Chapter 9 is
also new and introduces Markov Chains, a primary use of matrices to probability
applications. To ensure that the book remains appropriate in length for a one
semester course, we deleted some of the subject matter that is more advanced;
specifically, chapters on the Jordan Canonical Form and on Special Matrices (e.g.,
Hermitian and Unitary Matrices). We also included an Appendix dealing with
technological support, such as computer algebra systems. The reader will also find
that the text contains a considerable “modeling flavor”.
This edition remains a textbook for the student, not the instructor. It remains
a book on methodology rather than theory. And, as in all past editions, proofs are
given in the main body of the text only if they are easy to follow and revealing.
For most of this book, a firm understanding of basic algebra and a smattering
of trigonometry are the only prerequisites; any references to calculus are few and
far between. Calculus is required for Chapter 7 and Chapter 8; however, these
chapters may be omitted with no loss of continuity, should the instructor wish
to do so. The instructor will also find that he/she can “mix and match” chapters
depending on the particular course requirements and the needs of the students.

xi
xii Preface

In closing, we would like to acknowledge the many people who helped to make
this book a reality. These include the professors, most notably Nicholas J. Rose,
who introduced us to the subject matter and instilled in us their love of matrices.
They also include the hundreds of students who interacted with us when we passed
along our knowledge to them. Their questions and insights enabled us to better
understand the underlying beauty of the field and to express it more succinctly.
Special thanks go to the Most Reverend John J. Myers, Archbishop of Newark,
as well as to the Reverend Monsignor James M. Cafone and the Priest Community
at Seton Hall University. Gratitude is also given to the administrative leaders
of Seton Hall University, and to Dr. Joan Guetti and to the members of the
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science. Finally, thanks are given to
Colonel Michael Phillips and to the members of the Department of Mathematical
Sciences of the United States Military Academy.

Richard Bronson
Teaneck, NJ

Gabriel B. Costa
West Point, NY and South Orange, NJ
About the Authors

Richard Bronson is a Professor of Mathematics in the School of Computer

Science and Engineering at Fairleigh Dickinson University, where he is currently
the Senior Executive Assistant to the President. Dr. Bronson has been chairman
of his academic department, Acting Dean of his college and Interim Provost. He
has authored or co-authored eleven books in mathematics and over thirty articles,
primarily in mathematical modeling.
Gabriel B. Costa is a Catholic priest. He is a Professor of Mathematical Sciences
and associate chaplain at the United States Military Academy at West Point. He is
on an extended Academic Leave from Seton Hall University. His interests include
differential equations, sabermetrics and mathematics education. This is the third
book Father Costa has co-authored with Dr. Bronson.

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

Many readers throughout the country have suggested changes and additions to
the first edition, and their contributions are gratefully acknowledged. They include
John Brillhart, of the University of Arizona; Richard Thornhill, of the University
of Texas; Ioannis M. Roussos, of the University of Southern Alabama; Richard
Scheld and James Jamison, of Memphis State University; Hari Shankar, of Ohio
University; D.J. Hoshi, of ITT-West; W.C. Pye and Jeffrey Stuart, of the University
of Southern Mississippi; Kevin Andrews, of Oakland University; Harold Klee,
of the University of Central Florida; Edwin Oxford, Patrick O’Dell and Herbert
Kasube, of Baylor University; and Christopher McCord, Philip Korman, Charles
Groetsch and John King, of the University of Cincinnati.
Special thanks must also go to William Anderson and Gilbert Steiner, of Fair-
leigh Dickinson University, who were always available to me for consultation
and advice in writing this edition, and to E. Harriet, whose assistance was instru-
mental in completing both editions. Finally, I have the opportunity to correct a
twenty-year oversight: Mable Dukeshire, previously Head of the Department of
Mathematics at FDU, now retired, gave me support and encouragement to write
the first edition. I acknowledge her contribution now, with thanks and friendship.

xv
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Matrices

1.1 Basic Concepts

Definition 1 A matrix is a rectangular array of elements arranged in horizontal

rows and vertical columns. Thus,
 
1 3 5
, (1)
2 0 −1

⎡ ⎤
4 1 1
⎣3 2 1⎦, (2)
0 4 2

and
⎡√ ⎤
2
⎣ π ⎦ (3)
19.5

are all examples of a matrix.

The matrix given in (1) has two rows and three columns; it is said to have order
(or size) 2 × 3 (read two by three). By convention, the row index is always given
first. The matrix in (2) has order 3 × 3, while that in (3) has order 3 × 1. The entries
of a matrix are called elements.
In general, a matrix A (matrices will always be designated by uppercase
boldface letters) of order p × n is given by
⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 a13 ··· a1n
⎢ a21 a22 a23 ··· a2n ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ··· a3n ⎥
A = ⎢ a31 a32 a33 ⎥, (4)
⎢ .. .. .. .. ⎥
⎣ . . . . ⎦
ap1 ap2 ap3 · · · apn

1
2 Chapter 1 Matrices

which is often abbreviated to [aij ]p × n or just [aij ]. In this notation, aij represents
the general element of the matrix and appears in the ith row and the jth column.
The subscript i, which represents the row, can have any value 1 through p, while
the subscript j, which represents the column, runs 1 through n. Thus, if i = 2 and
j = 3, aij becomes a23 and designates the element in the second row and third
column. If i = 1 and j = 5, aij becomes a15 and signifies the element in the first
row, fifth column. Note again that the row index is always given before the column
index.
Any element having its row index equal to its column index is a diagonal
element. Thus, the diagonal elements of a matrix are the elements in the 1−1
position, 2−2 position, 3−3 position, and so on, for as many elements of this type
that exist. Matrix (1) has 1 and 0 as its diagonal elements, while matrix (2) has 4,
2, and 2 as its diagonal elements.
If the matrix has as many rows as columns, p = n, it is called a square matrix;
in general it is written as
⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 a13 ··· a1n
⎢a21 a22 a23 ··· a2n ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢a31 a32 a33 ··· a3n ⎥. (5)
⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. .. .. .. ⎥
⎣ . . . . ⎦
an1 an2 an3 · · · ann

In this case, the elements a11 , a22 , a33 , . . . , ann lie on and form the main (or
principal) diagonal.
It should be noted that the elements of a matrix need not be numbers; they
can be, and quite often arise physically as, functions, operators or, as we shall see
later, matrices themselves. Hence,
 
1 √ sin θ cos θ
(t 2 + 1)dt t 2 3t 2 , ,
0 − cos θ sin θ

and
⎡ ⎤
x2 x
⎢ d ⎥
⎢ex ln x ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ dx ⎦
5 x+2

are good examples of matrices. Finally, it must be noted that a matrix is an

entity unto itself; it is not a number. If the reader is familiar with determinants,
he will undoubtedly recognize the similarity in form between the two. Warn-
ing: the similarity ends there. Whereas a determinant (see Chapter 5) can be
evaluated to yield a number, a matrix cannot. A matrix is a rectangular array,
period.
1.1 Basic Concepts 3

Problems 1.1
1. Determine the orders of the following matrices:
⎡ ⎤
3 1 −2 4 7 ⎡ ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ 1 2 3
5 −6 5 7⎥
A =⎢ ⎣ 0 , B = ⎣0 0 0⎦,
3 1 2 0⎦
4 3 2
−3 −5 2 2 2
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ 3 t t2 0
1 2 3 4 ⎢ t−2 t 4 6t 5 ⎥
C = ⎣ 5 6 −7 8⎦, D = ⎢ ⎣ t+2
⎥,
3t 1 2 ⎦
10 11 12 12
2t − 3 −5t 2 2t 5 3t 2
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ 1 ⎡√ ⎤
1 1 1
⎢ 5⎥ 313 −505
⎢2 3 4 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2π 18 ⎥
E =⎢ ⎣2 3
⎥, F = ⎢ 10⎥, G = ⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥,
5⎦ ⎣ 0⎦
⎣ 46.3
√ 1.043
√
⎦
− 2 5 − 5
3 5 6 −4
 
0 0
H= , J = [1 5 −30].
0 0

2. Find, if they exist, the elements in the 1−3 and the 2−1 positions for each of
the matrices defined in Problem 1.
3. Find, if they exist, a23 , a32 , b31 , b32 , c11 , d22 , e13 , g22 , g23 , and h32 for the
matrices defined in Problem 1.
4. Construct the 2 × 2 matrix A having aij = (−1)i + j .
5. Construct the 3 × 3 matrix A having aij = i/j.
6. Construct the n × n matrix B having bij = n − i − j. What will this matrix be
when specialized to the 3 × 3 case?
7. Construct the 2 × 4 matrix C having
i when i = 1,
cij =
j when i = 2.
8. Construct the 3 × 4 matrix D having
⎧
⎨i + j when i > j,
dij = 0 when i = j,
⎩
i−j when i < j.
9. Express the following times as matrices: (a) A quarter after nine in the morn-
ing. (b) Noon. (c) One thirty in the afternoon. (d) A quarter after nine in the
evening.

10. Express the following dates as matrices:

(a) July 4, 1776 (b) December 7, 1941
(c) April 23, 1809 (d) October 31, 1688
4 Chapter 1 Matrices

11. A gasoline station currently has in inventory 950 gallons of regular unleaded
gasoline, 1253 gallons of premium, and 98 gallons of super. Express this
inventory as a matrix.
12. Store 1 of a three store chain has 3 refrigerators, 5 stoves, 3 washing machines,
and 4 dryers in stock. Store 2 has in stock no refrigerators, 2 stoves, 9 washing
machines, and 5 dryers, while store 3 has in stock 4 refrigerators, 2 stoves, and
no washing machines or dryers. Present the inventory of the entire chain as a
matrix.
13. The number of damaged items delivered by the SleepTight Mattress Company
from its various plants during the past year is given by the matrix
⎡ ⎤
80 12 16
⎣50 40 16⎦.
90 10 50

The rows pertain to its three plants in Michigan,Texas, and Utah. The columns
pertain to its regular model, its firm model, and its extra-firm model, respec-
tively. The company’s goal for next year to is to reduce by 10% the number
of damaged regular mattresses shipped by each plant, to reduce by 20% the
number of damaged firm mattresses shipped by its Texas plant, to reduce by
30% the number of damaged extra-firm mattresses shipped by its Utah plant,
and to keep all other entries the same as last year. What will next year’s matrix
be if all goals are realized?
14. A person purchased 100 shares of AT&T at $27 per share, 150 shares of
Exxon at $45 per share, 50 shares of IBM at $116 per share, and 500 shares of
PanAm at $2 per share. The current price of each stock is $29, $41, $116, and
$3, respectively. Represent in a matrix all the relevant information regarding
this person’s portfolio.
15. On January 1, a person buys three certificates of deposit from different insti-
tutions, all maturing in one year. The first is for $1000 at 7%, the second is
for $2000 at 7.5%, and the third is for $3000 at 7.25%. All interest rates are
effective on an annual basis.
(a) Represent in a matrix all the relevant information regarding this person’s
holdings.
(b) What will the matrix be one year later if each certificate of deposit is
renewed for the current face amount and accrued interest at rates one
half a percent higher than the present?
16. (Markov Chains, see Chapter 9) A finite Markov chain is a set of objects,
a set of consecutive time periods, and a finite set of different states such
that
(i) during any given time period, each object is in only state (although
different objects can be in different states), and
1.1 Basic Concepts 5

(ii) the probability that an object will move from one state to another state
(or remain in the same state) over a time period depends only on the
beginning and ending states.
 
A Markov chain can be represented by a matrix P = pij where pij represents
the probability of an object moving from state i to state j in one time period.
Such a matrix is called a transition matrix.
Construct a transition matrix for the following Markov chain: Census fig-
ures show a population shift away from a large mid-western metropolitan
city to its suburbs. Each year, 5% of all families living in the city move to
the suburbs while during the same time period only 1% of those living in the
suburbs move into the city. Hint: Take state 1 to represent families living in
the city, state 2 to represent families living in the suburbs, and one time period
to equal a year.
17. Construct a transition matrix for the following Markov chain: Every four
years, voters in a New England town elect a new mayor because a town
ordinance prohibits mayors from succeeding themselves. Past data indicate
that a Democratic mayor is succeeded by another Democrat 30% of the time
and by a Republican 70% of the time. A Republican mayor, however, is
succeeded by another Republican 60% of the time and by a Democrat 40%
of the time. Hint: Take state 1 to represent a Republican mayor in office, state
2 to represent a Democratic mayor in office, and one time period to be four
years.
18. Construct a transition matrix for the following Markov chain: The apple
harvest in New York orchards is classified as poor, average, or good. His-
torical data indicates that if the harvest is poor one year then there is a 40%
chance of having a good harvest the next year, a 50% chance of having an aver-
age harvest, and a 10% chance of having another poor harvest. If a harvest
is average one year, the chance of a poor, average, or good harvest the next
year is 20%, 60%, and 20%, respectively. If a harvest is good, then the chance
of a poor, average, or good harvest the next year is 25%, 65%, and 10%,
respectively. Hint: Take state 1 to be a poor harvest, state 2 to be an average
harvest, state 3 to be a good harvest, and one time period to equal one year.
19. Construct a transition matrix for the following Markov chain. Brand X and
brand Y control the majority of the soap powder market in a particular region,
and each has promoted its own product extensively. As a result of past adver-
tising campaigns, it is known that over a two year period of time 10% of
brand Y customers change to brand X and 25% of all other customers change
to brand X. Furthermore, 15% of brand X customers change to brand Y and
30% of all other customers change to brand Y. The major brands also lose cus-
tomers to smaller competitors, with 5% of brand X customers switching to a
minor brand during a two year time period and 2% of brandY customers doing
likewise. All other customers remain loyal to their past brand of soap powder.
Hint: Take state 1 to be a brand X customer, state 2 a brand Y customer, state
3 another brand customer, and one time period to be two years.
6 Chapter 1 Matrices

1.2 Operations
The simplest relationship between two matrices is equality. Intuitively one feels
that two matrices should be equal if their corresponding elements are equal. This
is the case, providing the matrices are of the same order.

Definition 1 Two matrices A = [aij ]p×n and B = [bij ]p×n are equal if they have
the same order and if aij = bij (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p; j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n). Thus, the
equality
   
5x + 2y 7
=
x − 3y 1
implies that 5x + 2y = 7 and x − 3y = 1.

The intuitive definition for matrix addition is also the correct one.

Definition 2 If A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are both of order p × n, then A + B is

a p × n matrix C = [cij ] where cij = aij + bij (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p; j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n).
Thus,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5 1 −6 3 5 + (−6) 1+3 −1 4
⎣ 7 3⎦ + ⎣ 2 −1⎦ = ⎣ 7+2 3 + (−1)⎦ = ⎣ 9 2⎦
−2 −1 4 1 (−2) + 4 (−1) + 1 2 0

and
    2 
t2 5 1 −6 t +1 −1
+ = ;
3t 0 t −t 4t −t
but the matrices
⎡ ⎤
5 0  
⎣−1 −6 2
0⎦ and
1 1
2 1
cannot be added since they are not of the same order.

It is not difficult to show that the addition of matrices is both commutative and
associative: that is, if A, B, C represent matrices of the same order, then

(A1) A + B = B + A,
(A2) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.

We define a zero matrix 0 to be a matrix consisting of only zero elements. Zero

matrices of every order exist, and when one has the same order as another matrix
A, we then have the additional property

(A3) A + 0 = A.
1.2 Operations 7

Subtraction of matrices is defined in a manner analogous to addition: the

orders of the matrices involved must be identical and the operation is performed
elementwise.
Thus,
     
5 1 6 −1 −1 2
− = .
−3 2 4 −1 −7 3

Another simple operation is that of multiplying a scalar times a matrix. Intu-

ition guides one to perform the operation elementwise, and once again intuition
is correct. Thus, for example,

       
1 2 7 14 1 0 t 0
7 = and t = .
−3 4 −21 28 3 2 3t 2t

Definition 3 If A = [aij ] is a p × n matrix and if λ is a scalar, then λA is a p × n

matrix B = [bij ] where bij = λaij (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p; j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n).

Example 1 Find 5A − 21 B if

   
4 1 6 −20
A= and B=
0 3 18 8

Solution
   
4 1 6 −20
5A − 21 B = 5 − 21
0 3 18 8
     
20 5 3 −10 17 15
= − = . 
0 15 9 4 −9 11

It is not difficult to show that if λ1 and λ2 are scalars, and if A and B are matrices
of identical order, then

(S1) λ1 A = Aλ1 ,
(S2) λ1 (A + B) = λ1 A + λ1 B,
(S3) (λ1 + λ2 )A = λ1 A + λ2 A,
(S4) λ1 (λ2 A) = (λ1 λ2 )A.

The reader is cautioned that there is no such operation as matrix division. We

will, however, define a somewhat analogous operation, namely matrix inversion, in
Chapter 3.
8 Chapter 1 Matrices

Problems 1.2
In Problems 1 through 26, let

     
1 2 5 6 −1 0
A= , B= , C= ,
3 4 7 8 3 −3
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 1 −2 2 0 1
⎢−1 2⎥ ⎢ 0 −2⎥ ⎢−1 0⎥
D=⎢
⎣ 3
⎥, E=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 5 −3⎦, F = ⎣ 0
⎢ ⎥.
−2⎦ 0⎦
2 6 5 1 2 2

1. Find 2A. 2. Find −5A. 3. Find 3D.

4. Find 10E. 5. Find −F. 6. Find A + B.
7. Find C + A. 8. Find D + E. 9. Find D + F.
10. Find A + D. 11. Find A − B. 12. Find C − A.
13. Find D − E. 14. Find D − F. 15. Find 2A + 3B.
16. Find 3A − 2C. 17. Find 0.1A + 0.2C. 18. Find −2E + F.
19. Find X if A + X = B. 20. Find Y if 2B + Y = C.
21. Find X if 3D − X = E. 22. Find Y if E − 2Y = F.
23. Find R if 4A + 5R = 10C. 24. Find S if 3F − 2S = D.
25. Verify directly that (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
26. Verify directly that λ(A + B) = λA + λB.
27. Find 6A − θB if

   
θ2 2θ − 1 θ2 − 1 6
A= and B= .
4 1/θ 3/θ θ 3 + 2θ + 1

28. Prove Property (A1). 29. Prove Property (A3).

30. Prove Property (S2). 31. Prove Property (S3).
32. (a) Mr. Jones owns 200 shares of IBM and 150 shares of AT&T. Determine a
portfolio matrix that reflects Mr. Jones’ holdings.
(b) Over the next year, Mr. Jones triples his holdings in each company. What
is his new portfolio matrix?
 
(c) The following year Mr. Jones lists changes in his portfolio as −50 100 .
What is his new portfolio matrix?
 1.3 Matrix Multiplication 9

33. The inventory of an appliance store can be given by a 1 × 4 matrix in which

the first entry represents the number of television sets, the second entry the
number of air conditioners, the third entry the number of refrigerators, and
the fourth entry the number of dishwashers.
 
(a) Determine the inventory given on January 1 by 15 2 8 6 .
 
(b) January sales are given by 4 0 2 3 . What is the inventory matrix on
February 1?
 
(c) February sales are given by 5 0 3 3 , and new stock added in
February is given by 3 2 7 8 . What is the inventory matrix on
March 1?
34. The daily gasoline supply of a local service station is given by a 1 × 3 matrix
in which the first entry represents gallons of regular, the second entry gallons
of premium, and the third entry gallons of super.

(a) Determine  the supply of gasoline

 at the close of business on Monday
given by 14,000 8,000 6,000 .
 
(b) Tuesday’s sales are given by 3,500 2,000 1,500 . What is the inventory
matrix at day’s end?
 
(c) Wednesday’s sales are given by 5,000 1,500 1,200 . In addition, the
station received a delivery of 30,000 gallons of regular, 10,000 gallons of
premium, but no super. What is the inventory at day’s end?

35. On a recent shopping trip Mary purchased 6 oranges, a dozen grapefruits,

8 apples, and 3 lemons. John purchased 9 oranges, 2 grapefruits, and 6
apples. Express each of their purchases as 1 × 4 matrices. What is the physical
significance of the sum of these matrices?

1.3 Matrix Multiplication

Matrix multiplication is the first operation we encounter where our intuition fails.
First, two matrices are not multiplied together elementwise. Secondly, it is not
always possible to multiply matrices of the same order while it is possible to mul-
tiply certain matrices of different orders. Thirdly, if A and B are two matrices for
which multiplication is defined, it is generally not the case that AB = BA; that is,
matrix multiplication is not a commutative operation. There are other properties
of matrix multiplication, besides the three mentioned that defy our intuition, and
we shall illustrate them shortly. We begin by determining which matrices can be
multiplied.

Rule 1 The product of two matrices AB is defined if the number of columns

of A equals the number of rows of B.
10 Chapter 1 Matrices

Thus, if A and B are given by

⎡ ⎤
  −1 0 1 0
6 1 0
A= and B =⎣ 3 2 −2 1⎦, (6)
−1 2 1
4 1 1 0

then the product AB is defined since A has three columns and B has three rows.
The product BA, however, is not defined since B has four columns while A
has only two rows.
When the product is written AB, A is said to premultiply B while B is said to
postmultiply A.

Rule 2 If the product AB is defined, then the resultant matrix will have the same
number of rows as A and the same number of columns as B.
Thus, the product AB, where A and B are given in (6), will have two rows and
four columns since A has two rows and B has four columns.
An easy method of remembering these two rules is the following: write the
orders of the matrices on paper in the sequence in which the multiplication is to
be carried out; that is, if AB is to be found where A has order 2 × 3 and B has
order 3 × 4, write

(2 × 3)(3 × 4) (7)

If the two adjacent numbers (indicated in (7) by the curved arrow) are both equal
(in the case they are both three), the multiplication is defined. The order of the
product matrix is obtained by canceling the adjacent numbers and using the two
remaining numbers. Thus in (7), we cancel the adjacent 3’s and are left with 2 × 4,
which in this case, is the order of AB.
As a further example, consider the case where A is 4 × 3 matrix while B is
a 3 × 5 matrix. The product AB is defined since, in the notation (4 × 3)(3 × 5),
the adjacent numbers denoted by the curved arrow are equal. The product will
be a 4 × 5 matrix. The product BA however is not defined since in the notation
(3 × 5)(4 × 3) the adjacent numbers are not equal. In general, one may sche-
matically state the method as
(k × n)(n × p) = (k × p).

Rule 3 If the product AB = C is defined, where C is denoted by [cij ], then the

element cij is obtained by multiplying the elements in ith row of A by the corre-
sponding elements in the jth column of B and adding. Thus, if A has order k × n,
and B has order n × p, and
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 · · · a1n b11 b12 · · · b1p c11 c12 · · · c1p
⎢a ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 21 a22 · · · a2n ⎥ ⎢b21 b22 · · · b2p ⎥ ⎢c21 c22 · · · c2p ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ .. ⎥
⎢ . .. .. ⎥ ⎢ .. .. .. ⎥ ⎢ .. .. ⎥,
⎣ . . . ⎦⎣ . . . ⎦ ⎣ . . . ⎦
ak1 ak2 · · · akn bn1 bn2 · · · bnp ck1 ck2 · · · ckp
1.3 Matrix Multiplication 11

then c11 is obtained by multiplying the elements in the first row of A by the
corresponding elements in the first column of B and adding; hence,

c11 = a11 b11 + a12 b21 + · · · + a1n bn1 .

The element c12 is found by multiplying the elements in the first row of A by the
corresponding elements in the second column of B and adding; hence.

c12 = a11 b12 + a12 b22 + · · · + a1n bn2 .

The element ckp is obtained by multiplying the elements in the kth row of A by
the corresponding elements in the pth column of B and adding; hence,

ckp = ak1 b1p + ak2 b2p + · · · + akn bnp .

Example 1 Find AB and BA if

⎡ ⎤
  −7 −8
1 2 3
A= and B =⎣ 9 10⎦.
4 5 6
0 −11

Solution
⎡ ⎤
  −7 −8
1 2 3 ⎣
AB = 9 10⎦
4 5 6
0 −11
 
1(−7) + 2(9) + 3(0) 1(−8) + 2(10) + 3(−11)
=
4(−7) + 5(9) + 6(0) 4(−8) + 5(10) + 6(−11)
   
−7 + 18 + 0 −8 + 20 − 33 11 −21
= = ,
−28 + 45 + 0 −32 + 50 − 66 17 −48
⎡ ⎤
−7 −8  
⎣ ⎦ 1 2 3
BA = 9 10
4 5 6
0 −11
⎡ ⎤
(−7)1 + (−8)4 (−7)2 + (−8)5 (−7)3 + (−8)6
= ⎣ 9(1) + 10(4) 9(2) + 10(5) 9(3) + 10(6) ⎦
0(1) + (−11)4 0(2) + (−11)5 0(3) + (−11)6
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−7 − 32 −14 − 40 −21 − 48 −39 −54 −69
= ⎣ 9 + 40 18 + 50 27 + 60⎦ = ⎣ 49 68 87⎦. 
0 − 44 0 − 55 0 − 66 −44 −55 −66

The preceding three rules can be incorporated into the following formal
definition:
12 Chapter 1 Matrices

Definition 1 If A = [aij ] is a k × n matrix and B = [bij ] is an n × p matrix,

then the product AB is defined to be a k × p matrix C = [cij ] where
cij = nl=1 ail blj = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ain bnj (i = 1, 2, . . . , k; j = 1, 2, . . . , p).

Example 2 Find AB if
⎡ ⎤
2 1  
3 1 5 −1
A = ⎣−1 0⎦ and B= .
4 −2 1 0
3 1

Solution ⎡ ⎤
2 1  
⎣ ⎦ 3 1 5 −1
AB = −1 0
4 −2 1 0
3 1
⎡ ⎤
2(3) + 1(4) 2(1) + 1(−2) 2(5) + 1(1) 2(−1) + 1(0)
= ⎣−1(3) + 0(4) −1(1) + 0(−2) −1(5) + 0(1) −1(−1) + 0(0)⎦
3(3) + 1(4) 3(1) + 1(−2) 3(5) + 1(1) 3(−1) + 1(0)
⎡ ⎤
10 0 11 −2
= ⎣−3 −1 −5 1⎦.
13 1 16 −3

Note that in this example the product BA is not defined. 

Example 3 Find AB and BA if

   
2 1 4 0
A= and B= .
−1 3 1 2

Solution
      
2 1 4 0 2(4) + 1(1) 2(0) + 1(2) 9 2
AB = = = ;
−1 3 1 2 −1(4) + 3(1) −1(0) + 3(2) −1 6
      
4 0 2 1 4(2) + 0(−1) 4(1) + 0(3) 8 4
BA = = = .
1 2 −1 3 1(2) + 2(−1) 1(1) + 2(3) 0 7

This, therefore, is an example where both products AB and BA are defined but
unequal. 

Example 4 Find AB and BA if

   
3 1 1 1
A= and B= .
0 4 0 2
1.3 Matrix Multiplication 13

Solution
   
3 1 1 1 3 5
AB = = ,
0 4 0 2 0 8
    
1 1 3 1 3 5
BA = = .
0 2 0 4 0 8

This, therefore, is an example where both products AB and BA are defined and
equal. 

In general, it can be shown that matrix multiplication has the following

properties:
(M1) A(BC) = (AB)C (Associative Law)
(M2) A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left Distributive Law)
(M3) (B + C)A = BA + CA (Right Distributive Law)
providing that the matrices A, B, C have the correct order so that the above
multiplications and additions are defined. The one basic property that matrix
multiplication does not possess is commutativity; that is, in general, AB does not
equal BA (see Example 3). We hasten to add, however, that while matrices in
general do not commute, it may very well be the case that, given two particular
matrices, they do commute as can be seen from Example 4.
Commutativity is not the only property that matrix multiplication lacks. We
know from our experiences with real numbers that if the product xy = 0, then
either x = 0 or y = 0 or both are zero. Matrices do not possess this property as the
following example shows:

Example 5 Find AB if

   
4 2 3 −4
A= and B= .
2 1 −6 8

Solution
    
4 2 3 −4 4(3) + 2(−6) 4(−4) + 2(8)
AB = =
2 1 −6 8 2(3) + 1(−6) 2(−4) + 1(8)
 
0 0
= .
0 0

Thus, even though neither A nor B is zero, their product is zero. 

14 Chapter 1 Matrices

One final “unfortunate” property of matrix multiplication is that the equation

AB = AC does not imply B = C.

Example 6 Find AB and AC if

     
4 2 1 1 2 2
A= , B= , C= .
2 1 2 1 0 −1

Solution
      
4 2 1 1 4(1) + 2(2) 4(1) + 2(1) 8 6
AB = = = ;
2 1 2 1 2(1) + 1(2) 2(1) + 1(1) 4 3
      
4 2 2 2 4(2) + 2(0) 4(2) + 2(−1) 8 6
AC = = = .
2 1 0 −1 2(2) + 1(0) 2(2) + 1(−1) 4 3

Thus, cancellation is not a valid operation in the matrix algebra. 

The reader has no doubt wondered why this seemingly complicated procedure
for matrix multiplication has been introduced when the more obvious methods
of multiplying matrices termwise could be used. The answer lies in systems of
simultaneous linear equations. Consider the set of simultaneous linear equations
given by

5x − 3y + 2z = 14,
x + y − 4z = −7, (8)
7x − 3z = 1.

This system can easily be solved by the method of substitution. Matrix algebra,
however, will give us an entirely new method for obtaining the solution.
Consider the matrix equation

Ax = b (9)

where
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5 −3 2 x 14
A = ⎣1 1 −4⎦, x = ⎣y⎦, and b = ⎣−7⎦.
7 0 −3 z 1

Here A, called the coefficient matrix, is simply the matrix whose elements are the
coefficients of the unknowns x, y, z in (8). (Note that we have been very care-
ful to put all the x coefficients in the first column, all the y coefficients in the
second column, and all the z coefficients in the third column. The zero in the
(3, 2) entry appears because the y coefficient in the third equation of system (8)
1.3 Matrix Multiplication 15

is zero.) x and b are obtained in the obvious manner. One note of warning: there
is a basic difference between the unknown matrix x in (9) and the unknown vari-
able x. The reader should be especially careful not to confuse their respective
identities.
Now using our definition of matrix multiplication, we have that

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5 −3 2 x (5)(x) + (−3)(y) + (2)(z)
Ax = ⎣1 1 −4⎦ ⎣y⎦ = ⎣(1)(x) + (1)(y) + (−4)(z)⎦
7 0 −3 z (7)(x) + (0)(y) + (−3)(z)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5x − 3y + 2z 14
= ⎣ x + y − 4z ⎦ = ⎣−7⎦. (10)
7x − 3z 1

Using the definition of matrix equality, we see that (10) is precisely system (8).
Thus (9) is an alternate way of representing the original system. It should come
as no surprise, therefore, that by redefining the matrices A, x, b, appropriately, we
can represent any system of simultaneous linear equations by the matrix equation
Ax = b.

Example 7 Put the following system into matrix form:

x − y + z + w = 5,
2x + y− z = 4,
3x + 2y + 2w = 0,
x − 2y + 3z + 4w = −1.

Solution Define
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −1 1 1 x 5
⎢2 1 −1 0⎥ ⎢y⎥ ⎢ 4⎥
A =⎢
⎣3
⎥, x =⎢ ⎥
⎣ z ⎦, b =⎢
⎣ 0⎦.
⎥
2 0 2⎦
1 −2 3 4 w −1

The original system is then equivalent to the matrix system Ax = b. 

Unfortunately, we are not yet in a position to solve systems that are in matrix
form Ax = b. One method of solution depends upon the operation of inversion,
and we must postpone a discussion of it until the inverse has been defined. For
the present, however, we hope that the reader will be content with the knowl-
edge that matrix multiplication, as we have defined it, does serve some useful
purpose.
16 Chapter 1 Matrices

Problems 1.3
1. The order of A is 2 × 4, the order of B is 4 × 2, the order of C is 4 × 1, the
order of D is 1 × 2, and the order of E is 4 × 4. Find the orders of

(a) AB, (b) BA, (c) AC, (d) CA,

(e) CD, (f) AE, (g) EB, (h) EA,
(i) ABC, (j) DAE, (k) EBA, (l) EECD.
In Problems 2 through 19, let
     
1 2 5 6 −1 0 1
A= , B= , C= ,
3 4 7 8 3 −2 1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 −2 2 1 0 1 2
D = ⎣−1 2⎦, E = ⎣ 0 −2 −1⎦, F = ⎣−1 −1 0⎦,
2 −2 1 0 1 1 2 3
X = [1 − 2], Y = [1 2 1].

2. Find AB. 3. Find BA. 4. Find AC.

5. Find BC. 6. Find CB. 7. Find XA.

8. Find XB. 9. Find XC. 10. Find AX.

11. Find CD. 12. Find DC. 13. Find YD.

14. Find YC. 15. Find DX. 16. Find XD.

17. Find EF. 18. Find FE. 19. Find YF.

20. Find AB if
   
2 6 3 −6
A= and B= .
3 9 −1 2

Note that AB = 0 but neither A nor B equals the zero matrix.

21. Find AB and CB if
     
3 2 2 4 1 6
A= , B= , C= .
1 0 1 2 3 −4

Thus show that AB = CB but A  = C

22. Compute the product
  
1 2 x
.
3 4 y
1.3 Matrix Multiplication 17

23. Compute the product

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
1 0 −1 x
⎣3 1 1⎦ ⎣y⎦.
1 3 0 z

24. Compute the product

  
a11 a12 x
.
a21 a22 y

25. Compute the product

⎡ ⎤
  2
b11 b12 b13 ⎣−1⎦.
b21 b22 b23
3

26. Evaluate the expression A2 − 4A − 5I for the matrix∗

 
1 2
A= .
4 3

27. Evaluate the expression (A − I)(A + 2I) for the matrix∗

 
3 5
A= .
−2 4

28. Evaluate the expression (I − A)(A2 − I) for the matrix∗

⎡ ⎤
2 −1 1
A = ⎣3 −2 1⎦.
0 0 1

29. Verify property (M1) for

     
2 1 0 1 5 1
A= , B= , C= .
1 3 −1 4 2 1

30. Prove Property (M2).

31. Prove Property (M3).
32. Put the following system of equations into matrix form:
2x + 3y = 10,
4x − 5y = 11.

∗ I is defined in Section 1.4

18 Chapter 1 Matrices

33. Put the following system of equations into matrix form:

x + z + y = 2,
3z + 2x + y = 4,
y + x = 0.

34. Put the following system of equations into matrix form:

5x + 3y + 2z + 4w = 5,
x + y+ w = 0,
3x + 2y + 2z = −3,
x+ y + 2z + 3w = 4.

35. The price schedule for a Chicago to Los Angeles flight is given by P =
[200 350 500], where the matrix elements pertain, respectively, to coach
tickets, business-class tickets, and first-class tickets. The number of tickets
purchased in each category for a particular flight is given by
⎡ ⎤
130
N = ⎣ 20⎦.
10

Compute the products (a) PN, and (b) NP, and determine their significance.
36. The closing prices of a person’s portfolio during the past week are given by
the matrix
⎡ ⎤
40 40 21 40 78 41 41
⎢ 1 ⎥
P=⎢ ⎣ 43 3 5
8 3 1
2 4 3 7 ⎥,
8⎦
10 9 43 10 18 10 9 58

where the columns pertain to the days of the week, Monday through Friday,
and the rows pertain to the prices of Orchard Fruits, Lion Airways, and
Arrow Oil. The person’s holdings in each of these companies are given by
the matrix H = [100 500 400]. Compute the products (a) HP, and (b) PH,
and determine their significance.
37. The time requirements for a company to produce three products is given by
the matrix
⎡ ⎤
0.2 0.5 0.4
T = ⎣1.2 2.3 0.7⎦,
0.8 3.1 1.2

where the rows pertain to lamp bases, cabinets, and tables, respectively. The
columns pertain to the hours of labor required for cutting the wood, assem-
bling, and painting, respectively. The hourly wages of a carpenter to cut wood,
 1.4 Special Matrices 19

of a craftsperson to assemble a product, and of a decorator to paint is given,

respectively, by the elements of the matrix
⎡ ⎤
10.50
W = ⎣14.00⎦.
12.25

Compute the product TW and determine its significance.

38. Continuing with the data given in the previous problem, assume further that
the number of items on order for lamp bases, cabinets, and tables, respectively,
is given by the matrix O = [1000 100 200]. Compute the product OTW,
and determine its significance.
39. The results of a flu epidemic at a college campus are collected in the matrix
⎡ ⎤
0.20 0.20 0.15 0.15
F = ⎣0.10 0.30 0.30 0.40⎦.
0.70 0.50 0.55 0.45

The elements denote percents converted to decimals. The columns pertain

to freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors, respectively, while the rows
represent bedridden students, infected but ambulatory students, and well stu-
dents, respectively. The male–female composition of each class is given by the
matrix
⎡ ⎤
1050 950
⎢1100 1050⎥
C=⎢ ⎣ 360
⎥.
500⎦
860 1000

Compute the product FC, and determine its significance.

1.4 Special Matrices

There are certain types of matrices that occur so frequently that it becomes advis-
able to discuss them separately. One such type is the transpose. Given a matrix A,
the transpose of A, denoted by AT and read A-transpose, is obtained by changing
all the rows of A into columns of AT while preserving the order; hence, the first
row of A becomes the first column of AT , while the second row of A becomes
the second column of AT , and the last row of A becomes the last column of AT .
Thus if
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 1 4 7
A = ⎣4 5 6⎦, then AT = ⎣2 5 8⎦
7 8 9 3 6 9
20 Chapter 1 Matrices

and if
⎡ ⎤
  1 5
1 2 3 4 ⎢2 6⎥
A= , then A = ⎢
T
⎣3
⎥.
5 6 7 8 7⎦
4 8
Definition 1 If A, denoted by [aij ] is an n × p matrix, then the transpose of A,
denoted by AT = [aijT ] is a p × n matrix where aijT = aji .

It can be shown that the transpose possesses the following properties:

(1) (AT )T = A,
(2) (λA)T = λAT where λ represents a scalar,
(3) (A + B)T = AT + BT ,
(4) (A + B + C)T = AT + BT + CT ,
(5) (AB)T = BT AT ,
(6) (ABC)T = CT BT AT
Transposes of sums and products of more than three matrices are defined in the
obvious manner. We caution the reader to be alert to the ordering of properties (5)
and (6). In particular, one should be aware that the transpose of a product is not
the product of the transposes but rather the commuted product of the transposes.

Example 1 Find (AB)T and BT AT if

   
3 0 −1 2 1
A= and B= .
4 1 3 −1 0

Solution ⎤ ⎡
 −3 −1
−3 6 3
AB = (AB) = ⎣ 6 , 7⎦; T
−1 7 4
3 4
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 3   −3 −1
3 4
BT AT = ⎣ 2 −1⎦ =⎣ 6 7⎦.
0 1
1 0 3 4

Note that (AB)T = BT AT but AT BT is not defined. 

A zero row in a matrix is a row containing only zeros, while a nonzero row is
one that contains at least one nonzero element. A matrix is in row-reduced form
if it satisfies four conditions:

(R1) All zero rows appear below nonzero rows when both types are present in
the matrix.
(R2) The first nonzero element in any nonzero row is unity.
1.4 Special Matrices 21

(R3) All elements directly below ( that is, in the same column but in succeeding
rows from) the first nonzero element of a nonzero row are zero.
(R4) The first nonzero element of any nonzero row appears in a later column
(further to the right) than the first nonzero element in any preceding row.

Such matrices are invaluable for solving sets of simultaneous linear equations and
developing efficient algorithms for performing important matrix operations. We
shall have much more to say on these matters in later chapters. Here we are simply
interested in recognizing when a given matrix is or is not in row-reduced form.

Example 2 Determine which of the following matrices are in row-reduced form:

⎡ ⎤
1 1 −2 4 7 ⎡ ⎤
⎢0 1 2 3
⎢ 0 −6 5 7⎥⎥,
A=⎣ B = ⎣0 0 0⎦,
0 0 0 0 0⎦
0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 4 −1 −2 3 3
C = ⎣0 0 1 2⎦, D=⎣ 0 0 1 −3⎦.
0 1 0 5 0 0 1 0

Solution Matrix A is not in row-reduced form because the first nonzero element
of the second row is not unity. This violates (R2). If a23 had been unity instead of
−6, then the matrix would be in row-reduced form. Matrix B is not in row-reduced
form because the second row is a zero row and it appears before the third row
which is a nonzero row. This violates (R1). If the second and third rows had been
interchanged, then the matrix would be in row-reduced form. Matrix C is not in
row-reduced form because the first nonzero element in row two appears in a later
column, column 3, than the first nonzero element of row three. This violates (R4).
If the second and third rows had been interchanged, then the matrix would be in
row-reduced form. Matrix D is not in row-reduced form because the first nonzero
element in row two appears in the third column, and everything below d23 is not
zero. This violates (R3). Had the 3–3 element been zero instead of unity, then the
matrix would be in row-reduced form. 

For the remainder of this section, we concern ourselves with square matrices;
that is, matrices having the same number of rows as columns. A diagonal matrix is
a square matrix all of whose elements are zero except possibly those on the main
diagonal. (Recall that the main diagonal consists of all the diagonal elements
a11 , a22 , a33 , and so on.) Thus,
⎡ ⎤
  3 0 0
5 0 ⎣0
and 3 0⎦
0 −1
0 0 3
22 Chapter 1 Matrices

are both diagonal matrices of order 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 respectively. The zero matrix
is the special diagonal matrix having all the elements on the main diagonal equal
to zero.
An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix worthy of special consideration. Des-
ignated by I, an identity is defined to be a diagonal matrix having all diagonal
elements equal to one. Thus,
⎡ ⎤
  1 0 0 0
1 0 ⎢0 1 0 0⎥
and ⎢ ⎣0 0 1 0⎦
⎥
0 1
0 0 0 1

are the 2 × 2 and 4 × 4 identities respectively. The identity is perhaps the most
important matrix of all. If the identity is of the appropriate order so that the
following multiplication can be carried out, then for any arbitrary matrix A,

AI = A and IA = A.

A symmetric matrix is a matrix that is equal to its transpose while a skew symmetric
matrix is a matrix that is equal to the negative of its transpose. Thus, a matrix A
is symmetric if A = AT while it is skew symmetric if A = −AT . Examples of each
are respectively
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 0 2 −3
⎣2 4 5⎦ and ⎣−2 0 1⎦.
3 5 6 3 −1 0

A matrix A = [aij ] is called lower triangular if aij = 0 for j > i (that is, if all the
elements above the main diagonal are zero) and upper triangular if aij = 0 for i > j
(that is, if all the elements below the main diagonal are zero).
Examples of lower and upper triangular matrices are, respectively,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5 0 0 0 −1 2 4 1
⎢−1 2 0 0⎥ ⎢ 0 1 3 −1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 0 1 3 0⎦ and ⎣ 0 0 2 5⎦
2 1 4 1 0 0 0 5

Theorem 1 The product of two lower (upper) triangular matrices is also lower
(upper) triangular.

Proof. Let A and B both be n × n lower triangular matrices. Set C = AB. We

need to show that C is lower triangular, or equivalently, that cij = 0 when i < j.
Now,


n 
j−1 
n
cij = aik bkj = aik bkj + aik bkj .
k=1 k=1 k=j
1.4 Special Matrices 23

We are given that aik = 0 when i < k, and bkj = 0 when k < j, because both A and
B are lower triangular. Thus,


j−1 
j−1
aik bkj = aik (0) = 0
k=1 k=1

because k is always less than j. Furthermore, if we restrict i < j, then


n 
n
aik bkj = (0)bkj = 0
k=j k=j

because k ≥ j > i. Therefore, cij = 0 when i < j.

Finally, we define positive integral powers of a matrix in the obvious manner:
A2 = AA, A3 = AAA and, in general, if n is a positive integer,

An = AA . . . A.
 
n times

Thus, if
      
1 −2 1 −2 1 −2 −1 −8
A= , then A2 = = .
1 3 1 3 1 3 4 7

It follows directly from Property 5 that

(A2 )T = (AA)T = AT AT = (AT )2 .

We can generalize this result to the following property for any integral posi-
tive power n:

(7) (An )T = (AT )n .

Problems 1.4
1. Verify that (A + B)T = AT + BT where
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 5 −1 6 1 3
A = ⎣2 1 3⎦ and B = ⎣ 2 0 −1⎦.
0 7 −8 −1 −7 2

2. Verify that (AB)T = BT AT , where

⎡ ⎤
t t2  
3 t t+1 0
A = ⎣1 2t ⎦ and B = .
t 2t t2 t3
1 0
24 Chapter 1 Matrices

3. Simplify the following expressions:

(a) (ABT )T , (b) AT + (A + BT )T ,
(c) (AT (B + CT ))T , (d) ((AB)T + C)T ,
(e) ((A + AT )(A − AT ))T .

4. Find XT X and XXT when

⎡ ⎤
2
X = ⎣3⎦.
4

5. Find XT X and XXT when X = [1 −2 3 −4].

6. Find XT AX when
   
2 3 x
A= and X = .
3 4 y

7. Determine which, if any, of the following matrices are in row-reduced form:

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 1 0 4 −7 1 1 0 4 −7
⎢0 0 0 1 2⎥ ⎢0 1 0 1 2⎥
A =⎢⎣0 0
⎥, B =⎢ ⎥,
0 0 1⎦ ⎣0 0 1 0 1⎦
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 4 −7 0 1 0 4 −7
⎢0 1 0 1 2⎥ ⎢0 0 0 0 0⎥
C =⎢⎣0 0
⎥, D =⎢ ⎥,
0 0 1⎦ ⎣0 0 0 0 1⎦
0 0 0 1 −5 0 0 0 0 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 3
E = ⎣0 2 2⎦, F = ⎣0 0 0⎦, G = ⎣0 0 1⎦,
0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2
H = ⎣0 1 0⎦, J = ⎣1 0 2⎦, K = ⎣0 −1 1⎦,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 1
⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0
⎢ ⎥
L = ⎣0 2 0⎦, M = ⎣0 1 1 ,
4⎦
N = ⎣0 0 1⎦,
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
       
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 12
Q= , R= , S= , T= .
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

8. Determine which, if any, of the matrices in Problem 7 are upper triangular.

9. Must a square matrix in row-reduced form necessarily be upper triangular?
1.4 Special Matrices 25

10. Must an upper triangular matrix necessarily be in row-reduced form?

11. Can a matrix be both upper and lower triangular simultaneously?
12. Show that AB = BA, where
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 0 5 0 0
A=⎣ 0 3 0⎦ and B = ⎣0 3 0⎦.
0 0 1 0 0 2

13. Prove that if A and B are diagonal matrices of the same order, then AB = BA.
14. Does a 2 × 2 diagonal matrix commute with every other 2 × 2 matrix?
15. Compute the products AD and BD for the matrices

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 0 1 2 2 0 0
A = ⎣1 1 1⎦, B = ⎣3 4 5⎦, D = ⎣0 3 0⎦.
1 1 1 6 7 8 0 0 −5

What conclusions can you make about postmultiplying a square matrix by a

diagonal matrix?
16. Compute the products DA and DB for the matrices defined in Problem 15.
What conclusions can you make about premultiplying a square matrix by a
diagonal matrix?
17. Prove that if a 2 × 2 matrix A commutes with every 2 × 2 diagonal matrix, then
A must also be diagonal. Hint: Consider, in particular, the diagonal matrix

 
1 0
D= .
0 0

18. Prove that if an n × n matrix A commutes with every n × n diagonal matrix,

then A must also be diagonal.
19. Compute D2 and D3 for the matrix D defined in Problem 15.
20. Find A3 if
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0
A = ⎣0 2 0⎦.
0 0 3

21. Using the results of Problems 19 and 20 as a guide, what can be said about Dn
if D is a diagonal matrix and n is a positive integer?
22. Prove that if D = [dij ] is a diagonal matrix, then D2 = [dij2 ].
26 Chapter 1 Matrices

23. Calculate D50 − 5D35 + 4I, where

⎡ ⎤
0 0 0
D = ⎣0 1 0⎦.
0 0 −1

24. A square matrix A is nilpotent if An = 0 for some positive integer n. If n is

the smallest positive integer for which An = 0 then A is nilpotent of index n.
Show that
⎡ ⎤
−1 −1 −3
A = ⎣−5 −2 −6⎦
2 1 3

is nilpotent of index 3.
25. Show that
⎡ ⎤
0 1 0 0
⎢0 0 1 0⎥
A =⎢
⎣0
⎥
0 0 1⎦
0 0 0 0

is nilpotent. What is its index?

26. Prove that if A is a square matrix, then B = (A + AT )/2 is a symmetric matrix.
27. Prove that if A is a square matrix, then C = (A − AT )/2 is a skew symmetric
matrix.
28. Using the results of the preceding two problems, prove that any square matrix
can be written as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix.
29. Write the matrix A in Problem 1 as the sum of a symmetric matrix and skew-
symmetric matrix.
30. Write the matrix B in Problem 1 as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a
skew-symmetric matrix.
31. Prove that if A is any matrix, then AAT is symmetric.
32. Prove that the diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix must be zero.
33. Prove that the transpose of an upper triangular matrix is lower triangular, and
vice versa.
34. If P = [pij ] is a transition matrix for a Markov chain (see Problem 16 of Sec-
tion 1.1), then it can be shown with elementary probability theory that the
i − j element of P2 denotes the probability of an object moving from state i
to stage j over two time periods. More generally, the i − j element of Pn for
any positive integer n denotes the probability of an object moving from state
i to state j over n time periods.
1.4 Special Matrices 27

(a) Calculate P2 and P3 for the two-state transition matrix

 
0.1 0.9
P= .
0.4 0.6

(b) Determine the probability of an object beginning in state 1 and ending in

state 1 after two time periods.
(c) Determine the probability of an object beginning in state 1 and ending in
state 2 after two time periods.
(d) Determine the probability of an object beginning in state 1 and ending in
state 2 after three time periods.
(e) Determine the probability of an object beginning in state 2 and ending in
state 2 after three time periods.

35. Consider a two-state Markov chain. List the number of ways an object in state
1 can end in state 1 after three time periods.
36. Consider the Markov chain described in Problem 16 of Section 1.1. Determine
(a) the probability that a family living in the city will find themselves in the
suburbs after two years, and (b) the probability that a family living in the
suburbs will find themselves living in the city after two years.
37. Consider the Markov chain described in Problem 17 of Section 1.1. Deter-
mine (a) the probability that there will be a Republican mayor eight years
after a Republican mayor serves, and (b) the probability that there will be a
Republican mayor 12 years after a Republican mayor serves.
38. Consider the Markov chain described in Problem 18 of Section 1.1. It is known
that this year the apple harvest was poor. Determine (a) the probability that
next year’s harvest will be poor, and (b) the probability that the harvest in
two years will be poor.
39. Consider the Markov chain described in Problem 19 of Section 1.1. Determine
(a) the probability that a brand X customer will be a brand X customer after
4 years, (b) after 6 years, and (c) the probability that a brand X customer will
be a brand Y customer after 4 years.
40. A graph consists of a set of nodes, which we shall designate by positive integers,
and a set of arcs that connect various pairs of nodes. An adjacency matrix M
associated with a particular graph is defined by

mij = number of distinct arcs connecting node i to node j

(a) Construct an adjacency matrix for the graph shown in Figure 1.1.
(b) Calculate M2 , and note that the i − j element of M2 is the number of
paths consisting of two arcs that connect node i to node j.
28 Chapter 1 Matrices

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

41. (a) Construct an adjacency matrix M for the graph shown in Figure 1.2.
(b) Calculate M2 , and use that matrix to determine the number of paths
consisting of two arcs that connect node 1 to node 5.
(c) Calculate M3 , and use that matrix to determine the number of paths
consisting of three arcs that connect node 2 to node 4.

Figure 1.3

42. Figure 1.3 depicts a road network linking various cities. A traveler in city 1
needs to drive to city 7 and would like to do so by passing through the least
 1.5 Submatrices and Partitioning 29

number of intermediate cities. Construct an adjacency matrix for this road

network. Consider powers of this matrix to solve the traveler’s problem.

1.5 Submatrices and Partitioning

Given any matrix A, a submatrix of A is a matrix obtained from A by the removal

of any number of rows or columns. Thus, if
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 4  
⎢ 5 6 7 8⎥
A =⎢ ⎥, B = 10 12 , and C = [2 3 4], (11)
⎣ 9 10 11 12⎦ 14 16
13 14 15 16

then B and C are both submatrices of A. Here B was obtained by removing from
A the first and second rows together with the first and third columns, while C was
obtained by removing from A the second, third, and fourth rows together with the
first column. By removing no rows and no columns from A, it follows that A is a
submatrix of itself.
A matrix is said to be partitioned if it is divided into submatrices by horizontal
and vertical lines between the rows and columns. By varying the choices of where
to put the horizontal and vertical lines, one can partition a matrix in many different
ways. Thus,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
⎢ 5 6 7 8⎥ ⎢ 5 6 7 8⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 9 10 11 12⎦ and ⎣ 9 10 11 12⎦
13 14 15 16 13 14 15 16

are examples of two different partitions of the matrix A given in (11).

If partitioning is carried out in a particularly judicious manner, it can be a great
help in matrix multiplication. Consider the case where the two matrices A and B
are to be multiplied together. If we partition both A and B into four submatrices,
respectively, so that
   
C D G H
A= and B =
E F J K

where C through K represent submatrices, then the product AB may be obtained

by simply carrying out the multiplication as if the submatrices were themselves
elements. Thus,
 
CG + DJ CH + DK
AB = , (12)
EG + FJ EH + FK
providing the partitioning was such that the indicated multiplications are defined.
It is not unusual to need products of matrices having thousands of rows and
thousands of columns. Problem 42 of Section 1.4 dealt with a road network con-
necting seven cities. A similar network for a state with connections between all
30 Chapter 1 Matrices

cities in the state would have a very large adjacency matrix associated with it, and
its square is then the product of two such matrices. If we expand the network
to include the entire United States, the associated matrix is huge, with one row
and one column for each city and town in the country. Thus, it is not difficult to
visualize large matrices that are too big to be stored in the internal memory of any
modern day computer. And yet the product of such matrices must be computed.
The solution procedure is partitioning. Large matrices are stored in external
memory on peripheral devices, such as disks, and then partitioned. Appropriate
submatrices are fetched from the peripheral devices as needed, computed, and the
results again stored on the peripheral devices. An example is the product given in
(12). If A and B are too large for the internal memory of a particular computer,
but C through K are not, then the partitioned product can be computed. First,
C and G are fetched from external memory and multiplied; the product is then
stored in external memory. Next, D and J are fetched and multiplied. Then, the
product CG is fetched and added to the product DJ. The result, which is the first
partition of AB, is then stored in external memory, and the process continues.

Example 1 Find AB if
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 1 2 1 3 2
A = ⎣1 4 −1⎦ and B = ⎣−1 0 1⎦.
3 1 2 0 1 1

Solution We first partition A and B in the following manner

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 1 2 1 3 2
A= ⎣1 4 −1⎦ and B = ⎣−1 0 1⎦;
3 1 2 0 1 1

then,
⎡           ⎤
3 1 1 3 2   3 1 2 2  
⎢ + 0 1 + 1 ⎥
⎢ 1 4 −1 0 −1 1 4 1 −1 ⎥
AB = ⎢     ⎥
⎣   1 3      2    ⎦
3 1 + 2 0 1 3 1 + 2 1
−1 0 1
⎡         ⎤
2 9 0 2 7 2
⎢ + +
=⎣ −3 3 0 −1 6 −1 ⎥⎦
       
2 9 + 0 2 7 + 2

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 11 9 2 11 9
= ⎣−3 2 5⎦ = ⎣−3 2 5⎦. 
2 11 9 2 11 9
1.5 Submatrices and Partitioning 31

Example 2 Find AB if
⎡ ⎤
3 1 0 ⎡ ⎤
⎢2 0 0⎥ 2 1 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥
A =⎢
⎢0 0 3⎥⎥ and B = ⎣−1 1 0 0 0⎦.
⎣0 0 1⎦ 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0

Solution From the indicated partitions, we find that

⎡           ⎤
3 1 2 1 0   3 1 0 0 0 0  
+ 0 1 + 0 0 1
⎢ 2 0 −1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢           ⎥
⎢   ⎥
⎢ 0 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 3   ⎥
AB = ⎢ + 0 1 + 0 0 1 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 −1 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎢     ⎥
⎣   2 1      0 0 0    ⎦
0 0 + 0 0 1 0 0 + 0 0 0 1
−1 1 0 0 0

⎡         ⎤
5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+ +
⎢ 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢         ⎥
⎢ ⎥
AB = ⎢ 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 ⎥
⎢ + + ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎦
       
0 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5 4 0 0 0 5 4 0 0 0
⎢4 2 0 0 0⎥ ⎢4 2 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
=⎢
⎢0 3 0 0 3⎥ ⎢
⎥ = ⎢0 3 0 0 3⎥⎥.
⎣0 1 0 0 1⎦ ⎣0 1 0 0 1⎦
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Note that we partitioned in order to make maximum of the zero submatrices of

both A and B. 

A matrix A that can be partitioned into the form

⎡ ⎤
A1
⎢ A2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ A3 0 ⎥
A=⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎣ .. ⎦
0 An

is called block diagonal. Such matrices are particularly easy to multiply because
in partitioned form they act as diagonal matrices.
32 Chapter 1 Matrices

Problems 1.5
1. Which of the following are submatrices of the given A and why?
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3
A = ⎣4 5 6⎦
7 8 9

     
1 3   1 2 4 6
(a) (b) 1 (c) (d) .
7 9 8 9 7 9

2. Determine all possible submatrices of

 
a b
A= .
c d

3. Given the matrices A and B (as shown), find AB using the partitionings
indicated:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −1 2 5 2 0 2
A = ⎣3 0 4⎦, B = ⎣1 −1 3 1⎦.
0 1 2 0 1 1 4

4. Partition the given matrices A and B and, using the results, find AB.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 1 0 0 3 2 0 0
⎢2 2 0 0⎥ ⎢−1 1 0 0⎥
A =⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 1 0⎦, B = ⎣ 0 0 2
⎢ ⎥.
1⎦
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 −1

5. Compute A2 for the matrix A given in Problem 4 by partitioning A into block

diagonal form.
6. Compute B2 for the matrix B given in Problem 4 by partitioning B into block
diagonal form.
7. Use partitioning to compute A2 and A3 for
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0 0 0
⎢0 2 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 1 0 0⎥
A =⎢⎢0 0 0 0
⎥.
⎢ 1 0⎥⎥
⎣0 0 0 0 0 1⎦
0 0 0 0 0 0

What is An for any positive integral power of n > 3?

 1.6 Vectors 33

8. Use partitioning to compute A2 and A3 for

⎡ ⎤
0 −1 0 0 0 0 0
⎢−1 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 2 −2 −4 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
A =⎢
⎢ 0 0 −1 3 4 0 0⎥⎥.
⎢ 0 0 1 −2 −3 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0⎦
0 0 0 0 0 0 −1

What is An for any positive integral power of n?

1.6 Vectors
Definition 1 A vector is a 1 × n or n × 1 matrix.

A 1 × n matrix is called a row vector while an n × 1 matrix is a column vector. The

elements are called the components of the vector while the number of components
in the vector, in this case n, is its dimension. Thus,
⎡ ⎤
1
⎣2⎦
3

is an example of a 3-dimensional column vector, while

 
t 2t −t 0

is an example of a 4-dimensional row vector.

The reader who is already familiar with vectors will notice that we have not
defined vectors as directed line segments. We have done this intentionally, first
because in more than three dimensions this geometric interpretation loses its sig-
nificance, and second, because in the general mathematical framework, vectors
are not directed line segments. However, the idea of representing a finite dimen-
sional vector by its components and hence as a matrix is one that is acceptable
to the scientist, engineer, and mathematician. Also, as a bonus, since a vector is
nothing more than a special matrix, we have already defined scalar multiplication,
vector addition, and vector equality.
A vector y (vectors will be designated by boldface lowercase letters) has asso-
ciated with it a nonnegative number called its magnitude or length designated
by y.

Definition 2 If y = [y1 y2 . . . yn ] then y = (y1 )2 + (y2 )2 + · · · + (yn )2 .
Other documents randomly have
different content
minute later,” exclaimed grandmother for about the twentieth time;
and she proceeded to give the same instructions and many more to
Jo Perkins.

Joshua had harnessed the most reliable old horse in his stable to the
wagon that was to be entrusted to Jo Perkins’s care for a whole
afternoon—a horse that had never been known to look twice at any
object and which would have been perfectly content to sleep
through the day as well as the night. He lumbered over the country
road at an easy trot, and when they were only half-way to the
village Christopher looked over his shoulder and spied Jo Perkins
speedily overtaking them on his bicycle.

“Oh, I say, Josh, make him go, Perk’s coming. Don’t let him catch
up,” and he squirmed on his seat with excitement.

Joshua good-naturedly urged the horse into a swifter trot, then into
a clumsy gallop as Jo Perkins bore down upon them over the level
road. Jane clasped Sally tight to her breast with one hand while she
hung on with the other. The road was still level and Perk was gaining
steadily. He was bent double over the handle bars, pedalling
frantically. Soon a long, gently sloping hill gave the horse the
advantage, for he kept up his easy gallop, while Perk dropped far
behind, laboring hard. Christopher sent a derisive yell after him, but
he rejoiced too soon. Jane had more foresight. She remembered the
down slope on the other side of the ridge.

“Perk’s going to beat,” she declared calmly, “’cause Josh won’t let the
horse trot down-hill.”

“Oh, Josh, do, just this once,” urged Christopher, almost falling off
the seat in his excitement. “It won’t hurt his old knees just for once.”

But Joshua was firm.

“I’m not going to abuse your gran’pa’s horses,” he said severely,

permitting the horse to slacken his pace to a walk. “An’ what’s more,
you’ve got to promise me, honest Injun, that you an’ Perk won’t let
him trot down any hills, nor run races.”

“We aren’t going down any hills,” answered Christopher sulkily.

He looked over his shoulder again and saw Perk appear at the top of
the hill, red-faced and panting. With a hoot of triumph, the boy
cocked his knees over the handle bars and whirled down the hill,
letting the pedals take care of themselves.

“Yah!” wailed Christopher, “he’s coasting! He’ll pass us like greased

lightning.” And as he spoke, Perk flashed by them, an exultant grin
on his face.

“Ah, you think you’re smart!” jeered Christopher in a vexed tone.

But pride always has a fall. As Perk reached the bottom of the hill he
glanced back to see how much of a gain he had made, and the
wheel of his bicycle struck a large stone in the road. Over toppled
Perk on his head, tumbling into a heap by the roadside. Jane
screamed and even Joshua was startled. He urged the horse into a
trot again.

“Oh, Perk’s not hurt!” declared Christopher scornfully. “A fellow can

stand lots worse croppers than that.”

And Perk was not hurt. By the time they reached him he had
scrambled to his feet and was examining his bicycle to see if any
harm had come to it. But he rode quietly behind the wagon all the
rest of the way into the village.

Billy Carpenter was standing in front of his gate, watching for them,
and the impatient Christopher could hardly wait while Perk stowed
his bicycle in Mr. Carpenter’s barn and Joshua escorted Jane to Mrs.
Parsons’ front door.
“You’re in an awful hurry to have me go,” Jane exclaimed to
Christopher, a bit jealously.

For a moment she forgot Sally’s birthday party, and wished she was
going on the picnic too. It hurt to think that perhaps Christopher did
not want her—was glad she was not going. He really acted as if he
were!

But her disappointment soon vanished—vanished the moment she

set foot in Mrs. Hartwell-Jones’s sitting-room. The party planned was
so perfect! In the first place, there was the present for Sally—a
dainty little bed in which to take her rest when visiting the lady who
wrote books. Mr. Carpenter had found the small wooden bedstead
stowed away in a loft over the post-office, left over from a stock of
Christmas toys. Letty, with deft fingers, had painted the dingy, dust-
grimed wood white with tiny pink rosebuds (difficult to recognize,
perhaps, as rosebuds, but very pretty) and had made, with Mrs.
Hartwell-Jones’s help, a dainty white canopy, tied back with pink
ribbons. There were sheets and pillow-cases and even a little kimono
made of a scrap of white cashmere and edged with pink ribbon.

“Where is Christopher?” exclaimed Mrs. Hartwell-Jones as Jane

mounted the stairs alone. “I had a surprise for you all.”

“Kit has gone on a picnic with the boys. He didn’t want to come to
Sally’s birthday,” replied Jane with a catch in her voice.

“Never mind, dear. Boys seem to like to get off by themselves now
and then, don’t they, dear? We’ll have a little dove party. But I have
answered a question of Kit’s, however, which now he will miss
hearing,” she added, glancing at a pile of closely written pages on
her writing desk.

“Oh!” exclaimed Jane, looking from Mrs. Hartwell-Jones to Letty, her

cheeks growing crimson. “You’ve written the story you promised—
just for us!”
“Yes,” laughed Mrs. Hartwell-Jones, “just for you. I got my idea from
Letty’s song and Christopher’s questions about it. Shall I read it now,
while we are waiting until it is time for the party?”

“Oh, yes, please! And I can be putting Sally to bed.”

Letty, who had been in a flutter of excitement all day as she watched
those pages of story growing, flew over to the table for the
manuscript, and bustled about, making Mrs. Hartwell-Jones more
comfortable and arranging the light.

“Oh, perhaps Anna might like to hear the story, too! Might she
come?” she asked impulsively.

Mrs. Hartwell-Jones said yes, graciously, feeling secretly proud of

Letty’s thoughtfulness.

“Now,” she said, when shy little Anna Parsons had been brought up-
stairs and everything was ready, “we must have Letty’s song first, as
a sort of introduction.”

So Letty sang the “Winter Lullaby” again, sweetly, simply, without

any thought of herself or how she was doing it, but evidently
enjoying the soft, plaintive melody. When she had finished Mrs.
Hartwell-Jones took up her paper and read:

“The Tulip’s Dream

“Once upon a time a little tulip lived in a lovely big garden. It

was the middle blossom of the front row of a bed of beautiful,
pale yellow tulips, whose petals shone like the softest velvet.
But alas for this poor little front tulip! It had broad red streaks
running down the middle of each of its petals, making them
seem bold and flaunting and common. And none of the other
tulips in the bed would speak to it; they had not even a word of
sympathy to offer.
“The lady who owned the garden had taken great pains to have
this particular tulip bed planted with just the shade of flowers
that she wanted, and it was such a disappointment to have had
the very front blossom of all turn out to be so different and
ordinary. She used to visit the garden every day with her little
daughter. Standing in front of the bed they would discuss the
ugly little tulip.

“‘I have half a mind to pluck the flower,’ she said one day. ‘It
looks so horrid that it quite spoils the effect of the bed. But all
the other blossoms are out and if I took this one away it would
leave such a gap.’

“‘The flower can’t help having red streaks in it, mother,’ replied
the little girl. ‘P’rhaps it feels bad at being different from all the
rest! But it is ugly,’ she added.

“The poor little tulip drooped its head and pined. It is very, very
hard to be thought ugly and different; and harder still not to be
wanted. So the tulip drooped and faded and dropped its petals
long before any of the other flowers in the bed.

“And when the lady found the red and yellow petals lying on the
ground she exclaimed:—‘Why, how odd that this tulip should
have died first. I always thought that those common, hardy
varieties lasted longest!’

“Her little girl picked up one of the scattered petals and stroked
it.

“‘See, mother, it is really very pretty,’ she said. ‘I wonder if the

flower was not nicer than we thought after all?’

“Although the lady had spoken of the tulip as dead, because the
blossom was gone, of course we all know that it was not dead.
But that down, down in its brown little root, or bulb, under the
warm, moist earth, its life was throbbing as strong as ever. The
 tulip heard the little girl’s words, therefore, and was somewhat
comforted by them. But it still mourned over the red streaks
down the middle of its petals, for it was quite sure that it had
not meant to be that way, but soft, pale yellow like all the other
tulips in the bed.

“‘You ought not to take it so to heart,’ whispered a gentle

shower to the falling petals, and it bathed them in soft, warm
drops. ‘Your petals are red because the sun has kissed them.’

“But the tulip would not be comforted. It shed its satiny petals
and crept down inside its bulb-nest to sleep away its sorrow and
disappointment.

“After a time the tulip bulbs were dug up by the gardener and
carried away to the cellar to make room for other flowers that
would bloom during the summer. In the autumn they were
brought out and planted in their bed again, and as it happened,
the little red and yellow tulip was put exactly where it had been
before. The warm, dark earth snuggled it close to her fragrant
bosom and whispered: ‘Sleep well, little tulip, and dream that
you are the most beautiful, pale yellow tulip in the world.’

“So the little tulip fell asleep and lo, at the first call of the spring
robin it waked, feeling very, very happy.

“‘Go, tell the sky your dream,’ whispered Mother-Earth, and

pushed the bulb upward. The tulip shot up a delicate, whity-
green stalk through the dark clods,—up, up, until it saw the
great, deep-blue sky far above it. The air was sweet and warm
and a few early birds were singing. Becoming more and more
happy and excited, the little tulip pushed upward and spread its
petals to the smiling sky. And lo, they were of the loveliest pale
yellow, and shone like the softest velvet!”

Mrs. Hartwell-Jones had ceased her reading for quite a full minute
before the children realized that the story was ended.
“Oh!” sighed Jane. “I am so glad that the tulip was happy at last!”

“But what do you suppose made the petals turn?” asked Mrs.
Hartwell-Jones.

“Blossoms do change colors, different years. I’ve seen ’em in our

own garden,” said Anna Parsons practically.

“Oh, it was because the tulip wanted it so much!” exclaimed Letty.

“Yes, it was because the tulip wanted it; but there are different kinds
of wants, Letty, dear. Some people want things selfishly, just
because the things would give them pleasure. But the little tulip felt
that it had disappointed some one by being the color it was—and so
felt that it was not doing its real duty in the world. So, by wishing
and hoping and waiting patiently, it got what it wanted. If it had
been a person instead of a flower, of course just hoping and waiting
would not have been enough. There would have been work to do, as
well.

“But if whatever we want is right, and of some benefit to the rest of

the world, we are pretty sure to get it in the end.”

“Oh, do you think so?” cried Letty eagerly; looking as if she had
some particular thing in her mind.

Mrs. Hartwell-Jones smiled and patted her hand.

“Yes, I really think so, dear child. But it is time for the tea-party
now,” she said.
 CHAPTER XIV—WHERE IS CHRISTOPHER?

After the tea-party was over, Jane dressed Sally again and she and
Anna Parsons took their dolls for a walk down into the garden, while
Letty carried the plates down-stairs to be washed, and made the
room tidy again.

“What is it that you would like so much to do, Letty, dear?” asked
Mrs. Hartwell-Jones presently. “There is something on your mind, I
know.”

“Oh, there is, dear Mrs. Hartwell-Jones. If only I could learn to sing!
Sing right, you know. It would be wonderful!” And Letty clasped her
hands eagerly.

“Well, my dear, it will all depend on yourself.”

“How do you mean?” asked the girl breathlessly.

“I mean that when we go back to the city I am going to have your

voice tried. That is, I am going to have you sing before a certain
good teacher of singing and if he thinks it worth while to give you
lessons, you shall study with him. He is a wonderful master, and will
take only pupils who have really good voices.”

“Oh!” cried Letty, the sound being more a sigh than an exclamation.
She was really breathless with joy at the thought of what happiness
might be in store for her.

“But suppose he shouldn’t be willing to give me lessons!” she cried

in sudden dismay, her voice coming back with a little gasp.
“That remains to be seen,” replied Mrs. Hartwell-Jones with a serene
little smile that did not look as if she were very much worried.

Then they went back to the subject that always proved so deeply
interesting to them both; the subject of Letty’s studies in the fall,
and so intent did they become that they forgot all about the time
until Jane rushed suddenly into the room, crying:

“DON’T YOU WORRY, LITTLE GIRL”

“Where is Kit? It’s much after half-past five, Letty. Oh, where is he!”

Letty sprang to her feet and Mrs. Hartwell-Jones looked anxiously

out of the window at the lengthening shadows.
“I’ll look and see if he’s coming down the road,” said Letty, and ran
quickly out of the room, followed by Jane.

Letty looked up and down the road, straining her eyes, but no horse
and wagon was to be seen. Jane climbed on the gate and swung on
it gloomily, back and forth.

“Do you suppose the horse has run away with them?” she asked
with a catch in her voice. “I spoke crossly to Kit when he went away.
I hope he isn’t—isn’t killed!” And she began to cry.

Mrs. Carpenter came out of her house next door and called to Letty
across the fence:

“Are you looking for those boys? Most likely they won’t get home
before dark. Boys never know what time it is.”

“Kit’s got a watch,” wailed Jane, still swinging disconsolately on the

gate.

“Don’t you worry, little girl. Watches don’t mean anything to boys
when they’re off on a picnic. Nothing has happened with Jo Perkins
to take care of them. When I get my Billy home I shall spank him
and put him to bed without any supper.”

Jane’s tears flowed faster than ever at the thought that a like
punishment might be in store for Christopher. Sadness can come so
very quickly on the heels of joy! She had been perfectly happy only
a short half hour ago.

“Janey, dear,” called Mrs. Hartwell-Jones from her up-stairs window,

“Letty would better drive you home in the pony carriage, and then, if
your grandmother thinks best, she can send Joshua out to hunt up
the boys. Come up to me, little girl, and get comforted while Letty
harnesses Punch and Judy.”

In the meantime, where was Christopher?

The three boys were in the highest of spirits as they drove off into
the woods. The swimming hole that Billy Carpenter had in mind was
situated farther up the stream than Christopher had ever been. It
was very, very pretty. Pine trees grew close to the water’s edge, and
the needles that had dropped into the pool made the water clear
and brown and gave it a delicious, spicy smell.

Perk unharnessed the horse and tied him by the reins to a

neighboring tree. Then the boys undressed and Christopher, with
mingled feelings, stepped into the water. He understood all the
principles of swimming; it was only confidence he lacked, and the
desire to appear well in the eyes of his companions gave him
courage. The pool was shallow, nowhere was the water over the
boys’ heads; it was in reality as safe as a bath tub. In a very short
time Christopher was paddling about in great glee, keeping his head
nicely above water.

It was a grand frolic and after dressing again, they were all very
ready for Huldah’s nicely packed luncheon. Christopher insisted upon
building a fire in a hole to roast the potatoes, in true camping out
fashion. The potatoes were somewhat lumpy when done, and
burned the mouth. Still, they were quite eatable with plenty of salt
and butter.

It was nearly four o’clock when the picnic lunch was finished. But
the August afternoon was close and sultry. The boys had got hot and
grimy over the potatoes. They lay about on the ground, throwing
pine-cones at a family of chattering squirrels and trying to feel cool.

Christopher looked at the still clear brown pool and sat up

exclaiming:

“Say, fellows, let’s go in for another dip. Just enough to cool us off.”

“No, you mustn’t. It is bad to go into the water right after eatin’,”
said Perk.
“Oh, what are you givin’ us?” chaffed Billy Carpenter, who had begun
to undress at Christopher’s first word. “I have been in hundreds of
times, right after a big dinner.”

“Besides, we’ve been through eating a long time,” added

Christopher. “’Most ten minutes, I guess.”

“But you oughtn’t, Kit. What will your grandfather say?”

“Grandfather’ll be glad I know how to swim.”

“Are you quite sure you know how?” insinuated Billy. He thought he
saw signs of weakening in Christopher’s resolution and did not want
to lose any fun.

“Of course I’m sure,” retorted Christopher indignantly. “Just you hold
on and I’ll show you!”

“Well, if you boys are set on doin’ it, I guess I’ll have to go in too, to
keep you out of mischief,” drawled Jo Perkins, untying his cravat as
he spoke. His remonstrances had not been very strong, but they had
satisfied his conscience.

The second bath proved to be even more fun than the first. The
water was delightfully cool and refreshing; Christopher soon lost the
last bit of dread he had had of going under. He and Billy began to
swim a race across the pond and back. They had crossed, had
splashed into the shallow water to touch a certain pine branch that
had been chosen as the half-way mark (like the first stake in
croquet) and were starting back.

Billy was in the lead, but Christopher was gaining on him, when all
at once he felt a queer sensation in his arm, as if someone had
struck him a sudden blow. The pain was intense and increased every
moment. Christopher doubled up his elbow involuntarily and stopped
moving his other arm, forgetting in his sudden discomfort that he
was not on solid ground. Naturally, he went under. His mouth being
open at the time, he swallowed quantities of water and did not find
it pleasant. He gasped and splattered and tried to call for help, but
the water filled his mouth and nose and eyes. He could not breathe,
much less speak. And all the while the pain in his arm increased. His
struggles pushed him upward again and as his head appeared above
the water he gave a wailing cry. If he had had presence of mind
enough to stand upright on the sandy bottom, his head would have
been almost entirely out of water. But he was in great pain and very
badly frightened. Was he drowning, he wondered? And if so, would
everybody be sorry? Would grandfather blame him for having gone
to the swimming hole without permission? He hoped he would not
be held up to other boys as a sad example of disobedience. Where
in the world were Billy and Perk and why did they not come to his
assistance? Oh! Oh! Another effort to shout and another nasty dose
of water.

Drowning people were supposed to review their whole past life, he

remembered. He could think of nothing except that he had learned
in school that Socrates had met his death by being compelled to
drink hemlock. There was hemlock enough in this water to kill a
horse, Christopher felt sure. If he escaped from drowning, therefore,
he was sure to be poisoned. It was certain death however you
looked at it, and he gave up struggling. The pain in his arm made
him feel weak and numb.

Just then he was grabbed by rough but friendly hands, his head
propped above water and his body propelled speedily to shore. It
had been a very few seconds from the time Perk had seen him go
under and had swum out and seized him by the hair. So short had
the time been, indeed, that Billy Carpenter did not know that
anything had gone amiss until he reached the goal of the race and
turned to jeer his victory. Then he saw Perk wading swiftly through
the shallow water, half carrying, half pushing Christopher before him.
The boy was almost unconscious when they got him to shore, and
he lay in a heap on the pine-needles, his cramped arm bent pitifully
beneath his body. Perk threw a coat about him and went to work in
a businesslike, capable way to revive the boy.

“He’s swallowed an awful lot of water, and it has made him sick,”
Perk explained to Billy. “It’s that right arm that’s cramped. Haul it out
straight, Bill, and pound it. Never mind if he hollers; it’ll help bring
him to. Keep poundin’ and don’t let him double it up again. We’ve
got to get the muscles limbered up.”

It took half an hour’s hard work to restore Christopher to anything

like his usual cheerful self. Then they all realized with a pang how
late it was. The sun was so near setting that it had already darkened
the woods. In a panic of alarm the boys harnessed the horse and
drove as rapidly as they dared in the growing dusk, down the
winding wood road.

“There is no use in going into the town,” said Jo Perkins as they

emerged from the gloom of the trees into the lighter twilight of the
open road. “Jane will have got home somehow before this. Letty’s
taken her home, most likely. I shouldn’t be surprised if they had
searching parties out for us,” he added, eyeing the reddening
western sky.

“Oh, shucks,” boasted Christopher, “I guess they know we can take

care of ourselves.” But his voice had not quite so confident a ring as
usual. “Besides, Perk, there’s no other way to get home except by
going through town.”

“We can go along Birch Lane to the crossroads. It is only half as far
that way.”

Both boys whistled under their breath. Birch Lane was a lonely road
by night!

“But how about me?” asked Billy. “I guess I’ve got to get home.”
“Yes,” chimed in Christopher, “it wouldn’t be polite not to take Bill
home. He’s our company.”

“Besides, Perk, there’s your bicycle that you left at our house.”

“We can drop Bill at the turn. It’s only two miles from there home,
and I guess that’s nothing of a walk for you, is it, Bill? I’ll come in
after the bicycle in the morning.”

“I don’t think it’s treating Bill right, to dump him like that,” argued
Christopher. If he did not relish the drive along Birch Lane in Perk’s
companionship, Birch Lane with its ghostly, whispering white
sentinels, the silver birch trees, how much less must Bill look forward
to walking by himself along the deserted wood road? Christopher
was sincerely sympathetic. “Besides,” he added, “I feel pretty sure
that Jane will be waiting for us, Perk. I told her I’d come for her, and
she knows that I always keep my word.”

“Oh, pshaw! She knew long before this that you weren’t coming for
her, leastways, not at the time you said. And I guess your grandma’s
pretty nigh crazy by this time. No, we’ve got to get home as soon as
ever we can and take our thrashings. Bill ain’t afraid to walk, and
here’s the turn. Hop out, Bill.”

“Who’s afraid?” demanded Billy, in a boastful voice, jumping out over

the wheel with affected alacrity. “And it’s only girl-boys that get
thrashed for staying out late. I’ve been out lots later than this. My,
Jo Perkins, if I was as old as you I guess I wouldn’t let anybody
thrash me! Not much. Not for anything like that!”

With which parting taunt, Billy trotted off, whistling to keep up his
spirits.

Christopher sat rather close to Jo Perkins and stared stolidly ahead.

As each birch tree came in sight he eyed it roundly, even watching it
over his shoulder in passing, as if to stare it out of countenance.
Then he took to counting them off as they went by; it helped to
keep his thoughts from the present homecoming and grandmother’s
face. It was growing darker and darker.

“I hope she won’t cry,” he said suddenly. “Women are such babies.
I’d rather she’d thrash me than cry.”

“I guess you won’t get the thrashing until your grandpa gets home,”
Perk answered grimly. “But I tell you, Kit, this is a pretty bad scrape
for me. I was put in charge of you two young ones, and I didn’t do
right to keep you out so late. I ought to have watched the time a bit
closer. And I almost let you drown, too,” he added soberly. “Gee
whizz, I guess mebbe it’ll cost me my place! I’m powerful sorry
about it all.”

“Oh, Perk, did I really nearly drown?” asked Christopher in awe.

He shuddered as the recollection of his recent experience came over

him.
 CHAPTER XV—LETTY’S FUTURE

When Letty and Jane reached Sunnycrest they found grandmother

climbing into the carriage to drive to Hammersmith, fully convinced
that the worst had happened. Gathering Jane, silent and frightened,
into her arms, grandmother felt half comforted. But a cold dread still
clutched at her heart. Where was Christopher?

“Oh, why did we let him go off like that!” she cried. “And your
grandfather away. I did think Jo Perkins was to be trusted. What can
have happened? Joshua, you must go in search of them. Oh, Janey,
Janey, if only your grandfather were here!” and she burst into tears.

Jane’s heart grew big and tight with all kinds of alarms. It was so
very unusual for grandmother to be upset. She was generally calm in
the face of any calamity, however great. Why, even that time when
the whole kettleful of raspberry jam fell off the kitchen range and
splashed on the cat, grandmother had only said:—“Mercy me, it’s
lucky the kittens weren’t there, too.”

“Oh, Mrs. Baker,” exclaimed Letty in distress, “I don’t believe

anything serious has happened. Mrs. Carpenter said she thought
that they had just forgotten about the time; she said boys never
could keep track of the time when they were off on a picnic; and she
did not seem at all worried about Billy.”

“She was just cross,” added Jane. “She said she was going to spank
him when he did get home. Shall you spank Kit, grandmother?”

“Bless the boy, he will have to be punished some way,” replied Mrs.
Baker, drying her tears. “If only he comes home safe and sound,”
she added mournfully, watching the carriage disappear down the
road into the dusk. “Letty dear, don’t you think you would better
start back home? There is enough worry on hand without giving Mrs.
Hartwell-Jones a fright about you.”

“I don’t believe she will worry, Mrs. Baker. She said I might stay as
long as I could be of any use here and I should like to wait until Kit
gets back,” answered Letty earnestly. “Is there anything I can do?”

“Just talk a bit, you and Jane,” said grandmother, “if you think it all
right to remain. It will keep my mind off imagining all sorts of
horrors about that blessed boy. How did the party go off, Janey,
dear? I haven’t asked a single word about it.”

Jane was in the middle of an elaborate account of the party when

they were interrupted by the sound of wheels. Grandmother had
been sitting on the veranda steps with Jane in her lap and Letty on
another step close beside them.

“Can Joshua be coming back for something?” exclaimed

grandmother, rising.

Jane had already climbed out of her lap and was running down the
drive.

“It’s Kit, it’s Kit!” she cried joyfully.

Grandmother kissed Christopher first, and cried over him. Then she
took him aside and gave him a long, serious lecture. Christopher
knew that he had been disobedient, but he did not realize that he
had also been selfish until grandmother pointed out to him how
much upset every one had been by his long absence.

“We did not mean any harm, grandmother,” he said. “We only
wanted to have a good time. Is it always wrong to have a good
time?”
“Why no, dear, of course not. It is right to enjoy oneself and be
happy, if one can do so without causing pain or discomfort to others.
But it is wrong to do things that are sure to distress or worry other
people.”

“Bill Carpenter did not seem to think it was wrong. He said he had
often been out later than this. I don’t believe his folks will even scold
him.”

Grandmother repressed a smile as she remembered what Billy

Carpenter’s mother had said was in store for that boastful young
gentleman.

“Billy Carpenter has been brought up differently, Kit——” she began.

“Yes, without being tied to a girl’s apron-strings,” broke in

Christopher bitterly.

He did not mean to be rude to his grandmother, but he was tired,

hungry and a bit conscience-stricken; all of which are apt to make
any one feel a little out of temper.

Grandmother did not reprove him. A new and not very pleasant idea
had been suggested by Christopher’s words. Had they made too
much of a girl-boy of him? Pampered him and watched him too
closely? she asked herself.

She sent Christopher up-stairs to tidy himself while she saw Letty off
for home and sent Jo Perkins on horseback to find Joshua and bring
him back from his fruitless search. Joshua had taken the main road
and so missed the truants on the short cut through Birch Lane.

Jane did not know how to treat her brother. She was so glad to have
him safe at home that she longed to hug and kiss him and cling to
him. But he had been naughty and she supposed she must not
speak to him. She eyed him askance and when he was not looking,
felt of his arms and legs gently, to assure herself that he was whole.
Her brother rubbed the places she touched and said:—“Shucks!”
without turning around.

Christopher himself was surprised at being allowed to come to the

supper table. He had fully expected to be sent to bed without any
supper at all, but grandmother did not think it healthful to send
growing children to bed without anything to eat. She allowed
Christopher to have all the bread and butter and minced chicken that
he wanted. It was only the sweets of which he was deprived.

Grandmother was very silent and thoughtful all evening and the
twins were miserable. When bedtime came she kissed them both
good-night very gravely and said:

“You must consider yourself a sort of prisoner all day to-morrow, Kit.
I shall trust you not to go off the place. Your grandfather will be
home to-morrow night and I am leaving your punishment to him.”

Jo Perkins, too, suffered the tortures of suspended judgment all the

next day. He fulfilled his usual daily tasks about the stable, but
Joshua gave him no instructions and Perk found a great many idle
hours hanging heavily on his hands. He felt sadly left out of the busy
farm-life.

In the afternoon, Letty drove Mrs. Hartwell-Jones out to see

grandmother and to find out if Mrs. Baker were any the worse for
her scare. Letty drove the ponies down to the stable and found Perk
moping by himself in the harness room.

“Hello, what’s the matter?” she asked sympathetically.

“I’m wondering what I’ll do when I leave here,” replied Perk bluntly.

“Why, Perk, are you going away? I hadn’t heard that.”

“I guess I’ll get sent away—after yesterday’s doings.”

“Oh, no you won’t. Of course you did not do as you should have
done yesterday, but Mr. and Mrs. Baker will forgive you, I’m sure.
They are not the kind to shunt a person off without more of a trial
than that. You just go to Mr. Baker when he gets home and tell him
straight out that you’re sorry and will try to do better next time.”

“I ’most let Kit drown, too,” said Perk, and related the incident of the
swimming pool, which Letty had not heard before.

“Well of course it was naughty to take Kit in swimming when you

knew his grandfather did not allow it. But it was not really your fault
about his cramp. And besides, Kit had had some lessons in
swimming, you say. It was not as if he did not know anything at all
about it. Anyway, you make a clean breast of it all to Mr. Baker.
That’s the best way, always, and I’m pretty sure that he’ll forgive you
and let you stay.”

But Perk could not be cheered so easily, and set about unharnessing
the ponies in a glum fashion so different from his usual whistling
gayety that even Punch and Judy felt the difference.

Letty went straight to Mrs. Baker and told her how badly Perk felt.

“I hope you and Mr. Baker won’t send him away,” she pleaded. “He’s
a good boy, but it will make him reckless and bitter if he should be
turned off now. He’ll think that if people make so much of a small
matter, there won’t be much punishment left for big wrongs, and
that it isn’t worth while to be good. Please, dear Mrs. Baker, don’t
think I’m trying to preach to you, but I heard my brother talk that
way once—he had been dismissed from a situation for some little
carelessness—and although I was very young at the time, I’ve never
forgotten how he felt about it. I hope you won’t send Perk away?”

Letty’s cheeks were very red and her voice trembled, half with
eagerness in pleading Perk’s cause, and half with fear at her own
daring.
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