2.

0 VISUAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDINGS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 People

2.3 Daylight

2.4 Buildings

2.5 Lighting Design

2.1 Introduction

Light is a form of radiant energy that travels in waves made up of vibrating electric
and magnetic fields. These waves have both a frequency and a length, the values of
which distinguish light from other forms of energy on the electromagnetic spectrum.

Visible light, as can be seen on the electromagnetic spectrum, represents a narrow

band between ultraviolet light (UV) and infrared energy (heat). These light waves
are capable of exciting the eye's retina, which results in a visual sensation called
sight. Therefore, seeing requires a functioning eye and visible light.

Light can be produced by nature or by humans. "Artificial" light is typically produced

by lighting systems that transform electrical energy into light. Nearly all lighting
systems do so either by passing an electrical current through an element that heats
until it glows, or through gases until they become excited and produce light energy.

Incandescent light sources are an example of the first method, called

incandescence. Current is passed through a filament, which heats until it glows.
Because this method is considered wasteful (most of the energy entering the lamp
leaves it as heat instead of visible light, other light sources were pioneered that rely
on the gaseous discharge method, including fluorescent, high-intensity discharge
(HID) and low-pressure sodium light sources.

The sun has been the main source of light and heat on our planet for billions of
years. Man has, through evolution, become to depend on daylight and sun light. It is
vital for his health and survival. The ancient Greeks and Romans worshipped the sun
as a goddess, fully aware of its importance.

Increasingly, man is turning back and tries to re-discover the art and science of
daylighting which our ancestors knew intuitively. The design challenge still remains.
Daylighting is not just about light. Successful daylighting design will involve
consideration of heat gains, glare, light levels and uniformity and solar penetration.

A good daylighting scheme will not only improve the productivity of the work force,
but also result in overall lower energy consumption and even the peak demand.
Considering that lighting accounts for about 20-25% of the total energy consumption
and even 30-40% in the commercial sector, it is easy to understand the huge
potential daylighting has on the reduction of CO2 and pollutants.

Terminology of Vision

Visual field; it’s the total extent in space that can be seen when looking in a given
direction.

Visual acuity; acuity is the ability to distinguish between details that are very close
together. This ability increases as the amount of available light increases.

Adoption; it’s the process occurring as the eyes adjust to the relative brightness or
colour of objectives in the visual field

Contrast; it’s the difference in brightness or colours between two parts of the visual
field.

Luminous intensity; is the power of a light source, or illuminated surface, to emit

light in a particular direction (Unit = candela)

Luminous flux; is the rate of flow of light energy (Unit = lumen)

Illuminance; is the density of luminous flus reaching a surface (Unit = lux; 1 lux = 1
lume/m²)

2.2 People

2.2.1 Light & People

Lighting quality depends upon both physical and psychological parameters. Good
lighting quality exists when a lighting system:

• creates good conditions for seeing,

• support task performance or setting-appropriate behaviours,

• fosters desirable interaction and communication,

• contributes to situationally-appropriate mood,

• provides good conditions for health and avoids ill-effects,

• contributes to the aesthetic appreciation of the space.

Lighting quality is not inherent in a space or a lighting design, but in its effects on
people. It cannot be measured, but as listed above, it is linked to the ambiance and
both visual comfort and performance. Each of these three parameters can be
developed as shown in the figure below.
Figure: The quality of the lighting depends on a number of factors.

Those factors have lots of interactions between them. Especially visual comfort and
performance, since they can both be impaired by a phenomenon called glare.
According to the international vocabulary of lighting, glare results from conditions
of vision in which there is discomfort or a reduction in the ability to see details or
objects, caused by an unsuitable distribution or range of luminance, or to extreme
contrasts.

2.2.2 Visual Comfort

Human beings possess an extraordinary capacity to adapt to their environment and

to their immediate surroundings. Of all the types of energy that humans can utilize,
light is the most important. Light is a key element in our capacity to see, and it is
necessary to appreciate the form, the colour and the perspective of the objects that
surround us in our daily lives. Most of the information we obtain through our senses
we obtain through sight—close to 80%. Very often, and because we are so used to
having it available, we take it for granted. We should not fail to keep in mind,
however, that aspects of human welfare, like our state of mind or our level of
fatigue, are affected by illumination and the colour of the things that surround us.
From the point of view of safety at work, visual capacity and visual comfort are
extraordinarily important. This is because many accidents are due to, among other
reasons, illumination deficiencies or errors made by the worker because he or she
finds it hard to identify objects or the risks associated with machinery, conveyances,
dangerous containers and so on.
Visual disorders associated with deficiencies in the illumination system are common
in the workplace. Due to the ability of sight to adapt to situations with deficient
lighting, these aspects are sometimes not considered as seriously as they should be.

The correct design of an illumination system should offer the optimal conditions for
visual comfort. For the attainment of this goal an early line of collaboration between
architects, lighting designers and those responsible for hygiene at the worksite
should be established. This collaboration should precede the beginning of the
project, to avoid errors that would be difficult to correct once the project is
completed. Among the most important aspects that should be kept in mind are the
type of lamp that will be used and the lighting system that will be installed, the
distribution of luminance, illumination efficiencies and the spectral composition of
light.

The fact that light and colour affect the productivity and the psycho-physiological
well-being of the worker should encourage the initiatives of illumination
technicians, physiologists and ergonomists, to study and determine the most
favourable conditions of light and colour at each work station. The combination of
illumination, the contrast of luminances, the colour of light, the reproduction of
colour or the selection of colours are the elements that determine colour climate
and visual comfort.

Factors that Determine Visual Comfort

The prerequisites that an illumination system must fulfil in order to provide the
conditions necessary for visual comfort are the following:

• uniform illumination
• optimal luminance
• no glare
• adequate contrast conditions
• correct colours
• absence of stroboscopic effect or intermittent light.

It is important to consider light in the workplace not only by quantitative criteria,

but also by qualitative criteria. The first step is to study the work station, the
precision required of the tasks performed, the amount of work, the mobility of the
worker and so on. Light should include components both of diffuse and of direct
radiation. The result of the combination will produce shadows of greater or lesser
intensity that will allow the worker to perceive the form and position of objects at
the work station. Annoying reflections, which make it harder to perceive details,
should be eliminated, as well as excessive glare or deep shadows.

2.2.2.1 Brightness
The physical measure for describing the brightness of an object is luminance.
However, the eye does not behave like a linear receptor. That means that an object
that has twice the luminance of another one does not necessarily appear twice as
bright to our eyes. There is no linear relationship between the luminance and the
perceived brightness.

How we perceive the brightness of an object depends on the luminance of the object
and the state of the adaptation of the eyes, as well as the luminance of the
surrounding of the object. The same object can appear very bright when looked at
in a dark environment or rather dark when put against a well lit background.

A typical example of how the perceived brightness depends on the environment is a

TV screen. When we watch television during the day, the display is not much brighter
then the surrounding. Since the eyes are adapted to the surrounding, the screen
appears rather dim. On the contrary, given the same TV set put into a dark room,
the picture will look much brighter.

2.2.2.2 Contrast

Contrast (add definition to glossary) is a measure of the difference of luminance

levels between two areas, or between an object and its background. It is usually
defined as below, although different definitions are also widely used. Unfortunately,
there is no agreement in the literature on the method of expressing contrast.

C = (Lobject - Lbackground) / Lbackground

The human visual system can adapt to a very wide range of luminance. For any given
scene, however, this range is much reduced. If both, very bright and very dark
objects are in the field of view (high contrasts), the the dark ones will appear black,
while the bright ones look completely washed out. It is then impossible to distinguish
any details.

2.2.3 Visual Ambience

Luminous ambience perception is inherrant to people's light perception. Colour

temperatures, colour, rendering, luminance repartition, uniformity, luminaire
types, all contribute to the luminous ambience in a room.

2.2.3.1 Directionality of Light

The luminous distribution of the luminaires has a strong impact on the modelling
ability of the light and the contrasts in the scene. The more direct the lighting, the
higher the contrasts. Light striking an object under an angle will emphasise its form
and texture more than diffuse light.
Artificial light usually has a higher directionality than daylight. Indirect luminaires
(uplighters) create a more diffuse lighting than direct luminaires (downlighters)
since their light light is reflected off the ceiling resulting in softer shadows.

direct indirect direct-indirect

Figure: Direct, indirect, and direct-indirect luminaires

2.2.4 Visual Performance

Visual performance describes the ability of a person to detect, identify and analyze
the details contained in his field of view, taking into account the speed, the quality
and the accuracy of his perception.

Visual performance depends, on the one hand, on the inherent characteristics of the
task to perform (dimension, shape, position, colour or reflectance of the details and
the background), and on the other hand, on the perception, which is influenced by
the lighting conditions (uniformity, glare, etc).

Visual performance is also affected by other parameters such as the observer’s visual
system ability, the external factors lowering attention, the nature of the background
and, more generally, the way that the working space is organized.

A decrease of visual performance can be the result of a disability glare situation. As

opposed to discomfort glare, disability glare describes a situation in which visual
performances are impaired without necessarily causing any discomfort sensation.

2.3 Daylight

Daylight or natural light is visible radiation which is generated by the Sun. It can
reach is in three different ways:

a. Direct sunlight,
 b. Skylight which is sunlight that has been scattered in the atmosphere,

c. Sunlight or skylight that has been reflected off the ground.

Of the three, direct sunlight is the most powerful source. It provides not only visible
light, but also ultra violet and infra-red (heat) radiation. A summer sun can provide
as much as 1000 W/m² of radiation measured in a plane normal to the sun's direction.

When sunlight travels through the Earth's atmosphere, the light is scattered by water
vapour, molecules and particles diffusing a certain proportion of it. Under normal
conditions, this scattering is higher for short wavelengths (blue) than it is for long
ones (red), which is why the sky dome appears blue.

When light hits any surface, part of it is reflected back. This reflection is usually
diffuse (non-directional) and is dependent on the object's reflection. The reflection
of the outside ground is usually in the order of 0.2 or 20%.

This means, that in addition to the sunlight and skylight, there is also an indirect
component which can make quite a significant contribution to the light inside a
building, especially since the light reflected off the ground will hit the ceiling which
is usually very bright.

2.3.1 Skylight and Sunlight

The sun is our primary source of heat and light. It is very directional: The sun appears
to us under an angle of only 0.5°. Without the atmosphere, we would only see the
sun; the rest of the sky would be as dark as the night sky. What makes the day sky
bright is the scattering of sunlight within the atmosphere. The reason why it's blue
is that blue light gets scattered more than other colours.
2.3.1.1 The Earth's path around the Sun

The Earth's path around the sun is not a circle, but an ellipse. This, together with
the fact that the Earth's axis is inclined by 23.5° against the plane of its orbit around
the sun, results in interesting changes of sunlight throughout the year, e.g. the
seasons.

2.3.1.2 Sky Types

Whenever we take a look at the sky, its appearance has changed. Whether it's clouds
drifting across, the sun making its way from the East to the West, or the blue colour
changing into a glowing red-- the sky has many faces.

While all those effects are very interesting, they also make it difficult to create an
accurate description or even a mathematical model of the sky. Architects and
engineers, however, need to be able to model the sky so they can plan the daylight
performance of buildings accurately.

2.3.1.2.1 Clear sky

The luminance of the standard CIE clear sky varies over both, altitude and azimuth.
It is brightest around the sun and dimmest opposite it. The brightness of the horizon
lies in between those two extremes.

2.3.1.2.2 Intermediate sky

The standard CIE intermediate sky is a somewhat hazy variant of the clear sky. The
sun is not as bright as with the clear sky and the brightness changes are not as
drastic.

2.3.1.2.3 Overcast sky

The luminance of the standard CIE overcast sky changes with altitude. It is three
times as bright in the zenith as it is near the horizon. The overcast sky is used when
measuring daylight factors. It can be modelled under an artificial.
2.3.1.2.4 Uniform sky

The standard uniform sky is characterised by a uniform luminance that does not
change with altitude or azimuth. Today, it is still used for Rights of Light cases.

Luminance distribution in overcast sky

In earlier studies, the luminance of the entire overcast sky was taken as uniform.
This type of sky is termed asuniform sky and under this condition the illuminance at
a point on a horizontal surface due to an unobstructed hemisphere of overcast sky
can be given by:

(1)

where,

L = sky luminance, Cd/m2

In recent years, the standardised CIE sky was widely adopted, which represents the
diffuse light from a completely overcast sky when the In recent represents ground is
free of snow. The luminance distribution of the CIE sky is not uniform. The relative
luminance Lq depends on the angle of elevation q measured with respect to the
horizon, and is given by : (See Figure 5)

(2)

where,

Lz = the luminance of the sky at the zenith

This equation shows that :

(a) Zenith (q = 90o) is the brightest region

(b) The luminance decreases to 1/3 of that of the zenith towards the horizon

(c) The luminance is independent of the position of the sun, and therefore the
orientation of the windows has no effect on the illumination of the room.

Figure 5: The CIE Overcast Sky

2.3.2 Daylight Analysis/ Day lighting Calculations

Good day lighting is not something that can easily be retrofitted into an existing
building. Unless day lighting is paid attention to from the early design stages, just
like structural and thermal considerations, the building will most likely not develop
its full potential for optimal day lighting performance.

A number of different design tools are available, ranging from crude hand
calculations to sophisticated computer visualisations. They all have the advantages
and disadvantages, be it related to cost, accuracy or time involved. Computer
modelling is increasingly deployed, however, rules-of-thumb and other quick
estimates can often be just as valuable.

2.3.2.1 Computer Simulations

As in most other fields of science, computers are increasingly employed in daylight
calculations. Almost gone are the days when pen and paper was used to try to
optimise the daylight performance of buildings.

A wide variety of software exists today, from simple daylight factor programs to
fully-blown physically correct renders capable of producing accurate simulations of
complex artificial or day lighting scenario, or a combination of both.

A wide variety of software exists today; from simple daylight factor programs to
fully-blown physically correct renders capable of producing accurate simulations of
complex artificial or day lighting scenario, or a combination of both.

2.3.2.2 Hand Calculations

Although the use of computer software for daylight analysis has become increasingly
popular, the good old pen-on-paper approach is often quicker in providing a rough
estimate for the performance of a proposed day lighting scheme or for the
investigation in particular daylight related problems.

2.3.2.2.1 Daylight Factor Method

Defining the daylight factor

The daylight factor (DF) is a very common and easy to use measure for the subjective
daylight quality in a room. It describes the ratio of outside illuminance over inside
illuminance, expressed in per cent. The higher the DF, the more natural light is
available in the room. It is expressed as such:

DF = (Ein / Eext) x 100

Ein= inside illuminance at a fixed point (illuminance due to daylight at a point on the
indoor’s working plane)

Eext= outside horizontal illuminance under an overcast (CIE sky) or uniform sky
(simultaneous outdoor illuminance on a horizontal plane from an unobstructed
hemisphere of overcast sky)

There are three possible paths along which light can reach a point inside a room
through glazed windows.

(a) light from the patch of sky visible at the point considered, (direct iluminance if
the sky is visible from the considered point ), expressed as the sky component (SC),

(b) light reflected from opposing exterior surfaces and then reached the point,
(illuminance due to the reflexions on the outside environment), expressed as the
externally reflected component (ERC),
(c) light entering through the window but reaching the point only after reflection
from internal surfaces, (illuminance due to the reflexions on the inside surfaces),
expressed as the internally reflected component (IRC).

Hence, the daylight factor can be expressed as the sum of three components:

DF = SC + ERC + IRC

SC= sky component

ERC= externally reflected component

IRC= internally reflected component

A daylight factor can also be expressed as an average using experimental formulas.

Several formulas for estimating the average DF in a room are in use today. Depending
on the country and its legislation, one or the other might be more common:

Rooms with an average DF of 2% are considered daylit. However, a room is only

perceived as well daylit when the DF is above 5%. Daylight factors are always
measured under an overcast sky or in an artificial sky which simulates a standard CIE
overcast sky.

Average Appearance Energy implications

DF

< 2% room looks gloomy Electric lighting needed most of the

day

2% to 5% Predominantly daylit Good balance between lighting and

appearance, but thermal aspects
supplementary artificial
lighting is needed.
 > 5% Room appears stongly daylit Daytime electric lightin rarely needed,
but potential for thermal problems due
to overheating in summer and heat
losses in winter

Methods of Daylight Factor (DF) Estimation

The above three components can be determined by various approaches. Both SC and
ERC can be found from the geometry of the visible sky or external reflected surfaces,
where as based on inter-reflection theory, IRC can be found from formula,
nomogram, or tables. Some common methods adopted in UK are:

(a) SC and ERC: Waldram diagram; BRE protractors; BRE tables; Bryan sky
component protractors; and Pilkington sky dot Method.
(b) IRC: Formula; BRE tables; and BRE nomograms.

The SC, ERC and IRC will be reduced by the following correction factors:

(a) Maintenance factor, allowing for dirt and other causes of deterioration of
glazing
(b) Glass factor, allowing for the type of glazing if other than clear glass is used
(c) Bars, or Framing Factor, which may reduce the effective area of the window

Daylight factor contours

If the overall distribution of daylight in a room is to be predicted, the best method

is to set out a grid and calculate the SC and ERC for each of the grid-points. The
average IRC can then be found, corrected by factor D, and added to each value,
after which the factors M, G and B can be applied. By interpolating between grid-
point values, a set of daylight factor contours can be drawn, indicating the
distribution of daylight.

By interpolating between grid-point values, a set of daylight factor contours can be

drawn, indicating the distribution of daylight.
Daylight Design Considerations

1. Environmental factors

Daylight design is closely related to a number of environmental factors because the

use of glass windows to let in light also allows the penetration of solar heat and
noise and increases the rate of heat gain or loss of the building fabric. Therefore
daylight design can never be considered alone. Fortunately by the proper choice of
window orientation and suitable sun shading device or constructions, the solar heat
gain can be greatly reduced. The use of double glazed window units is able to cope
with the noise problem and reduce significantly the heat gain or loss through the
window. The remaining problem would be the proper design of windows or rooflights
to provide a visually comfortable and efficient environment for the type of tasks and
activities to be performed.

2. Fenestration

The lighting conditions in a room depend primarily on the fenestration. As Figure 14

shows, the DF and consequently the illumination near the window decreases as the
height of the window above the floor is increased. However, the illumination
increases away from the window, giving greater uniformity to the lighting.
Figure shown previously shows how the DF varies across a room using two types of
windows, both having the same total area:

i) is for three tall windows; will give a good open view

ii) is for one long, high-level window; will provide more even daylight
illumination

The following points should be considered in the design of fenestration:

i) The window head should be as high as possible, say at least 2 m above floor
level, to enable one can see out when standing.
ii) The window sill should not be higher than 1 m from floor level to enable one
can see out when sitting.
iii) The window surface area should be evenly distributed over the outside wall
and the window heights and widths should not be too small in relating to the
window wall because this reduces the uniformity of lighting and produces
undesirable shadows.
iv) Better lighting can be achieved with windows on opposite walls since the
illumination produced by the individual windows are superimposed. The
region with the minimum daylight factor (see Figure 16) is then displaced
towards the centre of the room. The usable depth of the room thus increase.

For rooflights, as shown in Figure 17, the daylighting is evenly spread over the
working area and much higher DF can be obtained. Yet DF are often drastically
reduced by overhead obstructions and poor window maintenance.

Figure 16: The Effect of Windows on Two Sides of a Room on DF

Figure 17: The Distribution of Daylight Across the Floor for a Roof-Lit Interior

3. Obstructions

Any obstruction (buildings opposite the window, trees, etc.) decreases the
illuminance in rooms. Obstructions which subtend elevation angles of more than 25-
30o significantly reduce the daylight penetration. This can be improved by
increasing the height and width of the window. If possible, the angle subtended by
obstructions should not be greater than 30o. The minimum distances between
adjacent building and the window as laid down in the building regulations should be
complied with.

4. Room Dimensions

With room heights of 2.5-3 m which are usual in residential building, room depths,
from the lighting point of view, should ideally be limited to 4-6 m, depending on the
width of the room and the nature of obstructions if any. To achieve good
illumination, greater room depths are only possible with windows on two sides, with
rooflights or with the installation of supplementary artificial lighting.

5. Uniformity of lighting

Uniformity is essentially dependent on:

(a) the dimensions of the room, the windows and all the obstructions to light,

(b) the reflectances of the surfaces enclosing the room, the obstructions to light and
the room furnishings, as well as the type of glazing.
The uniformity of illumination is expressed in terms of the ratio of the minimum
illumunance in the room to the average illuminance measured on a horizontal
reference plane. Uniform distribution of the luminance in the room should be the
objective.

6. Glare

One will experience glare if the difference in the luminances of adjacent surfaces
become excessive. This refers to impairment of the visual efficiency of the eye by
excessive relative and absolute luminances. In addition to direct glare from the sun,
glare may also arise in interior rooms through excessive contrast between the high
luminance of the patch of sky visible through the windows and the substantially
lower luminances of the adjacent surfaces enclosing the room. The degree of glare
thus depends on :

(a) the luminance and the size of the light-emitting surface seen by the eye,
(b) the ratio of this luminance to the luminance of this environment or background,
(c) the distance of the glare-producing surface from the eye and its position in the
field of vision.

All types of glare, both direct glare from the sun and glare from reflections, e.g.
from polished floors, are to be avoided.

7. Shadow intensity and direction of incident light

For the perception of the solidity and surface texture of objects a reasonable shadow
intensity is required. Adequate shadow intensity is generally provided by the lateral
incidence of daylight into rooms with side windows. Working positions should be
arranged so that hand and body shadows do not fall on the working surface.

8. Permanent supplementary artificial lighting of the interior (PSALI )

By considering windows solely as admitters of daylight it may seem that the

achievement of a certain minimum DF is the main design criterion. Electric lighting
is today often used during daylight hours and it may be the case that in trying to
achieve a minimum DF, say 2 per cent, the window becomes too large causing more
serious glare and heating /cooling problems. It may be preferable to design to a
lower DF and integrate the daylight with the electric light.

The method known as 'permanent supplementary artificial lighting of the

interior' (PSALI) (See Figure 18) is based on three principles:

(a) Utilisation of daylight as far as practicable,

(b) Use of electric lighting to supplement the daylight in the interior parts of the
room,
(c) Installation of the electric lighting in such a way that the daylight character of
the room is retained.

Figure 18: PSALI Scheme

The required quantity of artificial light input is to achieve an illumance at the rear
of the room comparable to, but slightly less than, the daylight illuminance near the
window. For example:

Daylight factor Artificial light (lux)

0.5% 250

1.0% 500

1.5% 750

2.0% 1,000

2.3.3 Integration with electric lighting controls.

A successful day lighting design not only optimizes architectural features but is also
integrated with the electric lighting system. With advanced lighting controls, it is
now possible to adjust the level of electric light when sufficient daylight is available.
Three types of controls are commercially available:

• Switching controls: on-and-off controls that simply turn the electric lights off
when there is ample daylight.

• Stepped controls: control individual lamps within a luminary to provide

intermediate levels of electric lighting.
 • Dimming controls: continuously adjust electric lighting by modulating the
power input to lamps to complement the illumination level provided by
daylight.

Any of these control strategies can, and should, be integrated with a building
management system to take advantage of the system's built-in control capacity. To
take full advantage of available daylight and avoid dark zones, it is critical that the
lighting designer plan lighting circuits and switching schemes in relation to
fenestration. The following figure shows control scheme types.

2.4 Buildings

2.4.1 Daylighting Elements

Like any other lighting system, a daylighting system has the purpose of providing
sufficient amounts of light where it is needed, while at the same time ensuring good
visual performance. Since daylight is only available along the outer perimeter of a
buildings, good daylighting systems will optimise the area of the building in which
people can profit from natural light.

All apertures such as windows or roof lights are, naturally, elements of daylighting
system. Additionaly elements may be employed as well, e.g. for shading control or
the redirection of light. Although bigger apertures normally result in more light
available indoors, other aspects such as glare or overheating need to be looked at,
too. The aim of the exercise is to find the balance between good daylighting and an
exceptable thermal performance at the same time.
2.4.1.1 Lightshelf

The daylight distribution in a typical sidelit room is very uneven, with very high level
of daylight in the window zone and very low level in the rear zone of the room. A
lightshelf can be used to even out the daylighting. It is usually placed in a nearly
horizontal position between lower and upper part of the window. It functions as a
sunshading for the lower part of the window, reducing daylighting in the window
zone. Light which is reflected to the ceiling increases the daylight in the rear part
of the room.

2.4.1.2 Use of Overhangs

The overhang is a projected part of roof structure on the vertical wall component
of a building. It protects the building from high angle direct solar radiation and rain.
The overhang blocks off the direct solar radiation and allows for the ambient
daylight inside the built form, from the reflected components of daylight.

2.4.1.3 Vertical Louvres or Fins

Vertical louvres or fins may be used on east or west facing windows to stop sunlight
from entering the room.

While the fin between the window and the sun blocks direct sun, the one on the
other side of the window will reflect diffuse light into the room.

Fins can be fixed, for instance as elements of the facade, or moveable. If they are
moveable, then the amount of blocking can be adjusted. More light can be admitted
in winter, while most of the sun is kept out of the building during the hot summer
months.

2.4.1.4 Horizontal Louvres

Horizontal louvres are an effective way of reducing summer high-angle sun, while
allow low-angle winter sun in.

Modern moveable louvre systems often employ prismatic materials. By using a sun
tracking device and actuators that ensure the panes are always aligned
perpendicularly to the sun's rays, it is possible to allow diffuse sky light in while
keeping direct sunlight out.

2.4.1.5 External Shutters

Shutters are moveable devices that cover openings in a building such as windows.
They are very versatile and used in many different climates. Shutters can perform a
number of functions:

• Heat losses: Shutters in cold climates are usually closed at night to reduce
heat losses through the window. They are open during the day to allow light
into the room;

• Heat gains: Shutters in hot climates can reduce the light entering a room thus
reducing heat gains during the day. At night, they are usually kept open to
allow for night-time passive cooling of the building;

• Security: Protect from burglars;

Shutters are not always solid devices like in the image above. They may have fixed
or moveable louvres integrated into them to allow light and air flow. Used correctly,
shutters can help reduce the building's energy consumption and provide a better
indoor climate for the occupants.

2.4.1.6 In-wall or Roof Elements

This section covers the elements that everybody understands as being responsible
for 'day lighting': Windows and roof lights.

2.4.1.7 Room Reflectance

The reflectance of the interior surfaces of a room has a big effect on the average
daylight factor. Especially the rear area of the room which is furthest away from the
window benefits enormously from bright surfaces because most of the light will be
reflected off the floor, walls and ceiling before it reaches deep into the room.

2.4.1.8 Roller Blinds

Blinds are mainly used to block direct sunlight. In a working environment, blinds are
also used to maintain reasonable luminance values and luminance ratios. Several
types of blinds can be found on the market, the most commonly used are the
Venetian blinds, with fabric roller blinds coming second.

2.4.1.9 Venetian Blinds

The tilt angle of venetian blinds changes not only the overall illuminance level in
the room, but also the distribution of the light across it. People tend to use blinds
when the sky illuminance is too high resulting in sky glare, and if the sun casts
patches on the floor, walls and computer screens.

2.4.1.10 Internal Shutters

Internal shutters provide much the same functionality as external shutters: They
reduce heat losses in cold climates and can be used to control glare.

They are, however, not as effective as those when it comes to reducing heat gains
in hot climates. The solar radiation will enter the room through the window glass
and only then hit the shutters. The heat is dissipated inside the room and therefore
adds to the cooling load.

2.4.1.11 Borrowed Light

Internal windows or clerestories which connect a day lit room to a space inside the
core of the building are referred to as borrowed light. It provides a means of getting
daylight into places that would not normally be daylight, because they have no
access to the periphery of the building.

Borrowed light is not normally intense enough to replace task lighting in offices.
However, for corridors, storage areas or restrooms, it can provide adequate
illumination and make the use of artificial light unnecessary during daylight hours.

2.4.1.12 Courtyards

A courtyard is an open to sky space, enclosed by semi built/built space on all sides.
The court lets in reflected surface light into the surrounding built from, thereby
providing day lighting into tightly packed built form. This typology of built form is
prevalent in South Asian countries, probably due to the high intensity of light in the
tropics.

2.4.1.13 Glazed Balconies

Glazed balconies are becoming very popular in Europe. They allow the use of
verandas and balconies to be extended into the cold seasons, sometimes even
allowing an all-year use.

Apart from the pleasure it gives us to feel close to the outdoors, glazed balconies
can also have benefits in that they pre-heat the air before it is allowed into the
building. This advantage is, however, also the biggest weakness: The use of
essentially external glazed spaces requires heating in winter. With poorly insulated,
single glazed constructions, this becomes very expensive both, in monetary term
and in the production of CO2.

Sun spaces that are used all year round should be well insulated, with at least low-
e double glazing. Ideally, they should not be heated at all but rather used as a buffer
zone between the outside and the inside.

2.4.1.14 Atriums
Atriums in buildings have their origin in the ancient Greek and Roman courtyard
house. Courtyards were back then the social centre of the house. Modern technology
allowed glazed atriums to reach larger scales by solving problems such as
maintenance and water leaks.

Atriums have a number of advantages, which is why they are becoming increasingly
popular with architects and building developers.

• Shading

• Heat storage and transfer

• ventilation

• Evaporative cooling

• Social functions

2.4.2 Design options

2.4.2.1 Core Day lighting

Vertical side windows can only provide daylight in the perimeter zone of the
building, along the outer walls. Areas away from it appear usually rather gloomy,
and rooms in the core of the building have to be fully lit with artificial light.

There are, however, a few technologies, which can guide daylight and transport it
into interior spaces. This is known as 'core daylighting'. Sunlight is much easier to
carry over large distances than skylight, due to its highly directional nature. Such
systems are therefore more suitable to sunny climates.

As a transport medium, several options are available:

• Mirrors

• Reflective tubes

• Plastic prismatic tubes

• Fibre optics (solid or liquid)

2.4.2.2 Side lighting

Vertical side windows are by far the most often used daylighting devices. They
provide daylight, as well as a view out, and are useful for providing single sided or
cross ventilation.

The major problem associated to side windows is that the light level drops off rapidly
towards the back of the room, resulting in poor uniformity across the floor area.
Parts of the room that are further than twice the height of the window head above
the working plane away from the window are not well daylit.

Sufficient daylight is only available up to a distance away from the window which is
about twice the height of the window head above the working plane.

2.4.2.3 Toplighting

Rooflights may be used for providing daylight to the top floor of mulit-storey
buildings or to the core of single-storey buildings. Compared to horizontal windows,
they offer a number of advantages:

• They face the brightest part of the overcast sky which is near the zenith.

• They are less likely to be obstructed by trees or other buildings.

• A uniform distribution is achieved more easily.

Their main drawback is higher heat losses in winter and heat gains in summer. The
problem with summer heat gains may be overcome by tilting the roof lights towards
the north so that direct sun light can only enter early morning and late afternoon
during the summer months. Such north-facing roof lights are referred to as 'north
lights'

2.4.3 Lighting Integration

While daylight can provide some of the required illuminance levels during day-time
working hours, it also needs to be substituted or add to with artificial lighting. This
is obviously necessary during the day or at twilight hours when daylight is not
available. It is also required on dull, rainy days when the natural light never reaches
levels high enough to provide enough light indoors. For rooms that have access to
the building's perimeter and areas within rooms that do but far away from the
window, artificial light is required most if not all of the time.

When daylight needs to be supplemented with artificial light, the highest energy
saving are made when the electric light is only provided where daylight is not
available in sufficient levels, and then only enough to top-up the natural light in
order to reach sufficiently high levels of illumination.

All this can be achieved with control systems that switch the electric light on and
off or dim it up and down. The simplest form of a control is a man-operated switch
but modern micro-controller based systems can be very sophisticated and may even
predict the dimming based on the weather forecast.

2.4.3.1 Lighting Zones

Figure: Different daylight factors create separate lighting zones

Lighting zones are areas in the building that use daylight and electric lighting jointly
to provide illuminance and link areas with the same daylight distribution
characteristics.
The size of the zone depends on the room configuration, sky condition and solar
location. In order to establish the lighting zones, illuminance data are needed for a
minimum of four different months representing winter, spring, summer and autumn.

Within a zone, the light at the station point of maximum illuminance should not be
more than about three times brighter than that at the station point of minimum
illuminance. This guarantees a reasonable contrast ratio within the zone. A ratio of
maximum to minimum illuminance greater than 9:1 is somehow the limit and the
area should be divided into more zones.

2.4.3.2 Mixing Light Sources

If a scene is lit only with one type of lamp, the light will appear to the brain as
white. This is due to the automatic white balancing (colour adaptation) that happens
in the visual system.

Problems may arise if lamps of different colour temperatures are mixed. This is
shown below where the room is lit partially by daylight (high colour temperature,
bluish colour) and warm white fluorescent lamps (lower colour temperature, reddish
colour).

off 50% on Windows left off 50% on

off 50% on Artificial light off 50% on

off 50% on Windows right off 50% on

List of all images in this animation

It is generally best to stick to one particular type of lamp within a room. If this is
not possible, e.g. where daylight is supplemented with artificial light, the colour
temperatures of the different lamps should be as close as possible. In the scenario
above, cool white or daylight white fluorescent lamps should have been installed.
2.4.3.3 Photoelectric Sensors

Most inexpensive photo sensors use cadmium sulfide as the active element for light
detection. Cadmium sulfide changes its electrical resistance as a function of photon
bombardment. This change in resistance determines the time at which switching
occur. Over several years the sensitivity of the sensor changes and the photocell
turns lights on earlier in the evening and off later in the morning. This drift causes
lights to operate for longer periods.

Electronic photo sensors use a light sensitive silicon diode and provide more precise
control. Electronic photo sensors are more costly than cadmium sulfide cells but
savings in energy costs generally justify their installation.

Below are listed some rules that should be followed when designing or installing
photo sensors:

• The position of the photo sensor should be neither at the brightest nor at the
darkest spot in the zone. (Fig. 1)

• In a room with only one task area the ceiling-mounted sensor should be placed
above the task.

• In a room with more than one task area, the sensor should be placed above
the task that best represents the daylight available. (Fig. 3)

• Some controllers support inputs from more than one photo sensor. With
indirect and indirect/direct lighting systems, the photo sensor should be
located in the plane of the fixtures aimed downwards. (Fig. 2)

• Make sure that the sensors cannot directly view the electric lights they
control. For direct lighting systems the photo sensor should be placed in a
recessed position in the ceiling.

• The photo sensor's field of view should not be too narrow. Otherwise, the
sensor will be too sensitive to small incidental changes.

• A ceiling mounted closed-loop sensor should have a large field of view and be
shielded from direct light from the window. (Fig. 3)

• The location of the photo sensor is less critical with open-loop systems and
can be compensated for during commissioning.

• For switching systems the sensor is located so that it views the external
daylight source with minimal view of the electric lights. (Fig. 4)

• Manufactures have specific recommendations as to where to locate the photo

sensor.
 Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4

Closed-loop and Open-loop Systems

The basic algorithms for daylight control are open-loop and closed-loop. These terms
indicate whether close or not (open) information is fed back to the system to achieve
the control objectives. Open loop systems cannot compensate for electric light
losses (lumen maintenance strategy), but provide greater flexibility in calibration
than most closed-loop systems. They are also more forgiving to errors in sensor
placement or field of view. Some closed-loop systems that work with daylight may
cause electric light levels to drop below design light level under some conditions,
especially if the photocell is located too close to the window or is able to see out of
the window. The dimming response time, i.e. the time it takes the system to respond
to a sudden change in light level, is typically set to about 30 seconds to avoid
unnecessary response to temporary conditions, e.g.moving clouds.

2.4.3.4 Occupancy Sensors

Passive Infrared Sensors (PIR)

PIR sensors react to the infrared heat energy emitted by people. PIR sensors are
passive devices in that they only detect radiation. They are designed to have their
maximum sensitivity at a wavelength of around 10microns. They are strictly line-of-
sight devices. PIR sensors employ a pyroelectric transducer to detect infrared
radiation. The device converts the IR energy into a voltage signal.

Most PIR sensors are sensitive to hand movement up to a distance of about 3 m, arm
and upper torso movement up to 6 m and full body movement up to about 12 m.

Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors activate a quartz crystal that emits ultrasonic waves. The unit
then senses the frequency of the reflected waves. If there is a motion, the reflected
waves frequency will shift slightly. This is known as Doppler effect. Ultrasonic
sensors operate at frequencies that are above the range that humans can detect
(20Hz - 20kHz). Typical operating frequencies are 25, 30 and 40 kHz. The ultrasonic
sound waves cover the entire room area. For this reason, ultrasonic sensors are
somewhat more sensitive to movement.

Acoustic Sensors

Acousitc sensors respond to sounds created by the occupants. This type of sensor is
useful where direct line of sight cannot be achieved, e.g. in irregularly shaped rooms
or corridors.

Active Infrared Sensors

Active infrared sensors emit infrared (IR) radiation which is invisible to the human
eye. A receiver responds to changes in the reflected IR reflected bylight beam
patterns caused by a person's movement in the sensor's field of view.

2.4.3.5 Control Systems

Occupancy Linked Control

Occupancy-linked systems are recommended for areas with no daylight at all. These
systems employ presence detection devices (sensors) based on ultrasonic, infrared
or microwave technology. Further benefits can be obtained by coupling occupancy
detectors to daylight-linked controls and other equipment such as fans and urinal
flushing systems in toilets.

Time Switching

Maximum savings with this type of control are achieved when they are set to only
turn lights off. Occupants have to switch lights on manually when entering an area
in the morning and after lunch. Timed control systems are appropriate for areas with
multiple occupancy.
Localised Switching

Localized switching is important where only one part of a large space requires the
lighting to be on, with other parts being unoccupied or enjoying adequate daylight
(lighting zones).
In general, any area controlled by a single switch should have an even level of
daylight. Localized lighting should also be related to the occupancy pattern.

Daylight Linked Systems

Luminaires can be switched or dimmed in depending on the level of daylight

available. Dimming controls can vary the light output of the luminaires between a
pre-set minimum and 100% of full load. Daylight-linked controls can be used in
conjunction with both, time and occupancy controls. The simple on-off switching
type is relatively inexpensive.
More advanced systems may also control intense sunlight. This is achieved using
exterior, interior or in the window plane shading devices. Control of direct sunlight
increases the occupants' visual comfort and decreases the mechanical cooling load.

2.5 Artificial Lighting

The goal of lighting is to make the environment visible, the visual environment is a
visible environment. The aim of lighting is to create an adequate visual environment.

Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum between the wavelengths
of l = 380-780 nm. Its unit is Watt [W]

Each wavelength corresponds to a given colour as shown in the following figure.

Colours at shorter wavelengths are called cool (colours like purple and blue), colours
at longer wavelengths are called warm colours (like orange and red).

We use so called white light for lighting, as the natural light that human vision
developed by was white light, too. It is a peculiarity of white light that it contains
radiation at every wavelength of the visible range, and that the intensity of radiation
at the different wavelengths vary to a certain extent. Thus, white light may vary.
White lights differ from each other in colour combination, so white lights may differ
in quality.

The quality of white light can be characterized with its spectral distribution.

There are two aspects of the quality of light that are important in practice. The
quality of white lights may differ because they may contain consecutive colours in
varying ratios. The quality of a white light can be characterized in practice from this
point of view with the help of colour temperature. The colour temperature of a
given light is the temperature of the black body, at which the spectral distribution
of its radiation is nearly the same as that of the given light, its symbol is T, its unit
is Kelvin [K].
A lower colour temperature means warmer light, a higher colour temperature
indicates cooler light. The ratio of red is higher in warm light, while the ratio of blue
is higher in cool light.

The quality of white light may also vary according to how much the colour of the
surfaces illuminated by the light appear to be different when illuminated by artificial
light compared to the colour they appear to be when illuminated by natural light.

From this point of view, the quality of white light can be given with the help of
colour rendering. The better the colour rendering of a white light, the less
difference the colour of the surface shows when illuminated by it and by natural
light.

2.5.1 Types of Light

Incandescence

When solids and liquids are heated, they emit visible radiation at temperatures
above 1,000 K; this is known as incandescence.

Such heating is the basis of light generation in filament lamps: an electrical current
passes through a thin tungsten wire, whose temperature rises to around 2,500 to
3,200 K, depending upon the type of lamp and its application.

There is a limit to this method, which is described by Planck’s Law for the
performance of a black body radiator, according to which the spectral distribution
of energy radiated increases with temperature. At about 3,600 K and above, there
is a marked gain in emission of visible radiation, and the wavelength of maximum
power shifts into the visible band. This temperature is close to the melting point of
tungsten, which is used for the filament, so the practical temperature limit is around
2,700 K, above which filament evaporation becomes excessive. One result of these
spectral shifts is that a large part of the radiation emitted is not given off as light
but as heat in the infrared region. Filament lamps can thus be effective heating
devices and are used in lamps designed for print drying, food preparation and animal
rearing.

Electric discharge

Electrical discharge is a technique used in modern light sources for commerce and
industry because of the more efficient production of light. Some lamp types combine
the electrical discharge with photoluminescence.

An electric current passed through a gas will excite the atoms and molecules to emit
radiation of a spectrum which is characteristic of the elements present. Two metals
are commonly used, sodium and mercury, because their characteristics give useful
radiations within the visible spectrum. Neither metal emits a continuous spectrum,
and discharge lamps have selective spectra. Their colour rendering will never be
identical to continuous spectra. Discharge lamps are often classed as high pressure
or low pressure, although these terms are only relative, and a high-pressure sodium
lamp operates at below one atmosphere.

2.5.2 Types of Luminescence

Photoluminescence occurs when radiation is absorbed by a solid and is then re-

emitted at a different wavelength. When the re-emitted radiation is within the
visible spectrum the process is called fluorescence or phosphorescence.

Electroluminescence occurs when light is generated by an electric current passed

through certain solids, such as phosphor materials. It is used for self-illuminated
signs and instrument panels but has not proved to be a practical light source for the
lighting of buildings or exteriors.

2.5.3 Evolution of Electric Lamps

Although technological progress has enabled different lamps to be produced, the

main factors influencing their development have been external market forces. For
example, the production of filament lamps in use at the start of this century was
possible only after the availability of good vacuum pumps and the drawing of
tungsten wire. However, it was the large-scale generation and distribution of
electricity to meet the demand for electric lighting that determined market growth.
Electric lighting offered many advantages over gas- or oil-generated light, such as
steady light that requires infrequent maintenance as well as the increased safety of
having no exposed flame, and no local by-products of combustion.

During the period of recovery after the Second World War, the emphasis was on
productivity. The fluorescent tubular lamp became the dominant light source
because it made possible the shadow-free and comparatively heat-free lighting of
factories and offices, allowing maximum use of the space.

2.5.4 Performance Criteria

Performance criteria vary by application. In general, there is no particular hierarchy

of importance of these criteria.

Light output: The lumen output of a lamp will determine its suitability in relation
to the scale of the installation and the quantity of illumination required.

Colour appearance and colour rendering: Separate scales and numerical values
apply to colour appearance and colour rendering. It is important to remember that
the figures provide guidance only, and some are only approximations. Whenever
possible, assessments of suitability should be made with actual lamps and with the
colours or materials that apply to the situation.
Lamp life: Most lamps will require replacement several times during the life of the
lighting installation, and designers should minimize the inconvenience to the
occupants of odd failures and maintenance. Lamps are used in a wide variety of
applications. The anticipated average life is often a compromise between cost and
performance. For example, the lamp for a slide projector will have a life of a few
hundred hours because the maximum light output is important to the quality of the
image. By contrast, some roadway lighting lamps may be changed every two years,
and this represents some 8,000 burning hours.

Further, lamp life is affected by operating conditions, and thus there is no simple
figure that will apply in all conditions. Also, the effective lamp life may be
determined by different failure modes. Physical failure such as filament or lamp
rupture may be preceded by reduction in light output or changes in colour
appearance. Lamp life is affected by external environmental conditions such as
temperature, vibration, frequency of starting, supply voltage fluctuations,
orientation and so on.

It should be noted that the average life quoted for a lamp type is the time for 50%
failures from a batch of test lamps. This definition of life is not likely to be applicable
to many commercial or industrial installations; thus practical lamp life is usually less
than published values, which should be used for comparison only.

Efficiency: As a general rule the efficiency of a given type of lamp improves as the
power rating increases, because most lamps have some fixed loss. However,
different types of lamps have marked variation in efficiency. Lamps of the highest
efficiency should be used, provided that the criteria of size, colour and lifetime are
also met. Energy savings should not be at the expense of the visual comfort or the
performance ability of the occupants. Some typical efficacies are given in the table
below.

Lamp efficacies

100W filament lamp 14 lumens/watt

58W fluorescent tube 89 lumens/watt

400W high-pressure sodium 125 lumens/watt

131W low-pressure sodium 198 lumens/watt

2.5.5 Main lamp types

Over the years, several nomenclature systems have been developed by national and
international standards and registers.

In 1993, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published a new

International Lamp Coding System (ILCOS) intended to replace existing national and
regional coding systems.

a) Incandescent lamps

These lamps use a tungsten filament in an inert gas or vacuum with a glass envelope.
The inert gas suppresses tungsten evaporation and lessens the envelope blackening.
There is a large variety of lamp shapes, which are largely decorative in appearance.

Incandescent lamps are still popular for domestic lighting because of their low cost
and compact size. However, for commercial and industrial lighting the low efficacy
generates very high operating costs, so discharge lamps are the normal choice. A
100 W lamp has a typical efficacy of 14 lumens/watt compared with 96 lumens/watt
for a 36 W fluorescent lamp.

b) Tungsten halogen lamps

These are similar to incandescent lamps and produce light in the same manner from
a tungsten filament. However the bulb contains halogen gas (bromine or iodine)
which is active in controlling tungsten evaporation

Fundamental to the halogen cycle is a minimum bulb wall temperature of 250 °C to

ensure that the tungsten halide remains in a gaseous state and does not condense
on the bulb wall. This temperature means bulbs made from quartz in place of glass.
With quartz it is possible to reduce the bulb size.

Most tungsten halogen lamps have an improved life over incandescent equivalents
and the filament is at a higher temperature, creating more light and whiter colour.

c) Low-voltage tungsten halogen lamps

These were originally designed for slide and film projectors. At 12 V the filament for
the same wattage as 230 V becomes smaller and thicker. This can be more efficiently
focused, and the larger filament mass allows a higher operating temperature,
increasing light output. The thick filament is more robust. These benefits were
realized as being useful for the commercial display market, and even though it is
necessary to have a step-down transformer, these lamps now dominate shop-window
lighting.

d) Tubular fluorescent lamps

These are low pressure mercury lamps and are available as “hot cathode” and “cold
cathode” versions. The former is the conventional fluorescent tube for offices and
factories; “hot cathode” relates to the starting of the lamp by pre-heating the
electrodes to create sufficient ionization of the gas and mercury vapour to establish
the discharge.

Fluorescent lamps require external control gear for starting and to control the lamp
current. In addition to the small amount of mercury vapour, there is a starting gas
(argon or krypton).

e) Compact fluorescent lamps

The fluorescent tube is not a practical replacement for the incandescent lamp
because of its linear shape. Small, narrow-bore tubes can be configured to
approximately the same size as the incandescent lamp, but this imposes a much
higher electrical loading on the phosphor material. The use of tri-phosphors is
essential to achieve acceptable lamp life.

All compact fluorescent lamps use tri-phosphors, so, when they are used together
with linear fluorescent lamps, the latter should also be tri-phosphor to ensure colour
consistency.

f) Induction lamps

Lamps using the principle of induction have recently appeared on the market. They
are low-pressure mercury lamps with tri-phosphor coating and as light producers are
similar to fluorescent lamps. The energy is transferred to the lamp by high-frequency
radiation, at approximately 2.5 MHz from an antenna positioned centrally within the
lamp. There is no physical connection between the lamp bulb and the coil. Without
electrodes or other wire connections the construction of the discharge vessel is
simpler and more durable. Lamp life is mainly determined by the reliability of the
electronic components and the lumen maintenance of the phosphor coating.

g) High-pressure mercury lamps

High-pressure discharges are more compact and have higher electrical loads;
therefore, they require quartz arc tubes to withstand the pressure and temperature.
The arc tube is contained in an outer glass envelope with a nitrogen or argon-
nitrogen atmosphere to reduce oxidation and arcing. The bulb effectively filters the
UV radiation from the arc tube.

At high pressure, the mercury discharge is mainly blue and green radiation. To
improve the colour a phosphor coating of the outer bulb adds red light. There are
deluxe versions with an increased red content, which give higher light output and
improved colour rendering.

All high-pressure discharge lamps take time to reach full output. The initial
discharge is via the conducting gas fill, and the metal evaporates as the lamp
temperature increases.
Although mercury lamps have a long life of about 20,000 hours, the light output will
fall to about 55% of the initial output at the end of this period, and therefore the
economic life can be shorter.

h) Metal halide lamps

The colour and light output of mercury discharge lamps can be improved by adding
different metals to the mercury arc. For each lamp the dose is small, and for
accurate application it is more convenient to handle the metals in powder form as
halides. This breaks down as the lamp warms up and releases the metal.

There is no standard mixture of metals, so metal halide lamps from different

manufacturers may not be compatible in appearance or operating performance. For
lamps with the lower wattage ratings, 35 to 150 W, there is closer physical and
electrical compatibility with a common standard.

i) Low-pressure sodium lamps

The arc tube is similar in size to the fluorescent tube but is made of special ply glass
with an inner sodium resistant coating. The arc tube is formed in a narrow “U” shape
and is contained in an outer vacuum jacket to ensure thermal stability. During
starting, the lamps have a strong red glow from the neon gas fill.

In many situations these lamps are being replaced by high-pressure sodium lamps.
Their smaller size offers better optical control, particularly for roadway lighting
where there is growing concern over excessive sky glow.

j) High-pressure sodium lamps

These lamps are similar to high-pressure mercury lamps but offer better efficacy
(over 100 lumens/watt) and excellent lumen maintenance. The reactive nature of
sodium requires the arc tube to be manufactured from translucent polycrystalline
alumina, as glass or quartz are unsuitable. The outer glass bulb contains a vacuum
to prevent arcing and oxidation. There is no UV radiation from the sodium discharge
so phosphor coatings are of no value. Some bulbs are frosted or coated to diffuse
the light source.

Conditions required for visual comfort

2.5.6 Levels of illumination

Each activity requires a specific level of illumination in the area where the activity
takes place. In general, the higher the difficulty for visual perception, the higher
the average level of illumination should be as well. Guidelines for minimal levels of
illumination associated with different tasks exist in various publications.
Location/Task Typical recommended level of maintained
illuminance (lux)

General offices 500

Computer workstations 500

Factory assembly areas

Rough work 300

Medium work 500

Fine work 750

Very fine work

Instrument assembly 1,000

Jewellery assembly/repairs 1,500

Hospital operating theatres 20,000 - 50,000

The level of illumination is measured with a luxometer that converts luminous

energy into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and offers an easy reading
on a calibrated scale of lux. When selecting a certain level of illumination for a
particular work station the following points should be studied:

· the nature of the work

· reflectance of the object and of the immediate surroundings

· differences with natural light and the need for daytime illumination

· the worker’s age.

2.5.7 Units and magnitudes of illumination

Several magnitudes are commonly used in the field of illumination. The basic ones
are:

Luminous flux: Luminous energy emitted per unit of time by a light source. Unit:
lumen (lm).
Luminous intensity: Luminous flux emitted in a given direction by a light that is not
equally distributed. Unit: candela (cd).

Level of illumination: Level of illumination of a surface of one square metre when it

receives a luminous flux of one lumen. Unit: lux = lm/m2.

Luminance or photometric brilliance: Is defined for a surface in a particular

direction, and is the relation between luminous intensity and the surface seen by an
observer situated in the same direction (apparent surface). Unit: cd/m 2.

Contrast: Difference in luminance between an object and its surroundings or

between different parts of an object.

Reflectance: Proportion of light that is reflected by a surface. It is a non-dimensional

quantity. Its value ranges between 0 and 1.

2.5.8 Light distribution; glare

Key factors in the conditions that affect vision are the distribution of light and the
contrast of luminances. In so far as the distribution of light is concerned, it is
preferable to have good general illumination instead of localized illumination in
order to avoid glare. For this reason, electrical accessories should be distributed as
uniformly as possible in order to avoid differences in luminous intensity. Constant
shuttling through zones that are not uniformly illuminated causes eye fatigue, and
with time this can lead to reduced visual output.

Glare is produced when a brilliant source of light is present in the visual field; the
result is a diminution in the capacity to distinguish objects. Workers who suffer the
effects of glare constantly and successively can suffer from eye strain as well as
from functional disorders, even though in many cases they are not aware of it.

Glare can be direct when its origin is bright sources of light directly in the line of
vision, or by reflection when light is reflected on surfaces with high reflectance. The
factors involved in glare are:

a) Luminance of the source of light: The maximum tolerable lumi nance by direct
observation is 7,500 cd/m2. Figure 46.11 shows some of the approximate
values of luminance for several sources of light.

Figure 46.11 Approximate values of luminance

 b) Location of the source of light: This kind of glare occurs when the source of
light is within a 45-degree angle of the observer’s line of sight, and will be
minimized to the degree that the source of light is placed beyond that angle.
Ways and methods of avoiding direct and reflective glare can be seen in the
following figures. In general, there is more glare when sources of light are
mounted at lower elevations or when installed in large rooms, because
sources of light in large rooms or sources of light that are too low can easily
fall within the angle of vision that produces glare.
c) Distribution of luminance among different objects and surfaces: The greater
the differences in luminance are among the objects within the field of vision,
the greater will be the glare created and the greater will be the deterioration
in the capacity to see due to the effects on the adaptive processes of sight.
The maximum recommended luminance disparities are:
· visual task—work surface: 3:1
· visual task—surroundings: 10:1
d) Time frame of the exposure: Even light sources with a low luminance can
cause glare if the length of the exposure is prolonged too much.

Avoiding glare is a relatively simple proposition and can be achieved in different

ways. One way, for example, is by placing grilles under the sources of illumination,
or by using enveloping diffusers or parabolic reflectors that can direct light properly,
or by installing the sources of light in such a way that they will not interfere with
the angle of vision. When designing the work site, the correct distribution of
luminance is as important as the illumination itself, but it is also important to
consider that a distribution of luminance that is too uniform makes the three-
dimensional and spatial perception of objects more difficult.

2.5.9 Lighting Systems

The interest in natural illumination has increased recently. This is due less to the
quality of illumination it affords than to the well-being that it provides. But since
the level of illumination from natural sources is not uniform, an artificial lighting
system is required.

The most common lighting systems used are the following:

a) General uniform illumination

In this system light sources are spread out evenly without regard to the location of
the work stations. The average level of illumination should be equal to the level of
illumination required for the task that will be carried out. These systems are used
mainly in workplaces where work stations are not fixed.

General lighting installations typically provide an approximately uniform illuminance

over the whole of the working plane.

It should conform to three fundamental characteristics: The first is to be equipped

with anti-glare devices (grilles, diffusers, reflectors and so on). The second is that
it should distribute a fraction of the light toward the ceiling and the upper part of
the walls. And the third is that the light sources should be installed as high as
possible, to minimize glare and achieve illumination that is as homogeneous as
possible. (See figure 46.13)

a) Localized illumination

Localized lighting systems provide illuminance on general work areas with a

simultaneous reduced level of illuminance in adjacent areas.This type of
illumination consists of ceiling sources distributed with two things in mind—the
illumination characteristics of the equipment and the illumination needs of each
work station. This type of illumination is indicated for those spaces or work areas
that will require a high level of illumination, and it requires knowing the future
location of each work station in advance of the design stage.
 b) Local illumination

Local lighting systems provide illuminance for relatively small areas incorporating
visual tasks. Such systems are normally complemented by a specified level of general
lighting.

This system tries to reinforce the general illumination scheme by placing lamps close
to the work surfaces. These types of lamps often produce glare, and reflectors
should be placed in such a way that they block the source of light from the direct
sight of the worker. The use of localized illumination is recommended for those
applications where visual demands are very critical, such as levels of illumination of
1,000 lux or greater. Generally, visual capacity deteriorates with the age of the
worker, which makes it necessary to increase the level of general illumination or to
second it with localized illumination.
2.5.10 Lighting Design (Artificial)

2.5.10.1 Introduction

The prime objectives behind the design of a lighting system are as follows:

The safety and comfort of occupants – the nature of a task or process performed
in a space will dictate the illuminance level which must be provided by the lighting
system (lx or lm/m2). Tasks involving high degrees of visual acuity will require higher
lighting levels.

The minimisation of energy consumption – minimisation of energy consumption

involves the development of the most energy efficient lighting systems which is
suitable for the task, this can be achieved by selecting high efficiency equipment
and making use of available daylight.

Colour rendering or the creation of a specific atmosphere – the colour

characteristics of a lighting scheme will affects tasks performed when the lighting
system is on. For example tasks which require the accurate representation of colour
require a light with the spectral characteristics of daylight. Alternatively,. to create
a “warm atmosphere” in a restaurant requires the selection of lights skewed to the
red end of the spectrum.

A lighting design has several stages. These are as follows:

1) Identification of the requirements for the lighting system, illuminance levels,
colour requirements, available space, etc;

2) Selection of equipment, lamps, luminaires: lighting systems consist of numerous

components, the two most important of which are: lamps, which influence the
lighting level, colour characteristics and efficiency of the lighting system;
luminaires affect the efficiency with which the light is distributed and so affect
lighting efficiency and uniformity

3) Design of the lighting system: lighting systems are designed to achieve a

reasonably uniform distribution of light on a particular plane (usually horizontal),
avoidance of glare with a minimum expenditure of energy. The most rudimentary
form of lighting design is done using a manual calculation – the lumen method.
However lighting design is increasingly done by computer.

4) System control: once a lighting system has been designed it can be controlled in
such a way as to make maximum use of available daylight, through selection of
appropriate switching mechanisms and daylight responsive controls.

2.5.10.2 Identification of Lighting Requirements

Lighting requirements are primarily dictated by the function of a space or the tasks
being performed within it. Lighting requirements are usually specified by the
required lighting level and the colour rendering requirements.
For example:

• a general office requires an illumination level of 500 lux; colour rendering is mot
particularly important;

• an architects drawing office requires higher lighting levels of 750 lux due the
more visually tasks being conducted within the office. In addition as colour work
is being done the lighting system must have good colour rendering.

Examples of lighting level requirements are given in the table below:

Building Area Standard Maintained Colour Rendering

Illuminance (lux)

Entrance hall 200 -

Corridors 100 -

Kitchens 300 -

General offices 500 -

Drawing Rooms 750 Good colour rendering may

be required

Classrooms 300 -
 Lecture Theatres 300 -

Art rooms 500 Excellent colour rendering

required
Table: Lighting level requirements.

Lighting requirements are summarised in the CIBSE Code for interior lighting,
available from the library.

The colour properties of a particular lamp are supplied by the manufacturer in the
form of a lighting catalogue: the Philips lighting catalogue is available in the design
room alternatively the catalogue is available on-line at: www.philips.com

The colour rendering properties of a particular lamp are described by its colour
rendering group or the CIE number (Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage):

Colour CIE colour rendering Comments

rendering index (Ra)
group

1A Ra > 90 Used wherever accurate colour

matching is required

1B 80 < Ra < 90 Used when accurate colour

matching is required e.g. clothes
shops

2 60 < Ra < 80 Where moderate colour

rendering is required

3 40 < Ra < 60 Where colour rendering is

unimportant but distortion of
colour is unacceptable

4 60 > Ra Where marked colour distortion

is acceptable e.g. street lighting

Table: Colour rendering groups

2.5.10.3 Selection of Components

Selection of components follows from the identification of systems requirements.

The luminaires are normally chosen first: lighting catalogues usually describe the
uses for particular types of luminaire, these also come with different types of
reflectors (which govern the light output characteristics of a luminaire) for different
applications e.g. low glare reflectors for computer rooms.
 Casing

Lamp

Reflector

Figure: Components of a typical luminaire.

Lamps are selected based on those which are compatible (lamp type, dimensions,
frequency of operation, etc) with the selected luminaire and which have the
appropriate colour-rendering index.

For example the Philips TCS 660 luminaire comes with a choice of 8 different
reflector types.

The lamps that can be fitted to this luminaire must be Philips high frequency
fluorescent tubes that can be 1200mm or 1500 mm long. The luminaire can be fitted
with a maximum of 2 fluorescent tubes.

2.5.10.4 Design of the Lighting System

A simple means of designing lighting systems is achieved by means of the lumen

method; this is a simplified design approach to enable the designer to achieve an
even light distribution in spaces of reasonably simple geometry (i.e. rectangular).

The basis of the lumen method is the following equation:

𝐸𝑥𝐴
𝑁=
(𝑛 𝑥 𝐿𝐷𝐿 𝑥 𝑀𝐹 𝑥 𝑈𝐹)

N - is the number of luminaires required;

E - is the required illuminance (lux);
A - is the area to be lit;
N - is the number of lamps per luminaire;
LDL - is the lamp lumen output (lumens);
MF - is known as the maintenance factor, which is a combination of three
factors;
UF - is the utilisation and is a function of the luminaire properties and room
geometry.
Utilisation Factor (UF)
The room geometry is a crucial factor in determining the utilisation factor term in
the lumen equation. Several parameters are important.

length L

width W

ceiling cavity
ceiling plane hm

working plane

floor cavity

Figure: important dimensional parameters for the Lumen Method

In the Lumen method of design the room geometry is characterised by a room index
(RI):

𝐿𝑥𝐻
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
(𝐿 + 𝐻)ℎ𝑚

Here, length and width refer to the room dimensions, and mounting height is the
vertical distance between the centre of the light source and the working plane.

The reflectances (ρs) of surfaces are also important properties in the calculation of
terms for equation (1). The reflectances of walls floors and ceilings is represented
by a number between 0 and 1: 0 – no light is reflected back from the surface, 1 – all
incident light is reflected back from the surface.

The utilisation factor can be obtained once the surface reflectances (or effective
reflectances) are known along with the room index (K); each luminaire produced by
a manufacturer has a lookup table for UF (UF values in bold):
Reflectances Room Index (K)
Ceiling Wall floor 0.75 1.00 … 5.00
0.7 0.3 0.2 0.45 0.51 … 0.69
Table: Utilisation Factors

Maintenance Factor (MF)

The maintenance factor is a value designed to account for the reduction in light
output from a lighting system due to: the ageing of the lamps and the accumulation
of dirt and dust on the light fittings and room surfaces. The MF is therefore time
varying and is the product of 4 factors:

Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF) – a value between 0 and 1 which accounts
for the degradation of lamp output over time:

lumen output at time t

LLMF (t ) =
initial lumen output
The LLMF for any time t can be obtained from manufacturer’s data.

Lamp survival factor (LSF) – this accounts for the failure of lamps over time, if failed
lamps are replaced immediately this factor can be ignored.

Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) – a value between 0 and 1 that accounts for dirt
and dust accumulation on the luminaire.

Sample Question

A clean room housing electronics assembly plant measures 25 x 10 x 3m high is to be

lit by general lighting system given the following information: standard service
illuminance as 750 lumens , maintenance factor (MF) 0.9 and UF 0.5 LDL is
3500 lumen, determine: the room index and UF and number of lighting
points (state your design assumptions)