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 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

What is Science?
 Science is the study of living and non-living things in the environment around us.
 Science is a pursuit of knowledge on how the world works.
 A way of learning about the natural world.

Scientific Process
 There are five basic steps found in scientific process.

Namely;
 Observation
 Question
 Hypothesis
 Experiment
 Applying results

What is observation?

What is a Question?
 A question is what scientists ask when they notice something such as;
 What is this?
 Why is it happening?
 How many times does it happen?
 What really causes it to happen?
 What do you notice?
 Why do you think?
 What happened when?
 How are these same?
 How are these different?
 I wonder what would happen if?
 What is one thing we could change?

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  How do you know?
 How can we find out?
 What does this remind you off?

 Note that scientists are very curious and inquisitive people whose heads are filled with so many
what, why and how.

What is a Hypothesis?
 A Hypothesis is a possible explanation as to why something happens.
 A Hypothesis is an intelligent guess on what is likely to happen based on past experience.

ERK makes an observation.

 ERK arrived at home thirsty and observed that the bottled water he left in the fridge has
frozen into an ice block and that made him fail to drink it?

ERK asks a question.

 Why is my bottled water frozen?
 How did it turn from liquid to solid?
 Why is my bottled water so hard and expanding?

ERK proposes a hypothesis.

 So when water becomes very cold it turns into a solid.
 I think the more the water temperature goes down, the more it turns into an ice block and
expands.

ERK makes an experiment.

 ERK takes two bottled water and places one in the deep freezer while he places the other
one in the pocket of the fridges door.
 ERK observes that the bottle in the deep freezer became frozen and turned into a hard ice
block while the bottle in the pocket of the fridges door only became cold and remained the
same.

ERK makes a conclusion

 ERK makes a conclusion for his findings as follows:
 When water is placed in the deep freezer it becomes frozen because the temperature goes
down to zero degrees.
 When water becomes frozen it turns into an ice block.
 When water freezes, it starts expanding.
 Water changes from liquid to solid when it freezes or its temperature goes to zero degrees.
 When water is put where the fridges door where the temperature is high, it does not freeze
and remains in liquid form.
How do scientists get new ideas?
 They collect details about things they notice.
 They think and ask questions.

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  They analyze what they have observed.
 They compare different observations.
 They hypothesize.(possible answers and explanations)
 They predict. (what is expected to happen)
 They experiment to test the hypothesis and prediction.
 They draw conclusion of their findings.
 They communicate their findings to the public.
 They apply or put to use the new knowledge.

THE ENVIRONMENT

What is the Environment?

 The environment is everything around us.
 The environment is the surrounding in which both living and non-living things live.

Examples:
 Human beings.
 Animals.
 Water
 Plants
 Space/atmosphere.
Always remember that, the environment has both living and non-living things.

What is the carrying capacity?

 The carrying capacity of an environment means how many things can live in an environment
without damaging it.
 The carrying capacity of an environment is its ability to support both living and non-living things
without getting destroyed.

Factors affecting carrying capacity

 Space
 Water
 Food
 Air


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 PLANTS

What is a plant?
 A plant is the only living organism that has the ability to make its own food through the process of
photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of the plant.

What is needed for photosynthesis to take place?

 Energy from sunlight
 Carbon dioxide from the air.
 Water from the soil
 Chlorophyll, the green pigment found in leaves.
 Note that during photosynthesis the plant always releases oxygen into the atmosphere which
animals and humans use to breathe.

ANIMALS

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The animal kingdom or taxonomy is divided into two groups namely;

 Vertebrates – these are animals that have a backbone or spine.

 Invertebrates – these are animals that do not have a backbone or spine.

Characteristics of vertebrates
 They have a skeleton inside their body called an endoskeleton.
 Its backbone can bend which protects the spinal cord that runs through it.
 It has a skull and a brain.
 Vertebrates have a heart and a blood stream.
 All vertebrates have a pair of eyes.
Note that the backbones of vertebrates are made up off small bones called vertebra.

Classes of Vertebrates
There are many different animal classes and every animal in the world belongs to one of them.
The five most well-known classes of vertebrates are;
 Mammals,
 Birds,
 Fish,
 Reptiles,
 Amphibians.

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Characteristics of Invertebrates
 They do not have a backbone or spine.
 They are also called spineless animals.
 They are multicellular organisms whose cells have different responsibilities in keeping the animal
alive.
 Invertebrates are cold blooded organisms which warm their bodies by absorbing heat from their
surroundings.
 Most invertebrates live in water or spend at least some part of their life in water.
 Some groups of invertebrates live on land.
Note that about 97% of all animal species in the world are invertebrates.

Types of Invertebrates
There are many different groups of invertebrates as classified below.
1. Arthropods:
 Insects.
 Arachnids.
 Crustacean.
 Myriapods.

2. Mollusca:
 Gastropods.
 Cephalopods.

3. Other invertebrates:
 Worms.
 Echinoderms.

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  Jellyfish. Sponges.
 Some invertebrates have an outside skeleton called exoskeleton.
Note that the largest class of invertebrates is the insect class.

AIR
What is Air?
 Air is a mixture of gases found in the atmosphere.
 All empty spaces in the environment are filled with a mixture of gases called air.
 Gasses present in air are nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, water vapour, helium, argon and many
more.
What is an atmosphere?
 It is a layer of air round the earth.
 The envelope of gases surrounding the earth.
 The gaseous space between the surface of the earth and the sky.

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Importance of Air
 Air supports all forms of life.
 Not only humans, all kinds of life, that is, cats, dogs, microorganisms, birds, snakes, lizards, frogs
or even plants need oxygen to survive
 Without oxygen which people breathe, we can't live even for a minute.
 Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to produce their own food.
 Water vapour is necessary to form clouds that bring forth rain.

Air constituent/composition
 Air contains 79% nitrogen,
 20% of oxygen and
 1% is contributed by other gases, which includes carbon dioxide, water vapour and argon.

PROPERTIES OF AIR
 Air is colourless. This means it has no colour.
 Air is ordourless. This means it does not smell.
 Air is tasteless. This means it has no taste.
 Air has mass/weight. A balloon, football or car tyres filled/inflated with air has more weight as
compared to those without.
 Air expands. This means when air is heated or exposed to heat it expands and contracts when it
cools down.
 Air takes up space. When air is blown into a balloon, football or car tyres, the air takes up space
which is why the balloon, football or car tyres expand.

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  Air supports combustion. This means things can burn till the oxygen in the air is completely
finished.
 Air exerts pressure. When you place a plain paper on the table, try placing a pen underneath and
you will see the other parts of the paper still lying on the table. This pressure is what makes the
paper lay flat on the table as it is being pushed down.
 Air can be compressed. If some air in a closed container is put under pressure, the volume of the
air becomes smaller or compressed.
Note that gases such as air can be compressed while liquids such as water cannot be compressed.

AIR AND RUSTING

What is rust?
 Rust is a reddish-brown or reddish-yellow color that coats iron or steel when exposed to air and
moisture.

How does rusting occur?

 Rusting occurs when iron is exposed to oxygen in air and water or moisture.

How to prevent rusting?

 By painting the metal with any durable acrylic paint.
 By avoiding the metals from contact with water or moisture.
 By applying oil or grease on the metal.
 By covering items with plastics like wire clothe hangers cover with clothes.
 Coating the iron with another metal that does not rust, like tin, chromium, silver or gold.

i. Air alone cannot cause iron and other metals to rust.

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 ii. Iron and other metals will not rust if water (moisture) and air are kept away from the surface of the
metal (if covered with oil or grease).

WATER

What is water?
 Water is a transparent, ordourless and tasteless liquid made up of hydrogen and oxygen.
 Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, H2O.

Importance of water
 Water is life. All bodies of living things are made up of water.
 All manufacturing companies depend on water.
 All hospitals and hotels depend on water to function well.
 There will be no agriculture without water.
 All forms of life need water to live.
 Firefighters use water to put out fires,
 Water is used in hydropower to create electrical energy that powers our cities and homes.

PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Water is colourless. This means it has no colour.
 Water is ordourless. This means it does not smell.
 Water is tasteless. This means it has no taste.
 Water usually exists as a liquid.
 Water can also be solid (ice) when it is very cold.
 Water can also turn into a gas (water vapour/steam) when exposed to heat.

STATES OF WATER
Water is constantly moving around the earth in three states through the water cycle.
Water exists in three states namely:
 Liquid - This is the wet substance in which water exists most of the time. Living organisms drink
and swim in it.
 Ice - when water gets below 0 , it will freeze and become ice.
 Vapour - when water is exposed to heat or gets above 100 and starts boiling, water turns into
its gas state called vapour or steam.

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Note that when solid ice is heated, it melts and changes to liquid water. When the liquid water is heated it
evaporates and changes to an invisible gas called water vapour or steam.

SURFACE WATER

About 75% of the earth's surface is covered in water. This means there are three times as much as water
as land on the surface of the world.

Most of the water on earth is found on the surface. Some is also found underground.

Surface water is mainly found in:

 Oceans
 Rivers
 Dams
 Swamps
 Lakes
Note that around 97% of the earth's water is in the oceans.
Underground water
 Borehole

Water in the atmosphere

 Water vapor

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 THE WATER CYCLE
What is water cycle?
 It is a process by which water circulates between the earth’s oceans, atmosphere and land through
evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
 Water cycle is also called hydrological cycle. Note that hydro means water and logical means
order.

The water we use on earth is not made by people; instead it remains the same and moves from one form to
another.
Water is constantly moving around the earth in three states namely evaporation, condensation and
precipitation.

Evaporation
 A process by which liquid water turns from liquid to gas after being heated by the sun as water
vapour.
 The heat from the sun causes water on earth’s water bodies such as oceans, lakes and rivers to
evaporate and rise into the sky to form the clouds.

Condensation
 It is a process by which water vapour in the clouds cools down and becomes water again.

Precipitation:
 It is the process by which water falls from the sky in the form of rain, snow, hail or sleet.
Collection:

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  Oceans and lakes collect water that has fallen. Water evaporates into the sky again and the cycle
continues.

Collecting Rain water:

 Rainwater can be collected in the following ways;
 Dams
 Reservoirs
 Tanks

Conserving water:
 water can be conserved by;
 Fixing leaking taps.
 Take a shower instead of bath.
 Water plants late afternoon.
 Use water for more than one purpose.
 Do not wash hands or brush teeth under a running tap.

WEATHER

What is weather?
 Weather is the daily condition of the atmosphere recorded over a short period of time.
 People who study weather are known as Meteorologists.
 The study of weather is called Meteorology.
 Foretelling how the weather will look like is called Weather Forecast or Weather prediction.
 Weather instruments are stored in a Stevenson Screen.
 Stevenson Screen is a wooden box with percolated holes to allow free movement of air or
free circulation of air.

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Weather conditions can be described as;

 Windy
 Sunny
 Rainy
 Cloudy

Elements of weather

 Elements of weather are things that make up weather such as;

 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Air pressure
 Humidity
 Wind direction
 Wind speed
 Cloud cover
 Sunshine

Measuring of weather conditions

Temperature

 Temperature is measured using a thermometer.

 The unit for temperature is degrees Celsius (˚C).
 Thermometers are in different types such as digital and analogue.
 Temperature is how hot or cold something is.

Wind direction

 Wind direction is measured using a wind vane.

 Wind vane shows the direction in which wind is moving into such as; north, south, west or east.

Wind speed

 Wind speed is measured using a cup anemometer.

 Wind is measured in the units of km/h.
 The stronger the wind the faster cups that make up the anemometer spin.

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 Humidity

 Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

 Humidity is also the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere.
 Humidity is measured using a hygrometer.
 There is a wet and dry bulb hygrometers used in measuring humidity.

Rainfall

 Rain is simply the amount of water falling from the melting clouds up in the sky.
 Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge.
 Rainfall is measured in millimeters (mm).
 A rain gauge should be placed above the ground to avoid water splashing into it from the ground.

Air pressure

 Air pressure is simply the total amount of atmospheric pressure.

 Air pressure is measured using a barometer.
 The unit for measuring air pressure is millibars (mb).
 A high pressure reading means that the air is dry.
 A low pressure reading means that the air is wet or moist and indicates rains.

Interpreting changes in weather conditions

There are many factors that can change the weather at any time such as;

 High humidity means there is lots of water vapour in the atmosphere and likely to rain.
 The drop in air pressure also means that the air more humid and likely to rain.
 The difference in temperature and at night if it’s less than 10(˚C).
 Winds from the northern parts of Botswana bring in more moisture leading to rains.

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Weather charts and symbols used

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

THE UNIVERSE

 The universe is everything that exists anywhere.

 The universe is so large that it has no end.
 The Universe is space and everything in it, big and small, visible and invisible, and known and
unknown.
 It is boundless and goes on and on forever.
 Using powerful telescopes, it is observed that it is composed of groups of galaxies each one
containing millions of stars.
 The Sun is just one of the millions of stars that form the Milky Way galaxy.
 The universe contains billions of stars.
 A star is a very large ball of very hot gas.
 Stars are thousands bigger than the earth.
 Stars produce a lot of heat and light.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 The word “solar” comes from the Latin word “Sol” meaning Sun.
 The solar system is made up of nine planets and the sun.

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What is Sun?
 The sun is a star.
 The Sun is the center of the solar system, which occupies only a small portion of the Milky Way
galaxy.
 The Sun appears much brighter and bigger than any other star because it is the closest star to
Earth.
 Light from the Sun takes about eight minutes to reach the Earth and about four years from the
nearest star after the Sun.
 The Sun is also about 110 times bigger than the Earth. It is a huge ball of gas that produces light
and heat.
 The Sun and all the bodies that revolve around it make up the solar system.
 The Sun and the Moon are the most dominant bodies in the solar system.
 The Sun is the primary source of the heat and light on Earth. If it were not of the Sun, the Earth
would be dark and a very cold.
 It is the nearest star to the earth.
 The Sun is about 150 million kilometers away from the Earth.
 The Sun is 5,500 degrees Celsius.
 The Sun is 74 times hotter than the highest ever temperature on Earth.
 The Sun gives life to Earth from all the energy the Sun makes.
 Around 74% of the Sun’s mass is made up of hydrogen, which is amazing as it is a very, very light
gas, in fact the lightest gas ever found. Helium makes up around 24%.
 The rest of the Sun is made up of other heavier gases like oxygen, carbon, iron and neon.
 Nine different planets and their moons travel round the Sun. Smaller bodies called

THE BODIES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The nine planets orbiting the Sun in order of their distance from the Sun, starting with the nearest are:

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The inner planets
 The inner planets include;
 Mercury
 Venus
 Earth and
 Mars
 These first four planets are all solid and made of rocky materials.

The outer planets

 The outer planets include;
 Jupiter
 Saturn
 Uranus and
 Neptune
 Pluto is thought to be rocky. Other than the planets of the solar system there are also other bodies.
These include meteors and comets.

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METEORS AND COMETS

 Meteors are particles of solid rock that enter the atmosphere from space at high speed. The friction
from the air makes the particles so hot that it burns up. This is what most people call a shooting
star.
 Meteors vary in size, and how fast they take to burn up is determined by their size. A large meteor
will burn much longer than a small meteor.
 Some meteors have been known to fall to the ground before they were completely incinerated.
After reaching the ground, the meteors are now called meteorites.

THE EARTH
 The earth is the only planet in the solar system that supports life.
 It is the third planet from the sun.
 It has a suitable temperature.
 The earth contains water which is a very important component that supports life.
 The earth contains good soil types that support vegetation and growing of different crops
 The Earth is also covered by a thick air mass (atmosphere) which acts as a good regulator for
temperatures between the Earth and outer space
 The distance between the Earth and the Sun also makes the Earth neither a very cold place nor a
very hot place, making it habitable to both animals and plants.
 The earth’s atmosphere contains oxygen used by people and animals
 The earth contains carbon dioxide used by plants to make their own food

LIFE ON OTHER PLANETS

A planet needs three things to support life or for organisms to live;

 An atmosphere which can be breathed in.

 A suitable temperature capable of supporting plants and animal growth.
 Water which is an essential component for living organisms to survive.

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 MATTER
What is matter?

 Matter is anything that occupies space and has got mass.

 Matter is everything that we come across in our lives, like the air you breathe, the clothes you
wear, cool drinks and the food you carry to school.
 Matter is anything that has mass and takes up all available spaces in the environment.
 Matter is everything around us, like literally everything.
 Matter is everything that we can touch and feel.

STATES OF MATTER

 Matter is found in 3 major states namely; solid, liquid and gas.

 There are other less common states of matter called plasma and fluids (beam).
 All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter.

SOLIDS

 Solids are objects that keep their own shapes.

 Solids do not flow in a given temperature.
 Solids are composed of atoms closely packed together.
 Solids come into different colors and textures.
 Solids can be turned into different shapes
 Its molecules are compactly joined together.
 The particles in solids attract one another very strongly.
 They cannot move around or flow.
 Solids are mostly hard at room temperature.
 Solids keep its shape (fixed shape)

LIQUIDS

 Liquids do not hold their shape at room temperature.

 Liquids take up the shape of the container they are in.
 Liquids normally flow at a given temperature.
 The atoms of a liquid are loosely packed together.
 Particles in a liquid move slightly all the time.
 The particles in liquid attract less strongly.
 Liquids can change its shape anytime (no fixed shape).
 Examples of liquids are tea, water and blood.

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GASES

 Gases are air-like substances that can move around freely or flow to fit a container and they don’t
have their own shape.
 You can put your hand through gases and you won’t feel them.
 Gases are always moving.(from high concentration to low concentration)
 There is so much space between the atoms in gas that you can move around in them easily.
 Gases will take on the shape of their container and can be compressed into a smaller space.
 Gas molecules move as far apart as they can.
 Gases fill up the whole container.
 Gases have no fixed shape.
 Gases have no fixed volume.

CHANGE OF STATE
 Matter can move from one state to another, but can still be the same substance.
 A change of state, also called a phase change, is a physical change from one state of matter to
another, for example, from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas.
 By lowering the temperature of water, it can freeze into a solid. By heating water, it can become
steam which is a gas. Whether solid, liquid or gas ‐ water is still water.

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PROCESSES OF MATTER
 From gas to liquid is called condensation
 From liquid to solid is called freezing or solidification
 From solid to liquid is called melting
 From liquid to gas is called is called vaporization
 From solid to gas is called sublimation
 From gas to solid is called deposition/sublime

METALS AND NON-METALS

 Solids can be divided into two groups; metals and non-metals.

Properties of Metals
Metals possess the following characteristics of being;

 Shiny (very smooth and reflecting light).

 Hard (not soft or impenetrable).
 Fusible (easy to be melted).
 Malleable (easily beaten into any shape without breaking/cracking).
 Ductile (easily beaten into thin wire/component without breaking and losing its toughness).
 Good conductors of electricity and heat
 Except for mercury, metals are solids at room temperature and pressure.
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Examples of metals

 Iron ▪Lead
 Copper ▪Zinc
 Aluminum ▪Chrome
 Gold ▪Tungsten

Properties of non – metals

 Non-metals are materials not holding the characteristics of metals, means they are not shiny, hard,
fusible, malleable, ductile, etc.
 Nonmetals are typically poor electrical and thermal conductors and don't have a metallic luster.
 Non-metals can be found as solids, liquids, or gases under ordinary conditions.

Examples of non- metals

 Wood ▪Sulphur

 Diamond ▪Phosphorus

 Carbon ▪Coal

 Plastic ▪Rubber

No Property Description Metal Non- Mental

1 Colour appearance Mostly shiny Mostly dull
2 Hardness Mostly hard Mostly soft
3 Strength Mostly strong Mostly weak
4 Can it bend without breaking? Mostly can Mostly cannot
5 Density High density Low density
6 Is it hard to melt? Mostly yes Mostly easy to melt
7 Making a ringing sound when hit? Mostly yes No
8 Conduct heat well? Yes No
9 Conduct electricity? Yes No except carbon

Uses of metals according to their physical properties

 Metals are strong and are used to build bridges such as the new Kazungula Bridge.
 Metals are used to make metal beams for huge buildings.
 Metals are shiny and used in making jewellery.
 Metals are used to make shiny parts of motorcars.

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  Metals are used for making knives and other cutting tools because they are hard.
 Metals are used for making cooking utensils because they don’t melt easily.
 Tungsten is used as a wire in light bulbs because as a metal it doesn’t melt.
 Metal are good conductors of electricity such as copper and aluminum.
 Metals are used in making cutlery because they are strong and hard.

Uses of non-metals according to their physical properties

 Non-metals such as coal and wood can burn easily to produce heat.
 Phosphorus and Sulphur equally burns and used in making heads of matches.
 Diamond being the hardest non mental is used in making drill bits/heads for cutting hardest rocks.
 Diamond is also used in making of wedding rings, neck chains, ear rings etc.
 Plastics are used in packaging and confectionery industries.
 Rubber is used for making shoe heals, tyres, latex gloves etc.

HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS
 A household chemical exits as a solid, liquid and gas.
 Household chemicals are substances that are found in our houses and homes.
 Some household chemicals are dangerous while others are not.

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Solids
 Salt is a solid substance made of small grains and its used for making food taste.
 Sugar is a solid substance also made of small grains used for making food and drinks sweeter.
 Bicarbonate of soda is equally a solid substance made of small grains and used in the preparation
of foods.
 Baking powder is another solid substance used in baking as a raising agent.
 Washing powder and paste are solid substances used for washing clothes and cleaning of other
surfaces in the house.
 Epsom salt is a solid substance that we drink to help relieve pain in our stomachs.

Liquids
 Liquid s soap is used to clean pots, dishes and pans.
 Cooking oil is used to cook and fry foodstuffs.
 Vinegar is a liquid used to give food a sour taste.
 Liquid cleaners such as Andy Handy, Jik, Vim, and Mr Muscle are used for removing dirt and
grease.

Gas
 Insect sprays such as doom, target, and fast kill are kept in a can with a press able burton used to
kill flies, cockroaches and mosquitoes.
 Gas cylinders are filled up with gas that is used for cooking, heating and lighting.
 Deodorants are also kept in cans and used for spraying our bodies to keep them smelling fresh
and nice.
 Air fresheners are mainly kept in cans and used for spraying in rooms to keep the air smelling
fresh.

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 ENERGY
What is energy?

 Energy is the ability to do work. We use energy to work, walk, and talk, learn, play sport, dance and do
many other things.

 What is work?
 Work is done when energy is transferred from one form to another.
 Work is also done when a force causes an object to move.
 A persons hand warms up when they rub them together repeatedly.

The conservation law of energy states that;

 Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can only change from one form to another.

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 FORMS OF ENERGY

Kinetic energy
 This is a form of energy that causes movements (when something is moving it has kinetic energy)

Heat energy
 This is a form of energy found when a substance is hot.

Potential/ Stored energy

 This is a form of energy an object has because of its position (where it is).
 A form of energy possessed by an object at rest.

Chemical energy

 This is a form of energy that is released when a chemical reaction takes place (usually when
something burns).
 A form of energy produced through combustion (burning).

Electrical energy

 This is a form of energy that produces electricity from an electrical source

 Electrical energy can come from batteries or from an electric current from a wire or a cable.

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Light energy

 This is a form of energy released from a light beam.

 A form of energy produced by a flash light or light rays from the sun.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

 Sources of energy simply means where energy comes from.

Fuels

 Fuels are substances that produce energy when they burn.

 Wood, coal, paraffin, diesel and gas are fuels.

Electricity

 Electricity produces electric energy that can power up electric appliances and equipment’s.

Wind

 Wind is used to turn windmills that turn up water pumps and electric motors in order to produce
electric current.

The sun (solar power)

 The sun is a major source of all forms of energies around the world.
 The sun or solar directly or indirectly gives energy to living and non-living things.

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 RENEWABLE AND NON- RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Renewable energy sources

 These are energy forms that never finishes.

 These are kinds of energy that cannot be exhausted.
 These are energy types that cannot diminish.
 These are forms of energy that can never be used up.
Examples of renewable energy sources
 Solar power from the sun
 Wind power(energy from wind to turn windmills that pumps out water and generate
electricity)
 Hydroelectric power (energy from water to turn large turbines that generate electricity)

Non- renewable energy sources

 These are energy forms that can be used up so that there is none left
 These are energy forms that finishes.
 These are kinds of energy that can be exhausted.
 These are energy types that can diminish.
 These are forms of energy that can be used up.

Examples of renewable energy sources

 Coal
 Oil (paraffin, petrol, diesel)
 Gas

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 HOW ORGANISMS OBTAIN THEIR ENERGY

 Every living organism requires energy to live and survive.

 Where does this energy come from then?

Human body

Our bodies store carbohydrates and fats;

 These then combine with the oxygen that we breathe in to produce heat and energy needed by our
bodies.
 Water and carbon dioxide are also produced during this chemical reaction.
 The water is removed by the kidneys while carbon dioxide is breathed out through the lungs.
 This process is called respiration.

Plants

 Plants use the starch and sugar which is stored up as plant food.
 In a chemical reaction called respiration, food is broken down and energy is produced.
 Water vapour and carbon dioxide is produced and passed out at night through the leaves.

Germs and Bacteria’s

 Bacteria’s and germs living on food equally break down food through respiration to produce
energy.
 The energy produced and other byproducts warm up the bacteria’s and germs.

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 HEAT

What is heat?

 This is a form of energy found when a substance is hot.

Sources of heat

 Burning fuel such as wood, coal, oil and gas

 Electric current
 Sunlight
 Friction (when things are rubbed against one another)

Uses of heat

 To melt some substances such as candles(wax)or stones(minerals)

 To cook food
 To keep our homes and bodies warm
 To produce steam that can drive machines like locomotives and electrical generators
 To bend or weld metals
 To dry things
 To relieve pain from a sore part of one’s body.

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The effects of heat on the temperature and volume of a substance

 Temperature increase
 Increase in size (it causes things to become bigger or expand)

LIGHT
What is light?

 This is a form of energy released from a light beam.

 A form of energy produced by a flash light or light rays from the sun.
 Light is a form of energy.
 It travels in straight lines which we call rays.
 When light rays enter the eye, they produce a sensation that we call light.

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Sources of light
There are two main sources of light namely;

 Natural and Artificial (man- made) sources of light

 Artificial (man- made) sources of light

Natural sources of light

 The sun and all the other stars
 Lightning
 Fireflies
 The moon

Artificial sources of light

 Fires and flames
 electric light

The difference between luminous and non- luminous objects

 A luminous body or object produces its own light.
 A non- luminous body or object does not produce its own light.

Examples of luminous objects

 A Fire
 A burning lamp
 An electric light bulb

Examples of non- luminous objects

 The moon (it does not produce its own light; it shines because the light from the sun falls on it).
 Wall
 Book
 Tree

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How light is reflected from different sources

SOUND
What is sound?

 Sound is a form of energy.

 It enters the ears and produces a sensation that we call sound.

Sources of sound

 People talking or shouting.

 A bell ringing.
 A radio playing.
 A car hooting.
 The sound of thunder.
 The referee blowing a whistle.
 A trumpet playing.
 A tin can falling off the shelf.

What really causes sound?

 Sound is caused by vibrations.

How does sound travel?

 Sound can only travel through a material medium such as air, wood, steel, water and glass to carry
the vibrations to one’s ears.

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  Sound cannot travel through a vacuum (an empty space) because there is no air that can vibrate.

Constructing a simple musical instrument

How to change the pitch and loudness of sound produced by a vibrating object
 How to produce a higher pitch (louder sound)
 Tighten (stretch more) the strings/ wires of the instrument.
 Striking the strings harder.

How to produce a lower pitch (softer or lower sound)

 Loosen (stretch less) the strings/ wires.
 Striking the strings lightly.

FORCE AND MOTION

What is a force?

 A force is a push or a pull.

TYPES OF FORCES
Muscular forces

 These are forces that are exerted by people and animals.

 They use their muscles to push or to pull.
 These are forces exerted by people or animals when they use muscles to push or pull.

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Mechanical forces

 These are forces exerted by machines.

 Some kind of engine or motor is used to push or pull.

Electric forces

 These forces are exerted when certain things are rubbed.

Magnetic force

 This is the force between the poles of different magnets.

Elastic force

 This is the force exerted when certain things are stretched or squeezed and in return they push or
pull back.

Gravitational force

 This is the force of attraction that pulls object down

 This is a force that causes objects to fall
 The diagram above shows that something is pulling the object downwards just like something was
holding the heavy object to the floor.

MEASURING FORCE

 The instrument used for measuring force is called spring scale.

 The unit for measuring force is called newton.

EFFECTS OF FORCE ON AN OBJECT

 It can change the shape of an object.

 It can change the movement or motion of an object.

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 STATIC ELECTRICITY
 Static electricity is electricity or an electric charge that does not move (does not flow).
 Static electricity stays in one place.
 Static electricity occurs only on insulators (objects that do not conduct electricity)
 Static electricity is electricity that does not move it stays in one place.
 All static electricity is produced by rubbing something.
 Like (same) charges repel one another and unlike (different) charges attract one another.

HOW TO PRODUCE STATIC ELECTRICITY

Have you ever noticed tiny sparks when you take off a woolen jersey? The clothing rubbing against your
skin produces these sparks. This is a form of electricity called static electricity. The sparks are like tiny bolts
of lightning.

 All static electricity is produced when rubbing something.

 When you rub a plastic ruler with a cloth it will become charged with static electricity and pick up
small pieces of paper.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

What is current electricity?

 Current electricity is a flow or current of electric charges from one place to another along a
conductor.
 An electric current is a flow of electricity from one place to another along a conductor.
 Electric current produced by a cell or a battery is called Direct Current (DC) because it flows in one
direction (from positive (+) to Negative (-).
 The electricity used in homes, shops, schools, etc., does not have positive and negative terminals,
therefore it is called Alternating Current (AC) because it changes direction many times each
second.
 This is called alternating current because (AC) because it changes direction many times each
second.

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 CONSTRUCTING SIMPLE CIRCUITS

What is a circuit?

 A circuit is a path in which electric current flows.

 A circuit is a passage in which electricity moves from one point to another.
 It is a path for electric charge to move from the source to where it’s needed.

OPEN CIRCUIT
 When the switch is open we say it is an open circuit.
 On an open circuit the lamp does not light.
 The bulb does not light

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CLOSED CIRCUIT
 On a closed (complete) circuit the current flows and the lamp lights up.
 An electric current can only flow in a closed/ complete circuit.
 The bulb lights up.

What happens when the numbers of cells in a series circuit are changed?
 If we increase the number of cells in the circuit, the lamp/bulb shine brighter.
 If we decrease the number of cells, the bulbs brightness decreases.
 The more the cells, the brighter the bulb and the less the cells, the dimmer the bulb.
 The strength of an electric current depends on the number of cells in a circuit.
 If we increase the number of cells in a circuit the bulb shines brighter
 When there are more light bulbs in a circuit the lighter is dimmer
 This is because each light bulb uses current the more they are the less the current will flow and the
dimmer the light bulbs are.

Electric circuits
 An electric circuit must have a source of electricity
 That can be one or more batteries
 Conductors and Insulators.
 A conductor is material that can carry electricity from one place to the other.
 An insulator is a material that will not conduct electricity but will keep in one place.
 Metals are good conductors of electricity.
 Carbon conducts electricity (it is the only metal that does conduct electricity)
 Nonmetals such as wood, plastics, paper, glass, rubber do not conduct electricity.

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 ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
What is an electric conductor?

 An electric conductor is a material that carries or conducts electricity from one place to another.
 Metals are good conductors of electricity.

Example of electric conductors

 Iron ▪Lead ▪Carbon

 Copper ▪Zinc
 Aluminium ▪Chrome
 Gold ▪Tungsten

What is an insulator?

 An insulator is a material that will not conduct electricity but will keep it in one place.

 Non- metals besides carbon do not conduct electricity.

Example of insulators

 Wood ▪Sulphur
 Diamond ▪Phosphorus
 Coal
 Carbon is the only non- metal that conducts electricity.

MAGNETS AND MADNETISM

Magnetism
 Certain rocks contain iron and are called magnetite
 Magnets are made in different shapes
 Magnets are made in different shapes
 The most common are bar magnets

Types of magnets

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  Permanent magnets
 Bar magnet
 Horseshoe magnets
 Electromagnets

A bar magnet
 Horse shoe magnets
 A horse shoe magnet
 They are called permanent magnets
 Because they do not lose their magnetism

Electromagnetism
 Nearly 200 years ago a scientist discovered that when electricity current was flowing in a wire,
there are magnetic forces around the wire.
 This was then used to build electromagnets.

Properties of magnets
 Magnets attract some materials
 Magnets have poles (North (N) and South poles (S)) and they are strongest at the poles.
 Magnets show direction; the N Pole of the magnet points to the North and the S Pole points to the
South.
 Magnets exert a force; like poles repel and unlike poles attract one another.
 Some of the objects are attracted to the magnet (like those made out of iron and steel, or nickel)
 Any material that is attracted to a magnet is magnetic and a material that is not
 Attracted by a magnet is called non-magnetic.

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 Magnetic and non- magnetic materials
Magnetic materials

Iron Nickel Steel Cobalt Gadolinium Dysprosium Aluminium Lead Brass Silver Copper Gold

Non- magnetic materials

Wood Paper Plastic Diamond

ELECTROMAGNETISM
 An electromagnet is made when an electric current is flowing in a wire causing a magnetic force
around the wire.

Making an electromagnet

Ways of increasing the strength of an electromagnet

 Using a stronger current (increasing the number of cells)
 Using more windings or coils (increasing the number of windings or coils)

Uses of electromagnets

 Electromagnets are used in generators in power stations.

 Electromagnets are used in motors
 Electromagnets are used in door bells.
 Electromagnets are used in lifting and moving scrap metals.
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Advantages of electromagnets over permanent magnets

 An electromagnet can be switched on or off unlike the permanent magnet.

 An electromagnet is more powerful than the ordinary magnet.

FOOD AND NUTRITION

They are many and different sorts of food all over the world, most of which we have not seen or eaten. But
wherever you go, all the food can be sorted into four groups namely:

 Body –building foods,

 Energy – giving foods,
 Protective foods
 Supplementary foods.

Food contains substances called nutrients and our bodies need these nutrients for:
 Growth and repair
 Protection against diseases
 Energy
The different kinds of nutrients are vitamins, minerals, fats, roughages, carbohydrates, proteins and water.
Every nutrient found in the food has its own function in the body. We can classify these nutrients into the
following groups.

Body Building Foods

These foods are mainly proteins such as soya, meat, fish, eggs, garden peas, jugo beans, baked beans,
groundnuts, cheese etc.

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We need proteins for growth and to repair the body. Growing infants require more proteins than adults.
Proteins could be thus divided into animal protein and plant protein.

Energy Giving Foods

These are mainly carbohydrates and fats. Carbohydrates are starchy and sugary foods like maize meal,
sorghum, potatoes, honey and sugar. Fats are foods like sunflower oil, margarine and nuts. These foods
give us energy to work, learn and play.
The more active people are, the more energy giving meal, maize meal, jam, sugar, sweet biscuits, honey,
baked beans, flour, oats, chocolate, cake, milk etc.

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Protective foods such as milk, cheese, green vegetables, salt, water, liver, red meat, whole meal bread,
bran provide essential minerals like calcium, iron, fluoride, sodium, chlorine etc.

Supplementary Foods
Other essential nutrients required in food are water and dietary fibre. Most foods are a mixture of several
food groups. That is why one type of food would fall under different groups of nutrients e.g. milk.
However, a variety of foods need to be eaten to provide the body with sufficient of each of the substances
in order to grow and to develop properly carrots, milk, butter, green vegetables, margarine, oats, cheese,
liver, oily fish, eggs, fruits, etc. These provide essential vitamins like Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin K etc.

Food Handling
 Food handling is concerned with food hygiene.
 It involves proper care, preparation and storage of food so that germs do not
contaminate it.
 Germs can cause food poisoning.
 Eating food that had been contaminated by germs that may upset the stomach and
intestines causes most food poisoning.

Four ways of proper handling of food are:

 Keep food clean.
 Cook food thoroughly
 Keep fresh food cold when being stored
 Do not eat if spoiled.

There are other ways of keeping food clean which are:

 Keeping the food covered.
 Washing and drying hands on a clean towel before preparing food.
 Covering any boils or wounds before handling food.
 Not sneezing or coughing over food.
 Keeping the kitchen and kitchen utensils clean.
 Not licking fingers or smoking when handling food
 Keeping raw meats separately, especially poultry.
 Keeping away from kitchen when suffering from diarrhoea or sickness.

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 DISEASES
What is a disease?
 A condition that affects the proper function of the body or mind.
 A disease makes a person sick or unwell.
 May cause pain, tiredness or weakness.
 Causes rise in body temperature.
 May cause the sick person to die.

Causes of diseases
 Diseases are caused by small organisms called germs.
 Therecanonlybeseenunderamicroscope.
 Germs can go into our bodies in different ways, breathing, swallowing through the food we eat,
getting into the blood stream when there is a cut in the skin or the person is bitten by a mosquito
and ticks.

Communicable diseases
 A communicable disease is one where the germs can pass from the sick person to a healthy
person. The healthy person can become sick with the disease.
 Tuberculosis is a communicable disease.
 HIV/AIDS is very dangerous communicable disease.
 Children disease like measles, chickenpox, mumps, diphtheria, whooping cough.

Non-communicable diseases
 Malaria is a non-communicable disease.
 The germs are carried from the sick person by a mosquito.
 Bilharzia is another non communicable disease.
 Cancer, diabetes and heart diseases are non-communicable diseases because they cannot be
passed from one person to another.

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 SAFETY
What is safety?
 It means free from danger or injury.
 Accidents can happen at school, in home and on the road.
 To avoid accidents we should obey safety rules.
 To avoid injuries in the classrooms and school, learners should avoid running and throwing objects
around.
 Learners should always avoid carrying dangerous objects like knives, matches, pins or
screwdrivers around with them.

Safety rules
 Our schools and homes are places where we feel safe but people can die.
 Accidents can be prevented if we learn about dangers which are around us.
 Make fire in a protected place where there is no wind.
 Do not let animals or children play next to a fire.
 Do not sit or stand close to a fire.
 Never let a fire burn in a room with all windows and doors closed the burning fire will use all the
oxygen and people will easily suffocate.

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Putting out fire
A burning fire needs 3 things to keep burning;

 Heat to make the fuel hot enough to burn.

 Oxygen
 Fuel

Removing the heat

 If a fire is cooled down it will die out.
 This can be done by using water to cool it down.
 If there are electric cables one should not spray water on the fire it will cause a short circuit that will
make the fire worse.
 If its petrol burning one should not spray it with water but uses sand.

Remove oxygen/air
 The easiest way to cut off fire is to cut air from the flames.
 One can wrap a blanket around the person whose clothes are burning.
 One can pour sand or dirt on to a fire.
 Where petrol or an electrical fire one cannot use water but use a fire extinguisher.
 If there is a fire in a room one should try keep windows and doors closed. This will cut off the flow
of air to the fire.

Remove any fuel that may burn

 If there is a gas turn it off.

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 ROAD SAFETY
 Accidents are the second greatest cause of death in Botswana after HIV/AIDS.
 Road accidents happen even though there are traffic rules.
 Both motorists and pedestrians have a responsibility to follow traffic rules in order to avoid many
road accidents.
 The purpose of traffic rules is to direct and control traffic. These helps to protect road users from
possible road hazards e.g. pedestrians and drivers.
 Without traffic rules roads would become more dangerous to use, as people would drive as they
pleased.
 Pedestrians would be in more danger because drivers would dominate the roads.
 People would drive at high speeds and drunk and thus endangering the lives of other road users.
 The result would be more accidents, more loses of lives and this would affect the economy of the
country.
 One of the traffic rules that is directive is wearing the safety belt. The safety belt is meant to hold the
driver or passenger in place in the event of an accident. This could be a head on collision or the vehicle
hitting an object or overturning. Otherwise the driver or passenger would be thrown out where he would
hit some other object and die.

FIRST AID

What is First Aid?

 This is the medical help we give to someone immediately after an accident.
 It’s the first help given to someone injured before being taken to the hospital.

PURPOSE OF FIRST AID

 Remove the person from danger and prevent further injury.
 Reduce pain and make the person comfortable
 Reassure and calm the person
 Save the person’s life before he/she is seen by a doctor.
 First-aid is very important in that it can be used to save lives.
 Accidents often occur in school, at the playground and at home.
 it is very important that one knows what to do in the event of an accident. People often get cut, fall over,
get burnt or scalded, drink poisonous substances like paraffin, or are stung by insects or bitten by
animals.
 It is very important that when such accidents occur there is someone who can attend to the problem
before medical assistance is sort.
 For one to deal with these first-aid problems it is helpful to have all the necessary equipment handy in a
special box called the first-aid kit box.

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Suggested contents for the first-aid box are:
 eye dropper or eye bath
 bandages
 scissors
 safety pins
 anti-sting cream
 antiseptic wipes e.g. Dettol or Savlon
 crepe bandage
 plasters
 calamine lotion or cream
 disposal bag
 safety pin
 adhesive tape
 plastic gloves

BODY SYSTEMS
Human body systems

 All living things are made up of building blocks and cells.

 There are so small that one can see them through a microscope.
 Cells in our bodies have different shapes.
 There are many different types of cells including body cells, liver cells, blood cells and bone cells.
 When the same cells are grouped together they are called tissue.
 The body has many tissues including muscle tissue, nerve tissue and blood tissue.
 When different tissues are put together they form an organ e.g. the heart is made up of muscle
tissue, nerve tissue and blood.
 When different organs work together it is called a system.
 The heart, arteries and veins together form a system called the circulatory system or blood system.

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 CELLS ↔ TISSUES ↔ ORGANS ↔ BODYSYSTEM

The respiratory system:

 These are organs with which we breathe; this brings oxygen into our bodies

The skeletal system

 These are the bones that keep the body firm and strong.

The nervous system

 These are the brains and nerves they let us feel, see and hear things. The brain let us think.

The excretory system

 These are the kidneys, bladder and other organs.

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The digestive system
 This system is just like a tube that starts from the mouth to the anus.

The circulatory system

 This is the system that circulates blood throughout the body. It is made up of the heart that pumps
the blood through the tubes or blood vessels of the body.
 The blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called the arteries. Those that carry
blood to the heart are called veins.

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The reproductive system
 The main function of the reproductive system is to produce a baby. Man and female reproductive
organs are different.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
PUBERTY
Puberty is the period when bodes of girls and boys change from that of a child to that of an adult and they
can produce a child. We say they have become sexually mature the body is preparing for manhood and
motherhood.

Signs of puberty in girls

 Skin becomes oily.
 Breasts develop.
 Body hair begins to grow in her armpits and on genitals.
 The vagina becomes bigger
 The hips widen.
 The ovaries start producing eggs.
 The womb becomes bigger and monthly periods begin.

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Signs of puberty in boys
 The skin becomes oily.
 Muscles develop more than in girls.
 Broad shoulders develop.
 Nipples may become painful.
 Hair grows in armpits and on the chest.
 The beard appears. Pubic hair grows.
 The voice breaks.
 The penis grows.
 The testes become painful and start producing sperms.

Menstruation

 Men striation happens when a woman releases blood and tissue from the womb. It happens once
in 28days.
 If the woman is not pregnant she will call it her periods. It usually lasts from 3 to 7 days.
 Menstruation starts during puberty. Menstruation stops during pregnancy and starts when the baby
is born.
 After the age of approximately 45 years, menstruation usually stops permanently. This is called
menopause.

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