MODULE 6

SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM:

“FREE VIBRATION”

I. OVERVIEW
In a given structure the number of degrees of freedom refers to the number of
displacements (translational, rotational and torsional) that are possible to occur for all
parts of the given system at any instant of time.

A simple system of lumped mass connected to a rod which is attached to a fixed

support is shown in Figure 2.1. The system is capable of translational motion along the
X-axis only. Its change in position as referred from the initial static condition is described
by a single quantity X, such system is called a single degree of freedom or SDOF.
Actual structures have an infinite number of degrees of freedom but there are cases
when it can be idealized as a simple oscillating system.

k
m k
k m

Figure 2.1 : Simple oscillating system

F(t)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 : (a) Simple beam (b) Idealized model

Take for example a simple beam in Figure 2.2 subjected to vibratory load F(t) at
the mid-span. To solve the time-varying mid-span deflection of the beam, we can adopt
a SDOF system model where the mass and inertial property of the beam can be lumped
as one mass and the stiffness of the system is given as

P L3
K= =
 3EI

where: P = static force producing deflection at the mid-span

 = mid-span deflection due to a concentrated force P
L = length of the system
E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section

The dynamic response of a system can be determined using Closed Form or the
Numerical Method of analysis. The closed form will give an explicit equation of
displacement, acceleration and velocity in terms of time and the system parameters.
However, this can only be applied for systems which are simple enough to formulate an
equation, and to be expressed in simple mathematical terms.

COURSE MATERIALS

1.0 FREE VIBRATION

If a mass is disturbed from its static state by giving an initial condition and then allowing
it to vibrate freely, its resulting motion is called free vibration. Displacement or velocity
or the combination of the two that is given to the system at time t = 0 is referred as the
initial condition.

Actual vibrating system dissipates energy with respect to time, and its
idealization and FBD of the mass are shown in Figure 2.3. Where m represents the
mass and inertial property, and k the stiffness of the structure. The dashpot symbol
represents the damping characteristics of the structure; the constant c is the coefficient
of viscous damping. Aside from the inertial force (m ẍ) and force proportional to
displacement (k x), a retarding force (c ẋ) idealizing the dissipation of kinetic energy is
also acting on the mass.

mẍ cẋ
k

kx

(a) Mathematical Model (b) Free Body Diagram

Figure 2.3 : Free Vibrating System

1.2 UNDAMPED SYSTEM

Take the simple case where the c value is neglected. It is assumed that the damping
coefficient, c= 0 or it is negligible, such that we have an ideal undamped system. This
academic case that during vibration there is no dissipation of kinetic energy hence, the
resulting motion is continuous and never ending.

m
m

k k k

Frame Idealized Ball and Rod Model

Figure 2.4 : Idealization of frame into a ball rod

A. Development of Equation of Motion

The development of equation of motion can be facilitated by making a free body

diagram of an idealized model as in Figure 2.4

If a mass is distributed from its static state giving an initial condition and then
allowing it to move freely, its resulting motion is free vibration.

x
x
x (t)

Static state Applied initial displacement Displacement released

Figure 2.5 : Oscillation of a Single-Degree-of Freedom (SDOF) System

Displacement or velocity or the combination of the two that is given to the system at
time t = 0 are referred as initial condition.

After the release, the corresponding free-body-diagram of the lumped mass in

motion is as shown.

a FI = ma

FS = k x(t )

Figure 2.6 : Free-body-diagram of lumped mass without damping

Let:
FI = Inertial Force
FS = Spring / Resisting Force

d
= x = ẋ = velocity
dt
d2
a = 2 x = ẍ = acceleration of the mass
dt
x(t ) = x = displacement of mass at time “ t “

 FH = 0 : FI + FS = 0

ma + k x (t ) = 0
d2
m x+ k x =0
dt 2
or m ẍ+ k x=0
The above equation is the equation of motion, free vibration without damping.

The equation of motion is a typical second-order homogeneous, linear differential

equation where in its complete solution can be solve based from an existing general
procedure.

Rewriting the equation of motion

m ẍ+ k x=0
k
ẍ + x=0
m
d2 k
or in the form, 2
x+ x=0
dt m

Another form is by using the operator D notation, where D = d dt or the derivative with
respect to time t . In the same context the second derivative of ẍ is

d2
D2 =
dt 2
Substitute the operator D to the equation of motion

mD 2 x + k x = 0
( mD 2 + k ) x = 0

k
( D2 + ) x =0
m

In order not to defeat the purpose, i.e. there is motion, set : x  0

k
The ( D 2 + ) also plays the role of characterizing the solution based on the roots of D .
m
Hence,
k
( D2 + )=0
m
k
D2 = − --------- This is known as the characteristic equation
m
k
Let w 2 = , such that the characteristic equation becomes
m
k
w2 =
m
then: D =  - w2
2

D= i w

the above equation of D is with complex and distinct roots.

From Differential Equation, equation with complex and distinct roots a  i b or

( D = a  i b ) has a standard general solution

x = C1e at cos bt + C 2 e at sin bt

or x = e at (C1 cos bt + C 2 sin bt )

In the same manner, roots 0  i w , where a = 0 and b = w = k m has a solution

 x = C1e 0t cos wt + C 2 e 0t sin wt
x = C1 cos wt + C 2 sin wt

if C1 = A and C 2 = B

then
x = A cos wt + B sin wt

This equation is the equation of displacement which explicitly solves the displacement
for any finite value of time t .The parameter w influence the degree of repetition of motion or
the rate of oscillation of the mass, and it is called the Natural Angular Frequency. It is a function
of the k and m of the system and has a unit of radian / second.

The equation of velocity of the mass is given as the first derivative of x with respect to
time.
ẋ = − w A sin wt + w B cos wt

In the same manner, the second derivative of ẋ with respect to time is the equation of
acceleration developed by the mass.

ẍ = − w 2 A cos wt − w 2 B sin wt

The A and B constants can be evaluated based on the given initial condition. If initial
displacement xo and velocity ẋo is applied at time t = 0 to equation of displacement and equation
of velocity. That is

a) @ t = 0 , xo = initial displacement
From the equation of displacement:

x = A cos wt + B sin wt
or xo = A cos wt + B sin wt

substitute time t = 0

xo = A cos w(0) + B sin w(0)

xo = A cos( 0) + B sin( 0)

xo = A
hence: A = xo

b) similarly, @ t = 0, ẋ0 = initial velocity

From equation of velocity:

ẋ = − w A sin wt + w B cos wt
or ẋ0 = − w A sin wt + w B cos wt

substitute time t = 0

ẋ0 = − w A sin w(0) + w B cos w(0)

ẋ0 = − w A sin 0 + w B cos 0
ẋ0 = w B
hence: B = ẋ0 / w
Substitute the values of A and B constants to the equations of displacement, velocity and
acceleration.
a. displacement : x = xo cos wt + (ẋ0 / w ) sin wt
b. velocity : ẋ = − w xo sin wt + w ( ẋ0 / w ) cos wt
ẋ = − w xo sin wt + ẋ0 cos wt
c. acceleration : ẍ = − w 2 xo cos wt − w 2 ( ẋ0 / w ) sin wt
ẍ = − w 2 xo cos wt − w ẋ0 sin wt

1.3 DAMPED SYSTEM

It is a rare case if not impossible to have an actual undamped free vibrating case. Such
system produces a continuous motion that goes on indefinitely. In actual structure, the
dissipation of energy occurs and its result is the gradual halt of motion known as
damping.

Damping is a natural phenomenon that the kinetic energy due to vibration of

structure is dissipated due to friction, looseness of joints, mechanical interaction of
structural elements and others.

Out of the many factors contributing to the magnitude of damping, viscous

damping is the most frequently considered by structural designer. This is because
viscous damping can be expressed in relation to the velocity of the structure, making
the mathematical aspect simpler.

Viscous damping can be visualized by assuming that the structure is submerged

in a fluid as shown in Figure 2.7.

Fluid Surface
m

confined c
fluid
k

Submerged structure Model

Figure 2.7 : Visualization of viscous damping effect and model

As the structure deflects due to dynamic load, the fluid tends to restrain the
movement. This produces an advantageous effect on the structure since deflection is
limited. On the other hand, damping is not always advantageous to the structure. Proper
and further investigation must be first obtained in order that the effect of damping on
structural system will be understood.

In the subsequent topics of this text, structural damping will be treated as viscous
damping regardless of the actual dissipative characteristics of the system. The logic
behind this is that this will lead to a relatively simple mathematical analysis.
A. Development of Equation of Motion

The free-body-diagram of a lumped mass in motion with damping is shown in

Figure 2.8.

FI = ma
a
FD = c v

FS = k x(t )
Figure 2.8 : Free-body-diagram of a lumped mass with damping

Let:
FI = Inertial Force
FS = Spring / Resisting Force
FD = Damping Force
where:
d
= x = ẋ = velocity
dt
d2
a = 2 x = ẍ = acceleration of the mass
dt
x(t ) = x = displacement of mass at time “ t “
c = coefficient of viscous damping

 FH = 0 : FI + FD + FS = 0
ma + c v + k x(t ) = 0
or mẍ + c ẋ + k x = 0

The above equation is the equation of motion, free vibration with damping.

Rewriting the equation of motion into

d2 d
m 2x + c x + k x=0
dt dt
let operator:
d
D=
dt
d2
D2 = 2
dt

then, the equation in operator D notation form is

m D2 x + c D x + k x = 0
( m D2 + c D + k ) x = 0
c k
( D2 + D + ) x =0
m m

In order not to defeat the purpose : x0

c k
Also, ( D 2 + D + ) is the characteristic equation.
m m

We can solve the roots of the characteristic equation by the use of quadratic
formula, thus,
2
−c  c − 4k
m m2 m
D1, 2 =
2
 −c
2
 c  k
or D1, 2 =    − 
2m  2m   m 

There are three different cases of roots possible depending on the value inside the
square root sign.

Case 1 0=
2
 c  k
Case 2 0>   − 
 2m   m 
Case 3 0<

Case 1) : If (c 2m ) = k m (Critical Damped Case)

2

This case is also known as the critically damped case. The resulting value inside
the radical sign is equal to zero, such that

2
 c  k
  − =0
 2m  m
2
 c  k
  =
 2m  m
2
c k
2
=
4m m

taking the square root on both sides

c k
=
2m m

k
c=2 m
m
k
let : w=
m

then c=2wm
or c cr = 2 w m

The c or ccr constant is the critical damping coefficient. The roots D1 and D2 obtained
in the characteristic equation are real and equal. For real and equal roots

D=a

The general solution for equation having real and equal roots D1 and D2 is

x = A eD1t + B t eD2t
−c
substituting D1, 2 =
2m
−c −c
t t
2m 2m
x=A e +Bt e
−c
t
2m
x = (A + B t) e
 This equation will produce a value of x that diminishes exponentially as time t
increases. Physically such system will not produce an oscillation but rather the initial
disturbance will return to its equilibrium position.

Case 2) : If (c 2m ) > k m
2
(Overdamped Case)

An overdamped case has a positive value inside the radical sign (greater than
zero), thereby producing real roots. For real roots but unequal

D = ab

The general solution for equation having real and distinct roots D1 and D2 is

x = A eD1t + B eD2t

−c
2
 c  k
where: D1 = +   − 
2m  2m   m 
−c
2
 c  k
D2 = −   − 
2m  2m   m 

In this case, the value of x also diminishes exponentially as time t increases.

There is no oscillation in the system and the physical mechanism is similar with the
critical damped case. (Note: The decay of the amplitude after the initial disturbance is
less rapid compared to the effect of case 1).

Case 3) : If (c 2m ) < k m
2
(Underdamped Case)

In the underdamped case, the resulting value inside the radical sign is negative
(less than zero), thus producing a complex and distinct root.

−c  k  c 2 
D1, 2 =  − −  
2m  m  2m  

−c
2
k  c 
D1, 2 = i − 
2m m  2m 
where : i = -1

The general solution of equation with complex and distinct roots a  ib is

x = eat C e ib

−c
2
k  c 
if a= and ib = i − 
2m m  2m 

2
−c k  c 
t i − 
2m m  2m 
then x= e C e

using Euler’s Formula to rewrite the preceding equation

e ix = cos x + i sin x
 −c

[ A cos k m − (c 2m ) t + B sin k m − (c 2m )
t 2 2
Hence x= e 2m
t]

The motion described by this equation is oscillatory and its amplitude diminishes
exponentially as time increases.

B. Plotted Response of the Three Cases of Roots

Case 1) : Critical Damped Case

which is a combination of:

and

−c
t
2m
(a) A + B (b) e

Case 2) : Overdamped Case

which is a combination of

and

(a) A eD1t (b) B eD2t

 Case 3) : Underdamped Case

which is a combination of

(a) A cos k m − (c 2m ) + B sin k m − (c 2m )

2 2

and

−c
t
(b) e 2 m

1.4 DAMPING RATIO / FACTOR, h

Since the value of the damping coefficient c is difficult to determine physically, it is better to
express it in terms of ratio or in percentage with the critical damping ccr The critical damping is a
function of m and k of the system and can be computed using the equation c cr = 2 w m from
Case 1 equation, that is

2
 c  k
  − =0
 2m  m
2
 c  k
  =
 2m  m
c2 k
=
4m 2 m
c k
=2
m m

k
c=2 m
m

k
let : w=
m
then c=2wm
or c cr = 2 m w

Since ccr is known, it is easier to estimate the ratio rather than to obtain directly the numerical
value of c .

c c
Let: h= =
ccr 2mw

which is known as the damping ratio / factor. The value of h are obtained experimentally (i.e.
free and forced vibration test) and it is dependent on many factors like properties, the kind of
structural materials and other which are difficult to determine.

Note: a. If c  c cr there is no vibration, hence, for the system to vibrate c < ccr
b. If h = 100 %, it is a critically damped case.

c
From h =
2mw
c = 2mwh

a. Substitute the value of c = 2mwh in the equation of displacement for critical damped case.
−c
t
2m
x = (A + B t) e
−2 mwh
t
2m
x = (A + B t) e
x = (A + B t) e − wht

b. Substitute the value of c = 2mwh and w 2 = k m in the equation of displacement for

overdamped case.

x = A eD1t + B eD2t

−c
2
 c  k
where: D1, 2 =    − 
2m  2m   m 
− 2mwh
2
 2mwh 
D1, 2 =    −w
2

2m  2m 
D1, 2 = − wh  (wh )2 − w 2
D1, 2 = − wh  w h 2 − 1

c. Substitute the value of c = 2mwh and w 2 = k m in the equation of displacement for

underdamped case
−c

[ A cos k m − (c 2m ) t + B sin k m − (c 2m )
t 2 2
2m
x= e t]
−2 mwh

[ A cos w 2 − (2mwh 2m ) t + B sin w 2 − (2mwh 2m )

t 2 2
2m
x= e t]
x = e − wht [ A cos w 2 − (wh ) t + B sin w 2 − (wh )
2 2
t]
x = e − wht [ A cos w 2 1 − h 2( ) (
t + B sin w 2 1 − h 2 ) t]
(
x = e − wht [ A cos w 1 − h 2 ) (
t + B sin w 1 − h 2 ) t]
let: wd = w 1 − h 2 = damped angular natural frequency
then
x = e − wht [ A cos wd t + B sin wd t ]
This equation explicitly solves the displacement case at any time of underdamped. The
first and second derivative of x is the velocity and acceleration response of the system
respectively. The constants A and B can be computed based on the given initial condition.

As a summary, the equations are

Case 1 : If (c
2m ) = k m (Critical Damped Case)
2

a. displacement : x = (A + B t) e − wht
b. velocity : ẋ = e − wht B - hw e − wht (A+B t)
c. acceleration :

Case 2 : If (c 2m ) > k m
2
(Overdamped Case)
a. displacement : x = A eD1t + B eD2t
b. velocity
c. acceleration

Case 3 : If (c 2m ) < k m
2
(Underdamped Case)
a. displacement : x = e − wht [ A cos wd t + B sin wd t ]
b. velocity :
x = e − wht [ − wd A sin wd t + wd B cos wd t ] - hw e − wht [ A cos wd t + B sin wd t ]
c. acceleration :

1.5 LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT

x (t ) = A e − wht

x1 x2 x3

t T T

Figure 2.9

Figure 2.9 shows that the rate of decay of motion is dependent on the amount of
the damping factor h . The decay of the amplitude is exponential and it is influenced by
the term e − wht in equation x = = e − wht [ A cos wd t + B sin wd t ]. Thus, the decay of
amplitude can be conveniently expressed as Napierian or Natural Logarithm of the ratio
of two adjacent amplitudes. This is called Logarithmic Decrement.
 x1
Logarithmic Decrement = ln
x2
x1
or  = ln
x2

From the displacement response of underdamped case

x1 = = e − wht [ A cos wd t + B sin wd t ].

and x2 = = e − wh (t +T ) [ A cos wd (t + T ) + B sin wd (t + T ) ].

Note: The term of [ A cos wd t + B sin wd t ] for both equations is cancelled because its
value is equal at every period T interval.

Hence
x1 e − wht
= − wh (t +T )
x2 e
x1
= e − wht + wh (t +T )
x2
x1
= e whT
x2

taking the logarithm on both sides

x1
ln = ln e whT
x2
x
ln 1 = whT
x2
or  = whT

The period T in the above equation is the damped period of vibration. We adopt
the notation Td to differentiate it with the undamped case.

 = whT d

From equation of frequency and period for damped case

wd
f =
2
1 2 2
and Td = = =
f wd w 1 − h 2
then
 2 
 = wh 
2 
 w 1− h 

2h
=
1− h2

The damping factor h is already relatively small such that it is safe to assume the
term 1 − h 2 approximately equal to one. Hence
  = 2h
or
x1
ln = 2h
x2

x1
ln
x2
also h=
2