Data Warehousing and Mining

Mrs. Pinki Vishwakarma

Associate Professor
 Objective
• To understand the Data Preprocessing technique
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

3
3
 Data Quality: Why Preprocess the Data?

• Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view

– Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not
– Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …
– Consistency: some modified but some not, dangling, …
– Timeliness: timely update?
– Believability: how trustable the data are correct?
– Interpretability: how easily the data can be understood?

4
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data cleaning
– Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers,
and resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
– Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data reduction
– Dimensionality reduction
– Numerosity reduction
– Data compression
• Data transformation and data discretization
– Normalization
– Concept hierarchy generation
5
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

• Summary
6
6
 Data Cleaning
• Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data, e.g.,
instrument faulty, human or computer error, transmission error
– incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of
interest, or containing only aggregate data
• e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)
– noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers
• e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)
– inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
• Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”
• Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”
• discrepancy between duplicate records

7
 Incomplete (Missing) Data
• Data is not always available
– E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several
attributes, such as customer income in sales data
• Missing data may be due to
– equipment malfunction
– inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
– data not entered due to misunderstanding
– certain data may not be considered important at the time
of entry
– not register history or changes of the data
• Missing data may need to be inferred
8
 How to Handle Missing Data?
• Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (when
doing classification)—not effective when the % of missing values
per attribute varies considerably
• Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
• Use a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
• Use the attribute mean
• Use the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same
class
• Use the most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian
formula or decision tree
9
 Noisy Data
• Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
• Incorrect attribute values may be due to
– faulty data collection instruments
– data entry problems
– data transmission problems
– technology limitation
– inconsistency in naming convention
• Other data problems which require data cleaning
– duplicate records
– incomplete data
– inconsistent data

10
 How to Handle Noisy Data?
• Binning
– first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins
– then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median,
smooth by bin boundaries, etc.

11
 How to Handle Noisy Data?
• Regression
– smooth by fitting the data into regression functions

• Clustering
– detect and remove outliers

• Combined computer and human inspection

– detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g., deal
with possible outliers)

12
 Data Cleaning as a Process
• Data discrepancy detection
– Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)
– Check field overloading
– Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule
– Use commercial tools
• Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g., postal code,
spell-check) to detect errors and make corrections
• Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and relationship to
detect violators (e.g., correlation and clustering to find outliers)
• Data migration and integration
– Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified
– ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to specify
transformations through a graphical user interface
• Integration of the two processes
– Iterative and interactive (e.g., Potter’s Wheels)

13
 Outcome
• Data preprocessing is a data mining technique
which is used to transform the raw data in a
useful and efficient format.
Data Warehousing and Mining

Mrs. Pinki Vishwakarma

Associate Professor
 Objective
• To understand the Data
Preprocessing technique
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Transformation

• Data Reduction

3
3
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data cleaning
– Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers,
and resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
– Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data transformation and data discretization
– Normalization
– Concept hierarchy generation
• Data reduction
– Dimensionality reduction
– Numerosity reduction
– Data compression
4
 Data Integration
• Data integration:
– Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
• Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id ≡ B.cust-#
– Integrate metadata from different sources
• Entity identification problem:
– Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton =
William Clinton
• Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
– For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources
are different
– Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric
vs. British units

5
5
 Handling Redundancy in Data Integration

• Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple

databases
– Object identification: The same attribute or object may
have different names in different databases
– Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived” attribute
in another table, e.g., annual revenue
• Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by
correlation analysis and covariance analysis
• Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help
reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and improve
mining speed and quality

6
6
 Correlation Analysis (Numeric Data)

• Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s product moment

coefficient)

where n is the number of tuples, and are the respective means of A

and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B, and
Σ(aibi) is the sum of the AB cross-product.
• If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s values increase
as B’s). The higher, the stronger correlation.
• rA,B = 0: independent; rAB < 0: negatively correlated
7
Correlation (viewed as linear relationship)

• Correlation measures the linear relationship

between objects
• To compute correlation, we standardize data
objects, A and B, and then take their dot
product

8
 Covariance (Numeric Data)
• Covariance is similar to correlation

Correlation coefficient:
where n is the number of tuples, and are the respective mean or
expected values of A and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation
of A and B.
• Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger than their
expected values.
• Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected value, B is
likely to be smaller than its expected value.
• Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
– Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are not
independent. Only under some additional assumptions (e.g., the data follow
multivariate normal distributions) does a covariance of 0 imply independence
9
 Co-Variance: An Example

• It can be simplified in computation as

• Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one week: (2, 5), (3,
8), (5, 10), (4, 11), (6, 14).
• Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends, will their
prices rise or fall together?
– E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4
– E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6
– Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4
• Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Transformation

• Data Reduction

11
 Data Transformation
• A function that maps the entire set of values of a given attribute to a new
set of replacement values s.t. each old value can be identified with one of
the new values
• Methods
– Smoothing: Remove noise from data
– Attribute/feature construction
• New attributes constructed from the given ones
– Aggregation: Summarization, data cube construction
– Normalization: Scaled to fall within a smaller, specified range
• min-max normalization
• z-score normalization
• normalization by decimal scaling
– Discretization: Concept hierarchy climbing
12
 Normalization
• Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]

– Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0, 1.0].

Then $73,000 is mapped to
• Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):

– Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then

• Normalization by decimal scaling

Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1

13
 Outcome
• Data preprocessing is a data mining technique
which is used to transform the raw data in a
useful and efficient format.
Data Warehousing and Mining

Mrs. Pinki Vishwakarma

Associate Professor
 Objective
• To understand the Data
Preprocessing technique
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Transformation

• Data Reduction

3
3
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
• Data cleaning
– Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers,
and resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
– Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data transformation
– Normalization
• Data reduction
– Dimensionality reduction
– Numerosity reduction
– Data compression
• Data discretization
– Concept hierarchy generation

4
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

• Summary
5
5
 Data Reduction Strategies

• Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that is

much smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the
same) analytical results
• Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store
terabytes of data. Complex data analysis may take a very long time to
run on the complete data set.
• Data reduction strategies
– Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant attributes
• Wavelet transforms
• Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
• Feature subset selection, feature creation
– Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)
• Regression and Log-Linear Models
• Histograms, clustering, sampling
• Data cube aggregation
– Data compression
6
 Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality
• Curse of dimensionality
Reduction
– When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
– Density and distance between points, which is critical to clustering, outlier
analysis, becomes less meaningful
– The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
• Dimensionality reduction
– Avoid the curse of dimensionality
– Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
– Reduce time and space required in data mining
– Allow easier visualization
• Dimensionality reduction techniques
– Wavelet transforms
– Principal Component Analysis
– Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)

7
 Wavelet Transformation
Haar Daubechie
• Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear 2
signal 4

processing, multi-resolution analysis

• Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of
the strongest of the wavelet coefficients
• Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better
lossy compression, localized in space
• Method:
– Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when
necessary)
– Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
– Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
– Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length

8
 Why Wavelet Transform?
• Use hat-shape filters
– Emphasize region where points cluster
– Suppress weaker information in their boundaries
• Effective removal of outliers
– Insensitive to noise, insensitive to input order
• Multi-resolution
– Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different scales
• Efficient
– Complexity O(N)
• Only applicable to low dimensional data

9
 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

• Find a projection that captures the largest amount of variation in data

• The original data are projected onto a much smaller space, resulting
in dimensionality reduction. We find the eigenvectors of the
covariance matrix, and these eigenvectors define the new space

x2

x1
10
 Principal Component Analysis
(Steps)
• Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors
(principal components) that can be best used to represent data
– Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range
– Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components
– Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal
component vectors
– The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing
“significance” or strength
– Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be
reduced by eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low
variance (i.e., using the strongest principal components, it is
possible to reconstruct a good approximation of the original data)
• Works for numeric data only
11
 Attribute Subset Selection
• Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
• Redundant attributes
– Duplicate much or all of the information contained in one
or more other attributes
– E.g., purchase price of a product and the amount of sales
tax paid
• Irrelevant attributes
– Contain no information that is useful for the data mining
task at hand
– E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of predicting
students' GPA

12
 Heuristic Search in Attribute Selection
• There are 2d possible attribute combinations of d attributes
• Typical heuristic attribute selection methods:
– Best single attribute under the attribute independence
assumption: choose by significance tests
– Best step-wise feature selection:
• The best single-attribute is picked first
• Then next best attribute condition to the first, ...
– Step-wise attribute elimination:
• Repeatedly eliminate the worst attribute
– Best combined attribute selection and elimination
– Optimal branch and bound:
• Use attribute elimination and backtracking

13
Attribute Creation (Feature
Generation)

14
 Data Reduction 2: Numerosity
Reduction
• Reduce data volume by choosing alternative, smaller
forms of data representation
• Parametric methods (e.g., regression)
– Assume the data fits some model, estimate model
parameters, store only the parameters, and discard
the data (except possible outliers)
– Ex.: Log-linear models—obtain value at a point in m-
D space as the product on appropriate marginal
subspaces
• Non-parametric methods
– Do not assume models
– Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling, …
15
 Parametric Data Reduction: Regression
and Log-Linear Models
• Linear regression
– Data modeled to fit a straight line
– Often uses the least-square method to fit the line
• Multiple regression
– Allows a response variable Y to be modeled as a
linear function of multidimensional feature vector
• Log-linear model
– Approximates discrete multidimensional probability
distributions

16
 y

Regression Analysis
Y1

• Regression analysis: A collective name for

techniques for the modeling and analysis of Y1’ y=x+1
numerical data consisting of values of a
dependent variable (also called response
variable or measurement) and of one or x
X1
more independent variables (aka.
explanatory variables or predictors)
• Used for prediction
• The parameters are estimated so as to (including forecasting of
give a "best fit" of the data time-series data), inference,
• Most commonly the best fit is evaluated by hypothesis testing, and
modeling of causal
using the least squares method, but other
relationships
criteria have also been used
17
 Regress Analysis and Log-Linear
Models
• Linear regression: Y = w X + b
– Two regression coefficients, w and b, specify the line and are to be
estimated by using the data at hand
– Using the least squares criterion to the known values of Y1, Y2, …,
X1, X2, ….
• Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2
– Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the above
• Log-linear models:
– Approximate discrete multidimensional probability distributions
– Estimate the probability of each point (tuple) in a multi-dimensional
space for a set of discretized attributes, based on a smaller subset
of dimensional combinations
– Useful for dimensionality reduction and data smoothing

18
 Histogram Analysis
• Divide data into buckets and
store average (sum) for each
bucket
• Partitioning rules:
– Equal-width: equal bucket
range
– Equal-frequency (or equal-
depth)

19
 Histogram Analysis
• Divide data into buckets and store average (sum) for each
bucket
• Partitioning rules:
– Equal-width: equal bucket range
– Equal-frequency (or equal-depth)

20
 Histogram Analysis

A histogram for price using singleton

buckets—each bucket represents
one price–value/frequency pair

An equal-width histogram for price,

where values are aggregated so that
each bucket has a uniform width of $10.

21
 Clustering
• Partition data set into clusters based on similarity, and
store cluster representation (e.g., centroid and diameter)
only
• Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data is
“smeared”
• Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multi-
dimensional index tree structures
• There are many choices of clustering definitions and
clustering algorithms
• Cluster analysis will be studied in depth in Chapter 10

22
 Sampling
• Sampling: obtaining a small sample s to represent the
whole data set N
• Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is
potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
• Key principle: Choose a representative subset of the data
– Simple random sampling may have very poor
performance in the presence of skew
– Develop adaptive sampling methods, e.g., stratified
sampling:
• Note: Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a
23
time)
 Types of Sampling
• Simple random sampling
– There is an equal probability of selecting any particular
item
• Sampling without replacement
– Once an object is selected, it is removed from the
population
• Sampling with replacement
– A selected object is not removed from the population
• Stratified sampling:
– Partition the data set, and draw samples from each
partition (proportionally, i.e., approximately the same
percentage of the data)
– Used in conjunction with skewed data
24
Sampling: With or without Replacement

Raw Data
25
Sampling: With or without Replacement

26
Sampling: Cluster or Stratified
Sampling
Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

27
 Data Cube Aggregation
• The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)
– The aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
– E.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse
• Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
– Further reduce the size of data to deal with
• Reference appropriate levels
– Use the smallest representation which is enough to
solve the task
• Queries regarding aggregated information should be
answered using data cube, when possible
28
 Data Reduction 3: Data
Compression
• String compression
– There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms
– Typically lossless, but only limited manipulation is
possible without expansion
• Audio/video compression
– Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement
– Sometimes small fragments of signal can be
reconstructed without reconstructing the whole
• Time sequence is not audio
– Typically short and vary slowly with time
• Dimensionality and numerosity reduction may also be
considered as forms of data compression
29
Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

Original Data
Approximated

30
 Outcome
• Data preprocessing is a data
mining technique which is used to
transform the raw data in a useful and
efficient format.
Data Warehousing and Mining

Mrs. Pinki Vishwakarma

Associate Professor
 Objective
• To understand the Data Preprocessing technique
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Transformation

• Data Reduction

• Data Discretization
3
3
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
• Data cleaning
– Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and
resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
– Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data transformation
– Normalization
• Data reduction
– Dimensionality reduction
– Numerosity reduction
– Data compression
• Data discretization
– Concept hierarchy generation

4
 Data Cube Aggregation
• The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)
– The aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
– E.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse
• Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
– Further reduce the size of data to deal with
• Reference appropriate levels
– Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve
the task
• Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered
using data cube, when possible
5
 Data Cube Aggregation
• These data consist of the All
Electronics sales per quarter, for the
years 2008 to 2010. You are,
however, interested in the annual
sales (total per year), rather than
the total per quarter. Thus, the data
can be aggregated so that the
resulting data summarize the total
sales per year instead of per
quarter.
• This aggregation is illustrated in
figure. The resulting data set is
smaller in volume, without loss of
information necessary for the
analysis task.
A data cube for sales at AllElectronics
6
 Data Cube Aggregation
• The cube created at the lowest abstraction level is referred to as
the base cuboid. The base cuboid should correspond to an
individual entity of interest such as sales or customer.
• A cube at the highest level of abstraction is the apex cuboid. For
the sales data the apex cuboid would give one total—the total
sales for all three years, for all item_types, and for all branches.
• Data cubes created for varying levels of abstraction are often
referred to as cuboids.

7
Data Reduction 3: Data Compression
• String compression
– There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms
– Typically lossless, but only limited manipulation is possible
without expansion
• Audio/video compression
– Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement
– Sometimes small fragments of signal can be reconstructed
without reconstructing the whole
• Time sequence is not audio
– Typically short and vary slowly with time
• Dimensionality and numerosity reduction may also be
considered as forms of data compression
8
 Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

Original Data
Approximated

9
 Discretization
• Three types of attributes
– Nominal—values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession
– Ordinal—values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic rank
– Numeric—real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers
• Discretization: Divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals
– Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values
– Reduce data size by discretization
– Supervised vs. unsupervised
– Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)
– Discretization can be performed recursively on an attribute
– Prepare for further analysis, e.g., classification

10
 Data Discretization Methods
• Typical methods: All the methods can be applied recursively
– Binning
• Top-down split, unsupervised
– Histogram analysis
• Top-down split, unsupervised
– Clustering analysis (unsupervised, top-down split or bottom-
up merge)
– Decision-tree analysis (supervised, top-down split)
– Correlation (e.g., 2) analysis (unsupervised, bottom-up
merge)

11
 Simple Discretization: Binning

• Equal-width (distance) partitioning

– Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid
– if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width of
intervals will be: W = (B –A)/N.
– The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation
– Skewed data is not handled well

• Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning

– Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately same
number of samples
– Good data scaling
– Managing categorical attributes can be tricky
12
 Binning Methods for Data Smoothing
 Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34
* Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34

13
Discretization by Classification & Correlation
Analysis
• Classification (e.g., decision tree analysis)
– Supervised: Given class labels, e.g., cancerous vs. benign
– Using entropy to determine split point (discretization point)
– Top-down, recursive split
– Details to be covered in Chapter 7
• Correlation analysis (e.g., Chi-merge: χ2-based discretization)
– Supervised: use class information
– Bottom-up merge: find the best neighboring intervals (those having
similar distributions of classes, i.e., low χ2 values) to merge
– Merge performed recursively, until a predefined stopping condition

14
 Concept Hierarchy Generation
• Concept hierarchy organizes concepts (i.e., attribute values) hierarchically
and is usually associated with each dimension in a data warehouse
• Concept hierarchies facilitate drilling and rolling in data warehouses to view
data in multiple granularity
• Concept hierarchy formation: Recursively reduce the data by collecting and
replacing low level concepts (such as numeric values for age) by higher level
concepts (such as youth, adult, or senior)
• Concept hierarchies can be explicitly specified by domain experts and/or data
warehouse designers
• Concept hierarchy can be automatically formed for both numeric and
nominal data. For numeric data, use discretization methods shown.

15
 Concept Hierarchy Generation
for Nominal Data
• Specification of a partial/total ordering of attributes explicitly at
the schema level by users or experts
– street < city < state < country
• Specification of a hierarchy for a set of values by explicit data
grouping
– {Urbana, Champaign, Chicago} < Illinois
• Specification of only a partial set of attributes
– E.g., only street < city, not others
• Automatic generation of hierarchies (or attribute levels) by the
analysis of the number of distinct values
– E.g., for a set of attributes: {street, city, state, country}
16
 Automatic Concept Hierarchy Generation
• Some hierarchies can be automatically generated based on
the analysis of the number of distinct values per attribute in
the data set
– The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at
the lowest level of the hierarchy
– Exceptions, e.g., weekday, month, quarter, year

country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 365 distinct values

city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

17
 Outcome
• Data pre-processing is a data
mining technique which is used to transform
the raw data in a useful and efficient format
and data reduction techniques.