120 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

FIGURE 3.39
Three-phase full-converter waveforms for α = 75° with R-L load with current discontinuity.

An expression for the average value of the output voltage is derived below:
π 2 π +α
 1  3 3 
Vo(av) = 

 2 π  
3  α
∫
v RY dω s t +
π
∫v RB dω s t 


3

Taking α(T1 ) as the reference point,

(
v RY = VLm sin ω s t + π 3 and )
v RB = VLm sin ω s t where, VLm is the maximum value of line voltage.
π3 2 π +α
3 
1   π 
Vo(av) =
2π  ∫
3  α
VLm sin  ω s t +  dω s t +
 3
π
∫
VLm sin(ω s t)dω s t 


3

π
3VLm   π  3 2 π +α 

=   − cos  ω s t +   +  − cos ( ω s t )  π
3
Vo(av) 
2π 3 α
  
3
4
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects

4.1 Introduction
Direct current (dc) motors have been used in the industry for the past several years. There
are several classifications among dc motors, and separately excited dc motors and series
motors present excellent speed-torque characteristics, suitable for many industrial utiliza-
tions. As such, dc motors are suitable for a wide range of variable-speed operation, braking,
and speed reversal. For successful implementation of closed-loop speed control, a dc motor
needs to be modeled either in state-space or in the transfer-function form. This chapter
introduces of power conversion, state-space, and transfer-function models. Measurement
of various motor parameters is also included.

4.2 Voltage Equation

A simple representation of a dc motor is shown in Fig. 4.1. The field system consists of
a pair of electromagnets excited from the field voltage Vf . The field current is indicated
as I f. The armature conductors are assumed to carry the current as given in Fig. 4.1. The
field flux is constant and stationary in space; furthermore, this flux is perpendicular to the
armature current at any instant. This is one of the most interesting features of dc motors
because such a position produces the maximum torque. Applying Fleming’s left-hand
rule, the armature flux can be obtained, and it can be seen that the introduction of field
flux with armature flux gives clockwise rotational torque to the motor.
The induced voltage in the armature of a dc motor is equivalent to the generated volt-
age in a dc generator. The induced emf, generally termed back-emf, is labeled as E b and is
given by
Φ m Za N r Pa
Eb = ⋅ A (4.1)
60
where,
Φ m = Field flux
Za = Total number of armature conductors
Nr = Rotor speed in rpm
Pa = Number of poles
A = 2 for wave winding
= Pa for lap winding
127
128 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

FIGURE 4.1
Sketch of a dc motor structure.

Putting
2 πN r
ωr = ,
60
Φ Z 60 ω r Pa
Eb = m a ⋅ ⋅ A
60 2π
Φ Zω
= m a r ⋅ Pa A
2π

Making
Z a Pa
K= ⋅ A , then
2π
E b = KΦ m ω r

In a separately excited dc motor, field flux Φ m is kept constant, and hence

E b = K bω r (4.2)

where K b = KΦ m and is called the back-emf constant. The unit of K b is V/(rad/s).

4.3 Torque Equation

A separately excited dc motor can be represented in R-L-back emf form and is shown
in Fig. 4.2. Here, ra and La represent armature resistance and inductance, respectively.
Armature voltage and current are shown as va and i a in Fig. 4.2. Writing Kirchhoff’s volt-
age law (KVL),
di a (4.3)
va = e b + ra i a + La
dt
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 129

  FIGURE 4.2
Sketch of a dc motor equivalent circuit.

Multiplying both sides using ia, the power equation can be written as
di a
va i a = ra i a2 + e b i a + La i a
dt
di a
Under steady-state conditions, ≈ 0 and hence
dt
va Ia = ra Ia2 + E b Ia

where Ia2 ra represents armature copper loss. Hence, the air gap power is E b Ia. If Te repre-
sents the electromagnetic torque, then

Output power = Te ω r

Neglecting friction and windage losses, this should be equal to air gap power.
i.e., E b Ia = Te ω r
E I (4.4)
i.e., Te = b a
ωr

From Equation (4.2),

Eb
Kb =
ωr

and substituting in Equation (4.4), we get

Te = K b Ia (4.5)

It is evident that the torque constant is equivalent to the back-emf constant for a fixed
field excited dc motor.

EXAMPLE 4.1
A permanent magnet dc commutator motor has no load speed of 5,000 rpm when con-
nected to a 115-V dc supply. The armature resistance is 2.8 Ω, and other losses may
be neglected. Find the speed of the motor at supply voltage of 80 V and developing a
torque of 0.7 N-m.
130 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

SOLUTION:
As an assumption, under no-load, armature current Ia = 0.

∴ E b = Va = 115 V
115
K= ⇒ 0.22 V/rad/s
 2 π × 5, 000 
 
60

Electromagnetic torque, Te = K b Ia

0.7
Ia = ⇒ 3.18 A
0.22
E b2 = V − Ia R a ⇒ 80 − (3.18 × 2.8)
= 71.09 V
N 2 E b2
Now, =
N 1 E b1
71.09 
N 2 = 5000 ×  = 3090 rpm
 115 

EXAMPLE 4.2
A separately excited dc motor runs at 1,500 rpm at no load with 220-V supply at the
armature. The voltage is maintained at its rated value. The speed of the motor when
it delivers a torque of 5 N-m is 1,400 rpm. The rotational losses and armature reaction
losses are neglected. Find (a) armature resistance of the motor and (b) voltage applied
to the armature for the motor to deliver a torque of 2.5 N-m at 1,350 rpm.

SOLUTION:
(a)
Ia = 0 (at no load)
E b1 = Va = 220 V
2 π × 1500 
E b1 = Kω ⇒ 220 = K   ⇒ K = 1.401
 60

Torque, Te = K b Ia

5 = 1.401 × Ia ⇒ Ia = 3.568 A
E b2 = Va − Ia ra
N 2 E b2 1400 × 220
= ⇒ E b2 = = 205.33 V
N 1 E b1 1500
V − E b2 220 − 205.33
ra = =
Ia 3.568
∴ ra = 4.1 Ω
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 131

(b) T = K b Ia ⇒ 2.5 = 1.401 × Ia

⇒ Ia = 1.784 A
2 π × 1350 
E b = K b ω r ⇒ 1.401 ×   ⇒ 198.06 V
 60

Va = E b + Ia ra
= 198.03 + (1.784 × 4.1) = 205.34 V

EXAMPLE 4.3
A separately excited dc motor has the parameters 220 V, 25 A, 1,500 rpm, J = 0.6 kg-m2,
Kb = 0.567 V/rad/s, and friction is negligible. If the motor starts from rest, find the time
taken by the motor to reach a speed of 1,000 rpm with no load. The armature current is
maintained constant at its rated value during starting.

SOLUTION:
Te = K b Ia
= 0.567 × 25
= 14.175 N-m

During starting, armature current is constant, and hence torque remains constant at
rated value.

dω
J = 14.175
dt

Integrating on either side,

ω2 t2 t2
14.175
∫
ω1
dω =
J ∫
dt = 23.625 dt
t1
∫
t1

ω 2 − ω 1 = 23.625 ( t 2 − t 1 )
ω 1 = 0, ω 2 = 104.71 rad/s

And hence

t 1 − t 2 = 4.432 s

The time taken by the motor to reach a speed of 1,000 rpm = 4.432 s.
132 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

EXAMPLE 4.4
A variable speed drive rated for 1,500 rpm, 60N-m is reversing to 1,000 rpm under no
load. The motor torque is 20 N-m and reversing time is 0.5 s. Find the moment of inertia
of the drive.

SOLUTION:
dω
Te − TL = J
dt
TL = 0 (Given)
Te = 20 N-m(Given)
∆t = 0.5 sec
2π
∆ω = (1500 − (−1000) ×
60
= 261.799 rad/s
20 × 0.5
J=
261.799
J = 0.03819 kg-m 2

EXAMPLE 4.5
In a speed-controlled dc motor drive, the load torque is 30 N-m. At time t = 0, the motor
is running at 500 rpm and the generated torque is 90 N-m. The inertia of the drive
is 0.01 N-ms2/rad. The friction is negligible. Evaluate the time taken for the speed to
reach 1,000 rpm.

SOLUTION:
dω
J = Te − TL
dt
∆ω = 1, 000 − 500 = 500 rpm = 52.35 rad/s
Te − TL = 90 − 30 = 60 N-m
J = 0.01
J∆ω
∆t =
Te − TL
0.01 × 52.35
=
60
∆t = 8.726 ms

EXAMPLE 4.6
An electric motor is developing a starting torque of 20 N-m, and starts with a load
torque of 8 N-m on its shaft. If the acceleration at start is 100 rad/sec2, what is the value
of moment of inertia?
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 133

SOLUTION:
dω
Te − TL = J
dt
dω
20 − 8 = J
dt
∆ω
 = 100 rad/sec 2 (Given)
∆t
12 = 100 J
J = 0.12 kg-m 2

4.4 State-Space Model

Referring to Fig. 4.2, the voltage equation of a separately excited dc motor is rewritten as

di a
va = La + ra i a + e b
dt

Re-arranging the terms and setting e b = K b ω r ,

di a ri K ω v
=− a a − b r + a (4.6)
dt La La La

Let J represent the moment of inertia in kg-m2 and B the friction coefficient in N-m/(rad/s).
Now

dω r
Te = Bω r + J + TL
dt
dω r
i.e., K b i a = Bω r + J + TL (4.7)
dt
dω r Bω r TL K b i a
i.e., =− − +
dt J J J

Equations (4.6) and (4.7) completely describe the dynamics of a dc motor and can be put
in matrix form as

 di a   − ra − K b   +1 
     0 
dt La La  i a   La  
  va 
 =  + (4.8)
 dω r   
K b −B  ω r   
−1  TL 
     0 
 dt   J J   J 
 
This is equivalent to state-space form
dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
134 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

where

 ia 
x= 
 ω r 
 − ra − K b 
 
La La 
A=
 K b −B 
 
 J J 

 1 
 0 
La
B= 
 −1 
 0 
 J 


 va 
where u is the input vector and is  .
 TL 

The Eigenvalues of the drive system can be found from A matrix by writing:

sI − A = 0 (4.9)

 − ra − K b 
 
1 0  La La 
i.e., s − =0
0 1  K b −B 
 
 J J 

 ra K b 
 s+ 
 L a La  =0
 −K b B 
 s+ 
 J J 

 r  B  K2
i.e.,  s + a   s +  + b = 0
 La   J  JLa
sB sra ra B K 2b
s2 + + + + =0
J La La J JLa
 B r  K2 r B (4.10)
s2 + s  + a  + b + a = 0
 J La  JLa La J
2
 r B  r B  K2 + r B 
−  a +  ±  a +  − 4 b a 
 La J   La J   JL a 
s=
2
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 135

EXAMPLE 4.7
A separately excited dc motor has the following parameters:
ra = 0.5 Ω , La = 0.003 H, k b = 0.8 v/rad/sec
J = 0.0167 kg-m 2 , B = 0.01 N-m/rad/sec

Find the Eigen value and asses the stability of the system.

SOLUTION:
2
 r B  r B  Br k2 
− a +  ±  a +  − 4 ×  a + b 
 La J   La J   JLa JLa 
s=
2
−167.27 ± −23519.28
s=
2
= −83.635 ± i76.68
The system is stable because the roots are placed in the left side of the s-plane.

EXAMPLE 4.8
A separately excited dc motor has the following parameters:
ra = 0.34 Ω , La = 1.13 mH, k b = 1.061 v/rad/sec
J = 0.035 kg-m 2 , B = 0

Find the Eigen value and assess the stability of the system.

SOLUTION:
2
 r B  r B  Br k2 
− a +  ±  a +  − 4 ×  a + b 
 La J   La J   JLa JLa 
s=
2
−300.89 ± −23317.29
s=
2
s = −150.45 ± i76.35
The system is stable because the roots are placed in the left side of the s-plane.

EXAMPLE 4.9
A separately excited dc motor has the following parameters:

ra = 1.39 Ω , La = 0.00182 H, k b = 0.331 v/rad/sec

J = 0.002 kg-m 2 , B = 0.005 N-m/rad/sec

Find the Eigen value and assess the stability of the systems.
136 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

SOLUTION:
2
 r B  r B  Br k2 
− a +  ±  a +  − 4 ×  a + b 
 La J   La J   JLa JLa 
s=
2
s 2 + 766.24s + 32008.52 = 0
−766.24 ± 766.242 − 4 × 1 × 32008.52
s=
2
s = −44.4, − 721.9

The system is stable because the roots are placed in the left side of the s-plane.

4.5 Transfer Function Model

The voltage equation of a dc motor is

La di a
va = + ra i a + K bω r
dt
Taking Laplace transform,

Va (s) = La sIa (s) + ra Ia (s) + K bω r (s)

= Ia (s) {La s + ra } + K bω r (s) (4.11)
V (s) − K b ω r (s)
∴ Ia (s) = a
ra + La s

The speed-torque equation is rewritten from Equation (4.7) as

dω r B −T K i
+ ωr = L + b a
dt J J J

Taking Laplace transform,

B T (s) K I (s)
sω r (s) + ω r (s) ⋅ =− L + b a
J J J
K I (s) − TL (s) (4.12)
ω r (s) = b a
Js + B

Equations (4.11) and (4.12) can be rearranged to obtain the block diagram in Fig. 4.3.
Neglecting the load torque TL(s), the no-load transfer function is obtained as

ω r (s) Kb (4.13)
=
Va (s) JLa s 2 + ( BLa + ra J ) s + Bra + K 2b
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 137

FIGURE 4.3
Transfer function of a dc motor.

4.6 Closed-Loop Control Design

To explain the closed-loop control of a dc motor, consider a proportional-integral (PI) con-
troller be incorporated as given in Fig. 4.4. There are several methods to find the values of
PI constants, and here the Routh-Hurwitz method is employed.
The characteristic equation for the above closed loop control system is

1 + G c (s) ⋅ G(s) = 0 (4.14)

where G c (s) is the transfer function of PI controller and hence

KI
G c (s) = K P + (4.15)
S

The dc motor is represented by G(s) and is

Kb
G(s) =
JLa s 2 + ( BLa + ra J ) s + Bra + K 2b

FIGURE 4.4
Closed-loop speed control using a proportional-integral (PI) controller.
138 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

Substituting G c (s) and G(s) in the characteristic equation, we get

K  Kb 
1 +  K P + I  ×  2 
=0
 S   JLa S + ( BLa + ra J ) S + Bra + K b 
2


1+ 
(
K ps + KI K b ) 
=0
 JLa s + ( BLa + ra J ) s + Bra + K b s 
3 2 2
( ) (4.16)

(
JLa s 3 + ( BLa + ra J ) s 2 + Bra + K 2b ) s + (K s + K ) K
p I b =0
JLa s 3 + ( BLa + ra J ) s 2 + ( Br a + K 2b + K K )s + K K
P b I b =0

This is the final characteristic equation for the above control system.

EXAMPLE 4.10
Consider a dc motor with the following parameters: La = 1.13 H, J = 0.035 kg-m2,
B = 0.1 N-m/rad/s, ra = 0.3 Ω, Kb = 1.061 V/rad/s. Calculate the range of Kp and KI values for
the closed-loop operation of the motor.

SOLUTION:
The characteristic equation for the above case is obtained using Equation (4.16):

0.039 s 3 + 0.123 s 2 + ( 1.156 + 1.061 K P ) s + 1.061 K I = 0.

To find the range of controller parameters (proportional gain KP and integral gain KI),
apply the Routh-Hurwitz criteria.

s3 0.039 1.156 + 1.061 K P

s2 0.123 1.061 K I

0.123 ( 1.156 + 1.061 K P ) − 0.0395*1.061 K I

s1
0.123

s0 1.061 K I

To make the system stable, the first column of the Routh array should not contain any
sign changes, which implies

1.061 K I > 0
( )
0.123 1.156 + 1.061 K p − 0.0395 × 1.061 K I
>0
0.123
0.1421 + 0.130 K P − 0.041 K I > 0
1.1 + K P − 0.315 K I > 0
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 139

As an illustration, let K I = 5 (which is greater than zero). Substituting this value in

the above equation,
1.1 + K P − 0.315 × 5 > 0
∴ K P > 0.4769

Here for K I = 5, K p should be greater than 0.4769.

It is important to mention that the above values of controller constants always
guarantee stability, but they need not provide optimal dynamic stability. Improved
dynamic response can be obtained by fine-tuning the values of Kp and KI. In several
cases, an inner current loop is also added, which helps limit the armature current to
permissible values.

4.7 The dc Series Motor

In the dc series motor, the field circuit is connected in series with the armature coil as
shown in Fig. 4.5. The back emf, Eb, is

E b = K bΦmω r

Armature current produces the flux, Φ m and hence,

Φ m α ia
Φ m = k f ia

Hence,

E b = K b ⋅ k f iaω r (4.17)

  FIGURE 4.5
Sketch of a dc series motor.
140 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

FIGURE 4.6
Torque-speed characteristics of dc series motor.

In the above equation, k f is the series field constant. Reproducing Equation (4.4) yields

E b ia K b Φ m ω r ia
Te = =
ωr ωr
(4.18)
= K b Φ m ia
= K b ⋅ k f i a2

Let K b k f = k T, be as the torque constant, and its unit is N-m/A2.

Thus,

Te = k T i a2

Furthermore, Equation (4.17) becomes

E b = k T iaω r (4.19)

va = i a ra + k T i a ω r (4.20)

In the above equation, ra includes armature resistance together with series field resis-
tance. The torque speed characteristic curve is shown in Fig. 4.6.

EXAMPLE 4.11
A dc series motor has the following parameters: 220 V, 2.5 hp, 5,000 rpm, armature
resistance = 1.26 Ω (includes armature resistance and series field resistance). Torque
constant is k T = 0.035 N-m/A 2. Under rated condition, find (a) motor current and
(b) torque.
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 141

SOLUTION:
(a)
2 π N r 2 × 3.14 × 5, 000
ωr = = = 523.3 rad/s
60 60
va = i a ra + k T ia ω r
220 = i a × 1.26 + 0.035 × ia × 523.3
∴ i a = 11.24 A

(b)
Te = k T i a2
= 0.035 × 11.242
= 4.4213 N-m

4.8 Determination of ra and La

The armature resistance ra of the motor is measured by applying a low dc voltage to arma-
ture terminals. The value of ra can be taken as the ratio of applied armature voltage to the
armature current. In case, the exact value is required, the brush voltage drop is to be sub-
tracted from applied voltage.
To measure La , a low ac voltage (probably through a variac) is applied to the armature
terminals, and the ratio of voltage to current is taken as Za . Then the armature inductance
is computed as
Za2 − ra2
La =
2 π f1
where f1 is the frequency of ac supply in Hz.

4.9 Determination of K b
The field current is adjusted to the rated value and the motor is rotated by a prime mover
(another motor usually) at its rated speed, ω r. The armature terminals are open circuited
and the induced voltage across the armature is measured as E b. The back-emf constant is
then determined as

Eb
Kb = (4.21)
ωr

4.10 Determination of the Moment of Inertia of a Drive System

The moment of inertia of the dc drive system can be determined by retardation or a
running-down test. The dc motor is started under no load and, once the no-load speed
is reached, the input power is noted. Then the motor is switched OFF; as the armature
142 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

FIGURE 4.7
Speed versus time curve of dc motor.

slows down, its kinetic energy is drawn up to supply the various losses produced by
rotation. Now, the variation of motor speed against time t is plotted as shown in Fig. 4.7.
If J is the moment of inertia of the armature and ω r its angular velocity at any instant,
then the kinetic energy of the armature is

1 2
K ⋅E = Jω r
2

Rotational losses Pr = rate of loss of kinetic energy:

d 1 2
Pr = Jω r 
dt  2 
(4.22)
dω r
Pr = Jω r
dt

To calculate Pr it is therefore necessary to determine the curve of ω r against time t.

dN
Referring to Fig. 4.7, to find the gradient at any point Q, it is usual to draw the tangent
dt
to the curve and to measure the intercepts OA and OB.
dN OA
=
dt OB
Now, if the moment of inertia, J, is expressed in kg-m2 and ω r in rad/s, then the losses
will be given by Equation (4.22). However,

2 πN r
ωr =
60
dω r 2 π dN r
=
dt 60 dt
Direct Current Motor Modeling and Control Aspects 143

Hence,
2
2π dN r dN r
Pr =   JN r = 0.0109 JN r
 60  dt dt

Thus,
Pr
J=
 dN r 
0.0109 × N r × 
 dt 
(4.23)
91.74 × Pr
J=
 dN r 
Nr × 
 dt 

Questions
1. Starting from the fundamental equations, derive a state space model for a sepa-
rately excited dc motor drive.
2. Explain a practical method for determining the back-emf constant of a separately
excited dc motor drive.
3. Give a brief introduction about the construction of dc motors. Derive the necessary
equations and develop a state-space model of the drive.
4. Explain how to account for field circuit saturation of a dc motor drive in its state-
space modeling.
5. Deduce a state-space model for an armature voltage–controlled dc motor drive system.

Unsolved Problems
1. A separately excited dc motor has the following parameters: 220 V, 10 A, 1,400 rpm,
armature resistance = 2.3 Ω, field excited at rated current. When the armature is
open-circuited and rotated at 1,500 rpm by a prime mover, the armature voltage
was 250 V. If the motor is now supplied at rated voltage and if it carries 5.6 A arma-
ture current, what will be the approximate load torque on the shaft?
2. A separately excited dc motor has the following specifications: 1,500 kW, 2,650 A,
600 rpm, brush drop of 2.0 V, armature resistance of 0.003645 Ω, armature induc-
tance of 0.1 mH, and a machine frictional torque coefficient of 15 N-m/rad/s. If
field current is maintained constant at its normal value, compute the steady-state
input voltage for rated armature current and rated speed.
3. A separately excited dc motor has the following parameters: armature resistance =
0.5 Ω, armature inductance = 0.003 H, Kb = 0.8 V/rad/s, J = 0.0167 kg-m2, and
B = 0.01 N-m/rad/s. If the motor is supplied at rated field current and armature is
supplied at 220 V, find the steady-state motor speed at 100N-m load.
144 Elementary Concepts of Power Electronic Drives

4. A separately excited dc motor has the following parameters: 220 V, 10 A, 1,400 rpm,
armature resistance = 2.3 Ω and field excited at rated current. When the arma-
ture terminals are open-circuited and externally driven at 1,500 rpm, the arma-
ture voltage is 250 V. If the motor is now supplied at rated voltage and runs at
1,000 rpm, what electromagnetic torque will be developed?
5. A separately excited dc motor has the following parameters: 220 V, 10 A, 1,400 rpm,
armature resistance = 2.3 Ω, and field excited at rated current. When the arma-
ture terminals are open-circuited and externally driven at 1,500 rpm, the arma-
ture voltage is 250 V. If the motor is now supplied at rated voltage and runs at
1,000 rpm, what electromagnetic torque will be developed?
6. A separately excited dc motor driving a fan type has the following constants:
armature resistance = 0.2 Ω, back-emfconstant = 0.8 V/(rad/s), load constant =
75 × 10−6 N-m/rad2. If the armature current required to deliver a load torque of
0.75 N-m is 10 A, find the armature voltage. Neglect friction and windage losses.
7. An electric motor takes 2.33 s to start from a standstill to no-load speed of
1,490 rpm. If losses are neglected and electromagnetic torque required for starting
is 23.77 N-m, compute moment of inertia of the drive.

Answers
1. Kb = 1.5915 V/rad/s, TL = 8.9124 N-m
2. Eb = 586.22 V, Va = 597.88 V
3. ωr = 198.42 rad/s, N = 1,894.77 rpm
4. Kb = 1.5915 V/rad/s, Eb = 166.67 V, Ia = 23.19 A, Te = 36.9 N-m
5. Kb = 1.5915 V/rad/s, Te = 36.9 N-m, Ia = 23.19 A, Eb = 166.67 V
6. ω = 100 rad/s, Eb = 80 V, Va = 82 V
7. 0.354 kg-m2