COURSE CONTENT

❑Semiconductor theory; intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors; junction diodes,

Zener, lightemitting, photoconductive, photoresistive diodes. Application of diodes
❑ Fabrication and characteristics of B.J.T Transistor biasing, load line, Q-point.
❑Transistor a.c equivalent circuits
❑Small signal amplifies: current voltage and power gain input and output
impendence.
❑Other electronic devices : thyristors , diacs, triacs, FETS, UJT
Materials whose conductivity can be altered or controlled
by introducing impurities (Doping )
Light emitting Diode
Crystals
• Solids with regular arrangement
• Formed through cystallisation
• Ordered atomic structure
• High symmetry
• Definite geometrical shapes
Energy bands and Band Gap
Fermi level
• The highest energy level that an electron can occupy at
the absolute zero temperature is known as the Fermi
Level.
• Changes as solids are warmed or through doping
Intrinsic And Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Intrinsic SC-pure semiconductors like silicon or germanium whose
conductivity depends on temperature only.
n-type semiconductor
• Formed by adding group V
elements such as phosphorus,
arsenic, antimony etc
• Formation of covalent bonds
• Extra electron available for
conduction
• Electrons are majority charge
carries
Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors
• Direct band gap
semiconductors have a
direct transition between
the valence and
conduction bands, while
indirect band gap
semiconductors have a
transition with a change
in momentum
quiz
• 1. What are intrinsic semiconductors?
• 2. Define the term doping? Explain how it modifies conductivity in
semiconductors.
• 3. What are extrinsic semiconductors?
• 4. Give two types of extrinsic semiconductors and explain briefly how they
are developed.
• 5. Name three acceptor and three donor materials for doping
semiconductors.
• 6. What is a hole? Explain how they move in an intrinsic semiconductor.
• 7 distinguish between direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors
Processes during PN junction formation
• Diffusion- due to diffusion gradient
• Recombination –holes and electrons neutralize near interface.
• This reduces carrier concentration
• Formation of Depletion region – ions on either side of the junction
• Donor and acceptor ions
• Development of built-In potential (potential barrier )-the immobile
ions create an electric field that opposes further diffusion of majority
carriers
❑Small current called leakage
current flows across the
junction in reverse bias mode.

❑They are caused by electron

–hole pairs generated due to
thermal energy
❑It is independent of applied
bias voltage.
 ❑Avalanche breakdown-he increased
JUNCTION breakdown reverse voltage increases KE on minority
carriers, as they diffuse across the
junction.
❑If the reverse bias voltage is increased to ❑As the reverse voltage is increased
a large value, the current across the further, the minority carriers acquire a
junction increases abruptly. The voltage large amount of energy (or momentum)
at which this occurs is called breakdown and collide with the semiconductor
voltage and can caused by; atoms within the crystal structure.
❑Zener breakdown- occurs in heavily ❑The large energy break covalent bonds
doped junctions and generate additional carriers which
pick up energy from the applied voltage
❑When the reverse bias voltage is and generate still more carriers.
increased, the electric field at the
junction also increases.
❑A strong electric field causes covalent
bond to break from the crystal structure
hence a large number of minority carriers
are generated causing a large current
across the junction.
Activity 2
1. What is P-N junction? 4. What is leakage current of a P-
Is a single crystal semi-conductor N junction?
in which one region is a n-type 5. What is meant by zener and
and the other region is a p-type avalanche breakdown? What
2. Describe processes leading to factors do they depend on?
the formation of p-n junction
3.Draw a p-n junction in reverse
bias. Explain the characteristics of
diode in reverse bias.
V-I CHARACTERISITICS OF P-N JUNCTION
DIODE
• A graph between the voltage
applied across the terminals of a
diode and the corresponding
currents along it when forward
and reverse biased.

Plot graph of I against V

Forward bias

The diode is non-Ohmic i.e. is not linear. • The current increases rapidly when potential
• As voltage is increased from zero , a very small barrier is overcome at bias voltage called the cut-
current flows through. in/ threshold /break-point voltage
• This is because the potential barrier opposes the
Reverse Bias
❑When voltage is zero, leakage
current Ia flows due to minority
charge.
❑There is no significant change in
the current when the voltage is
increased.
❑ At a reverse bias voltage called
Zener or breakdown voltage
current suddenly flows.

❑In this case resistance is zero and

further increases in reverse bias
voltage blow out the diode
DIODE CURRENT EQUATION
𝑉
𝜂𝑉 −1
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑇 )
Where ;
I=Forward /reverse diode current
𝐼0 =reverse saturation current
V=external voltage
𝜂=non-linearity or emission constant
VT= voltage-equivalent of temperature ≈ 26𝑚𝑉 at rt (300K)
Note: VT is given by T/11600 where T is absolute temperature.
11600=charge of an electron/Boltzman’s constant
𝑒𝑉
−1
𝐼= 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )
 Rectification
• Half wave rectification –half of input AC is converted to DC
Full wave rectifiers
❑Rectifiers convert AC to DC ❑During the 1st half cycle, A is
Full-Wave Rectifier: Uses multiple positive w.r.t to C i.e. D1 and D3 are
diodes to convert both halves of the forward biased and conducts.
AC waveform to DC, providing a ❑Path of current ABDCA.
more efficient and smoother output. ❑ During the 2nd cycle, point A
(bridge rectifier becomes negative w.r.t to C.
❑ Diode D2 and D4 forward biased
and conduct.
❑Path of the conventional current.
CBDAC
Special purpose diodes and their applications
• ZENER DIODES ❑in forward bias they behave as
❑can handle breakdown without standard rectifier diode
failing completely. It is also ❑In reverse-bias mode, they do
called voltage-reference or not conduct until the applied
voltage regulator voltage reaches or exceeds the
Zener voltage which can range
between few to hundreds of
volts.
❑Can undergo Zener breakdown
 • When the value of Vin is less
than Zener voltage VZ to the
Zener diode no current flows
through it and the same
voltage appearing across the
load. The Zener diodes
conduct a large current when
the input voltage Vin is more
the Zener diode of Zener Voltage VZ is than the Zener Voltage Vz
connected across the load RL in reverse
condition. The constant voltage (V0 = VZ) is
the desired voltage across the load.
Schottky Diode/hot carrier diode
•
• Formed by the junction of a
semiconductor with a metal.
• It has a low forward drop and very fast
switching action
• It’s a unilateral junction
• WORKING
• Electrons on the N-side have low
energy level that metal side.
• Cant cross junction barrier (Schottky
barrier )
• In forward bias N-electrons gain more
energy and cross to the metal side.
• Zero reverse recovery time
• Other application areas
include rectifying very high
frequency signals, use in
clipping and clamping
circuits, use in mixing and
detecting circuits and use
in low power supply
circuits
Varactor Diode
• PN junction capacitance is controlled using
reverse bias voltage.
• Charges are drawn away from the PN junction
interface forming high resistance depletion zone
which acts as a dielectric material.
• The width of the depletion layer is directly
proportional to the distance between the plates
which is inversely proportional to Capacitance.
• These diodes are majorly used in tuned circuits.
𝐴𝜀
•𝐶 =
𝑑
C-V Characteristics
 Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium,
arsenic, and phosphorus (called gallium-arsenide-phosphide)

Optical diodes glow bright red, and are some of the most common LEDs
manufactured.
Electroluminescence
Electron-Hole Recombination: In the forward-
biased condition, electrons from the n-type
region gain enough energy to cross the junction
and recombine with holes in the p-type region.

Emission of Photons: When electrons

recombine with holes, they release energy in
the form of photons. The energy of the
emitted photons corresponds to the bandgap
energy of the semiconductor material used in
the LED.

•Gallium arsenide (GaAs) emits infrared light.

•Gallium nitride (GaN) Gallium phosphide
(GaP) emits red or green light.
• emits blue light.
Mirrors/Cavity Resonator: Reflective surfaces at the ends of the semiconductor material to form an optical cavity, providing
feedback to amplify the light.

They produce laser light, which is characterized by its high intensity, coherence, and monochromaticity.
Additional features of Laser Diode
• P-type and n-type semiconductor layers (GaN,GaAs, InP)
• Active region (quantum well) where electron-hole recombination
occurs leading to release of energy in form of photons.
(initially photons are emitted randomly but they reflect btn mirrors,
Stimulated emission-stimulate other excited electrons to drop to a
lower energy )
• Optical cavity formed by polished or coated facets of semiconductor
• Reflective mirrors to emit laser light
Photodiode/photoconductive

Light enters the top of the photodiode through a thin top

P-type layer and allows most photons to pass into the
depletion region where electron-hole pairs are formed

The electric field across the depletion region due to

the built in diode potential causes electrons to be
swept into the N-layer and holes into the P-layer.

a few electron-hole pairs in the N and P-regions, and most in

the depletion region contribute to photocurrent.
Diodes for fiber optic c ommunication
❑The LEDs and Laser diodes forms
major components of the
transmitter side as they emit light.
❑This light is modulated with a
signal.
❑The optical signal is then
transmitted through the optical
fiber and is received by
photodiodes on the destination
side where they are converted back
to electrical signals.
Repeaters are used to amplify weak signals in long distances
Photoresistor (LDR)
• A photoresistor, also known as a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), is a
type of semiconductor device that changes its resistance based on
the intensity of incident light.
• Made from semiconductor materials like cadmium sulfide (CdS) or
cadmium selenide (CdSe).
• In Darkness:
• Few electrons are available in the conduction band.
• The material has high resistance (typically in the range of
megaohms).
• Very little current flows through the LDR.
• In Light:
• Photons from the light strike the semiconductor.
• This excites electrons, moving them from the valence band to the
conduction band.
• More electrons are available for conduction, so the resistance
decreases.
• The current flowing through the
• LDR increases.
 Solar cell/Photovoltaic system
Convert light energy into
N-type layer is thin and transparent , the p-type is thick
electrical energy
When light greater than
its bandgap is impacted
on a solar cell, the p-n
junction produces an
EMF
The junction area is kept
large
Three processes occur at
the junction ; generation
, separation and
collection of EHP.
 Equivalent circuit
Consists of an ideal current
generator in parallel with a
diode in reverse bias
(Rs​): Represents the
resistance of the cell
material, metal contacts,
and interconnections.
Shunt Resistance
(Rsh​): Represents 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐼𝑆ℎ
𝑉
leakage currents due to 𝜂𝑉
−1
manufacturing defects or = 𝐼𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑇
recombination in the − 𝐼𝑆ℎ
𝑞𝑉
depletion region. −1
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 − 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )- 𝐼𝑆ℎ
Solar cell parameters
1. Ideal conversion efficiency
This is the percentage of the input solar energy that is converted onto
usable electrical energy.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= 𝑥100
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2. Open circuit Voltage (𝑉𝑂𝐶 )
he open-circuit voltage is the voltage across the terminals of the solar cell
when no current is flowing.
Represents maximum voltage solar cell can provide under illumination.
Its related to the bandgap (𝐸𝑔 ) of the semiconductor; 𝑉𝑂𝐶 =0.7 V for silicon
Standard conditions; Irradiance is 100W/m2, temp=25 °C
IV curve of a solar cell
• The open-circuit voltage (VOC) signifies the maximum
voltage a cell can deliver in an open circuit (Absence of
Load).
• The short-circuit current (ISC) represents the peak
current achievable when the voltage drops to zero.
• The most crucial of all is the maximum power point
(MPP), where the product of current and voltage reaches
its apex, indicating optimal power output.
• Determining the Maximum Power Point
• The maximum power point on a solar power curve is identified
through a process that involves maximizing the product of
current and voltage. This point is vital because it dictates the
most efficient operational state of the solar panel, ensuring
maximal power extraction.
 Activity 3
1. What is the primary function of a diode in a rectifier circuit?
2. How does a Zener diode regulate voltage in a power supply?
3. How does a varactor diode function as a voltage-controlled capacitor?
4. Why are photodiodes typically operated in reverse bias?
5. What is the role of the shunt resistance (Rsh​) in the equivalent circuit of a
solar cell?
6. Compare the operation of a photodiode and a solar cell.
7. Consider a 150 cm2 photovoltaic cell with reverse saturation current 𝐼0 =
10−12 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 . In full sun, it produces a short-circuit current of 40 mA/ cm
2 at 25 ℃. What would be the short-circuit current and open circuit

voltage in full sun and at 50% sun. plot the resulting IV curves.
TRANSISTORS
Different Modes of Transistor Operation
• Saturation Mode (BE - Forward, BC - Forward) →
Fully ON (Switching Mode)
• Active Mode (BE - Forward, BC - Reverse) →
Amplifier Mode
• Cutoff Mode (BE - Reverse, BC - Reverse) → Fully
OFF (Switching Mode)
Transistor as switch

An open switch when its operated in the

cut-ff region
Volage a base terminial is 0V
Base emitter junction is not forward biased ,
𝐼𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐶 are zero
As a closed switch it operates in saturation
region
For a BJT to operate in the saturation region, the base-emitter junction
and base-collector junction should be forward-biased
There should be sufficient base current to produce collector saturation
current
Power supply voltage
Active mode
 Operation of NPN transistor
Active Region:
❑The transistor is on and can
amplify signals.
❑Base-emitter junction is forward-
biased (V_BE ≈ 0.7V for silicon
transistors).
❑Electrons are injected into the
base where they create higher
concentration of minority carriers.
Cutoff Region: ❑The large gradient causes diffusion
•The transistor is off. of electrons into B-C depletion
•No current flows from the collector to the emitter. region where electric field will
•Base-emitter junction is not forward-biased (V_BE < sweet the electrons into the
0.7V for silicon transistors). collector
❑B-E and B-C are interacting P-N junctions due to
the close proximity
Example
In a common-base connection, a certain transistor
has an emitter current of 12 mA and a collector
current of 11.8 mA. Calculate the value of base
current.
 Example 2
• Given 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 5𝑉, 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0.7𝑉, 𝑅𝐶 = 2.2𝑘Ω and 𝐼𝐵 =60 𝜇𝐴
• Calculate;
• (a) 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐶
using Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL)
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐶 −𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝐼𝑐 = = (5-0.7)/2200 =2200 Ω
𝑅𝐶
• (b) emitter current 𝐼𝐸
 • Input characteristics
Common base (CB)

Once the transistor is ON state BE

voltage is assumed to be 0.7 V
𝛼 ≅1
Output
characteris
tics
Common Emitter
Input characteristics
 Output characteristics
• Active region has
greatest linearity
𝐼𝐶
• 𝛽 = ൗ𝐼𝐵
 Base width Modulation “Early” Effect
• When bias voltage change, depletion widths change .
• Base width gets smaller as applied voltage gets larger
Significance of transistor load line analysis
Determining Operating Point (Q-Point)
❑The load line helps in identifying the Quiescent Point (Q-point) or the
operating point of the transistor.
❑DC analysis if no input is applied
❑Determine collector current at any desired collector –emitter voltage.
Example: For the circuit shown in Fig. 7 , draw the d.c. load line.
Q: In the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 14, if VCC = 12V and RC = 6
kΩ, draw the d.c. load line. What will be the Q point if zero signal
base current is 20μA and β = 50 ?

When IC = 0, VCE = VCC = 12 V. This locates

the point B of the load line.
When VCE = 0, IC = VCC / RC = 12 V/6 kΩ = 2
mA.
Advantages of FET over BJT
JFET CONSTRUCTION
N-channel in Common Source (C) configuration
Working /Operation of FET
 Working of JFET
• The depletion region
produces a potential
gradient with the
variation of thickness
around the PN-junction.
• This PN-junction
opposes the current flow
through the channel by
reducing the channel
width and by increasing
the channel resistance
Pinch-off Effect
• If we apply a large
amount of negative
voltage at the gate
terminal, then the
channel totally blocks
the flow of current
through it.
• The state of JFET in
which the channel
closes is called “pinched-
off” and the voltage
applied at gate in that
situation is called
“pinched-off voltage
(VP)”.
 Salient Features of JFET
(i). A JFET is a three-terminal voltage controlled semiconductor device i.e.
input voltage controls the output characteristics of JFET.
(ii). JFET is always operated with gate-source pn junction reverse biased.
(iii). In a JFET. The gate current is zero i.e. 𝐼𝐺 = 0𝐴
(iv). Since there’s gate current, 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 .
(v). The JFET must be operated between 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑉𝐺𝑆 (off). This corresponds to
max 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑜 a minimum of almost zero
(vi). The depletion layers widen or narrow down by an equal amount since
they are at the same potential.
(vii). Drain current is controlled by changing channel width.
(viii). JFET is not subjected to thermal runway when temperature of devise
increases-negative temperature co-efficient.
(ix). Since JFET has no gate current, there is no 𝛽 rating of the device.
 Characteristic of FET (𝑽𝑮𝑺 = 𝟎)
• Ohmic region- 𝐼𝐷𝑆 increases linearly with 𝑉𝐷𝑆
• Saturation/active region-channel start to narrow due to depletion regions
expanding from gate to the channel. 𝐼𝐷𝑆 is constant =
𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 (𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠
• 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 = 12𝑚𝐴 and pinch off voltage, 𝑉𝑃 =
− 3𝑉
• If 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 0𝑉, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝑓
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝐷𝑆 =-𝑉𝑃 = 3𝑉
If 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = −1𝑉, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 pinch off =-1+3=2V
Saturation region –right of dashed curve
Ohmic region –channel is not pinched off
Cutoff –channel totally cut off at
sufficiently high reverse bias, 𝑖𝐷
 Parameters of JFET
• i. a.c drain resistance (𝑟𝑑 )
• It is the ratio of change in-source voltage to the change in drain current a
constant gate-source voltage
∆𝑉𝐷𝑆
• 𝑟𝑑 = ቚ
∆𝐼𝐷 𝑉
𝐺𝑆
• (ii). Transconductance (𝑔𝑚 )
∆𝐼𝐷
• 𝑔𝑚 = ቚ expressed in mA/volt
∆𝑉𝐷𝑆 𝑉
𝐷𝑆
• (iii). Amplification factor (𝜇)
• Ratio of change in drain-source voltage (∆𝑉𝐷𝑆 ) to change in gate-source
voltage(𝑉𝐺𝑆 )
∆𝑉𝐷𝑆
• 𝜇= ቚ
∆𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝐼
𝐷
DC Biasing of BJT
BIASING A BJT TRANSISTOR
• Activate the transistor and prevent it to saturate or go into cut-off
mode for proper amplification of input signals.

• Fixed base bias

• Base current remain constant
• For a given value of Vcc
Example 1
• Given supply voltage; 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10𝑉,
• Base resistor 𝑅𝐵 = 100𝑘Ω
• 𝑅𝐶 = 100𝑘Ω
• Base –emitter voltage; 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉,
• 𝛽 = 50
• Determine; a. 𝐼𝐵 , 𝐼𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐵
• (b)𝑄 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
Voltage divider circuit (2 resistors )

𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2 are used as biasing

resistors
More stable and reliable

Provides better control over

the transistors Q-point

Less dependent on 𝛽
Finding Base Voltage ​ Using Thevenin's Theorem
• simplifies the voltage divider bias circuit by replacing the resistor
network with an equivalent Thevenin voltage source and Thevenin
resistance.

• Thevenin resistance is parallel combination of 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2

 Example 2
• Given the data; 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 12𝑉
• Resistors 𝑅1 = 47𝑘Ω, 𝑅2 = 10𝑘Ω, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛)
(a). Find the Thevenin Equivalent Voltage (𝑉𝑇ℎ )
(b). Equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ
A.C Equivalent Circuits
Hybrid-pi model and small signal analysis
• We linearize the circuit around a bias point (Q-point) and replace
nonlinear components with their small signal equivalent models
• It represents a transistor as a combination of resistors, capacitors and
controlled current sources, making it easier to analyze its behaviour in
circuits
• Allows precise calculation of parameters e.g voltage gain, input and
output resistance
• Simplifies non linear behaviour allowing use of linear circuit
techniques eg Kirchhoff's laws
• Critical in designing transistor- based amplifiers
Why the 𝜋 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙?
Provides accurate representation at low to moderate frequencies (MHz)
which I where most amplifiers and oscillators operate
Incorporates key transistor parameters e.g
Base –emitter resistance (r 𝜋)- model dynamic resistance of base emitter
junction
Output resistance (ro): dynamic output resistance accounting for Early effect
Transconductance (gm)-defines variation of small input current with voltage
Breaks transistor into simple circuit elements
Can be extended to include parasitic capacitances (C 𝜋)
Great balance between accuracy and simplicity
Small signal base-emitter resistance (𝑟𝜋 )

𝐼𝐶𝑄
𝐼𝐵𝑄 = ൘𝛽

𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 = ൗ𝑉
𝑇

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑘𝑇ൗ𝑞

𝛽ൗ
𝑟𝜋 = 𝑔𝑚
Example
• The Q- point transistor collector current , IC =1 mA and common
emitter current gain (CE) , 𝛽 = 100. 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 at room temperature
VT= 26mV. Calculate;
• a. The conductance gm
• b. dynamic resistance
• Solution
𝐼𝐶 −𝟑
• 𝑔𝑚 = ൗ𝑉𝑇 = 𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎 ൗ𝟐𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟒𝟔𝒎𝑨/𝑽

𝛽 100
• 𝑟𝜋 = ൗ𝑔𝑚= = 2.6 𝑘Ω
38.46
quiz
1. A BJT has a current gain 𝛽 =
150, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐶 = 2𝑚𝐴, assume
VT=26mV, calculate ;
a. The transconductance gm = 𝐼𝐶ൗ𝑉𝑇 = 2/26=0.07692 /Ω−1
b. The base-emitter resistance 𝑟𝜋 = 𝛽ൗ𝑔𝑚 =150/0.07692=1950.08 Ω

2. Consider a common emitter amplifier where;

𝛽=120, 𝐼𝐶 = 4𝑚𝐴, 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝐶 =2k𝛀, VT=26mV, calculate voltage
gain (𝐴𝑣 ) , assuming 𝐴𝑣 =-𝒈𝒎 𝑹𝑪
 Small signal hybrid-𝜋 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 circuit using
𝑔𝑚

Phasor
components
are given in
parenthesis,
𝟏
𝒁𝑪 =
𝒊𝝎𝑪
𝒁𝑳 =jwL
Current gain parameter
Solutions 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝜋

𝐼𝐵𝑄

𝐼𝐶𝑄
𝑔𝑚

𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄
 Thyristors
• The thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier SCR is a device that is widely
used for controlling or switching power and often high voltage AC or DC
circuits.
• Thyristor applications:
• AC power control (including lights, motors).
• Overvoltage protection for power supplies.
• AC power switching.
• Control elements in phase angle triggered controllers.
• Forward Blocking Mode (OFF State)
• When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode and the gate is
not triggered, the middle junction (J2) is reverse biased.
• No current flows through the thyristor except for a small leakage current
• The thyristor remains in the OFF state
• Forward Conduction Mode (ON State)
• When a small positive gate pulse is applied to the gate terminal, it injects
carriers into the middle layers
• This causes J2 to become forward biased, allowing current to flow from
the anode to the cathode.
• Even if the gate pulse is removed, the thyristor remains ON as long as the
anode current is above the holding current.
• . Reverse Blocking Mode
• When the anode is negative relative to the cathode, junctions J1 and J3
are reverse biased.
• The thyristor blocks current flow, acting as an open circuit
 DIAC
• The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that
• can be turned on in both forward and reverse polarities.
• Diode for Alternating current (DIAC)
• Used in triggering triacs in AC power control
• used in AC switches. DIACs are mainly used in dimmer applications and
• also in starter circuits for florescent lamps.
• How a DIAC Works:
1.Blocking Mode: When the voltage across the DIAC is below its breakover
voltage (typically 30V–50V), it behaves like an open circuit and does not
conduct.
2. Breakover & Conduction Mode: Once the voltage reaches the DIAC’s
breakover voltage, it enters conduction mode, allowing current to flow
through. This happens in both directions since the DIAC is bidirectional.
3. Turning Off: The DIAC remains conducting until the current drops below
a certain threshold (called the holding current), after which it returns to its
blocking state.