Processes during PN junction formation

• Diffusion- due to diffusion gradient

• Recombination –holes and electrons neutralize near interface.
• This reduces carrier concentration
• Formation of Depletion region – ions on either side of the junction
• Donor and acceptor ions
• Development of built-In potential (potential barrier )-the immobile
ions create an electric field that opposes further diffusion of majority
carriers
❑Small current called leakage
current flows across the
junction in reverse bias mode.

❑They are caused by electron

–hole pairs generated due to
thermal energy
❑It is independent of applied
bias voltage.
 ❑Avalanche breakdown-he increased
JUNCTION breakdown reverse voltage increases KE on minority
carriers, as they diffuse across the
junction.
❑If the reverse bias voltage is increased to ❑As the reverse voltage is increased
a large value, the current across the further, the minority carriers acquire a
junction increases abruptly. The voltage large amount of energy (or momentum)
at which this occurs is called breakdown and collide with the semiconductor
voltage and can caused by; atoms within the crystal structure.
❑Zener breakdown- occurs in heavily ❑The large energy break covalent bonds
doped junctions and generate additional carriers which
pick up energy from the applied voltage
❑When the reverse bias voltage is and generate still more carriers.
increased, the electric field at the
junction also increases.
❑A strong electric field causes covalent
bond to break from the crystal structure
hence a large number of minority carriers
are generated causing a large current
across the junction.
Activity 2
1. What is P-N junction? 4. What is leakage current of a P-
Is a single crystal semi-conductor N junction?
in which one region is a n-type 5. What is meant by zener and
and the other region is a p-type avalanche breakdown? What
2. Describe processes leading to factors do they depend on?
the formation of p-n junction
3.Draw a p-n junction in reverse
bias. Explain the characteristics of
diode in reverse bias.
V-I CHARACTERISITICS OF P-N JUNCTION
DIODE
• A graph between the voltage
applied across the terminals of a
diode and the corresponding
currents along it when forward
and reverse biased.

Plot graph of I against V

Forward bias

The diode is non-Ohmic i.e. is not linear. • The current increases rapidly when potential
• As voltage is increased from zero , a very small barrier is overcome at bias voltage called the cut-
current flows through. in/ threshold /break-point voltage
• This is because the potential barrier opposes the
Reverse Bias
❑When voltage is zero, leakage
current Ia flows due to minority
charge.
❑There is no significant change in
the current when the voltage is
increased.
❑ At a reverse bias voltage called
Zener or breakdown voltage
current suddenly flows.

❑In this case resistance is zero and

further increases in reverse bias
voltage blow out the diode
DIODE CURRENT EQUATION
𝑉
−1
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝜂𝑉
(𝑒 𝑇 )
Where ;
I=Forward /reverse diode current
𝐼0 =reverse saturation current
V=external voltage
𝜂=non-linearity or emission constant
VT= voltage-equivalent of temperature ≈ 26𝑚𝑉 at rt (300K)
Note: VT is given by T/11600 where T is absolute temperature.
11600=charge of an electron/Boltzman’s constant
𝑒𝑉
−1
𝐼= 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )
Applications of diodes
❑Rectifiers convert AC to DC ❑During the 1st half cycle, A is
Full-Wave Rectifier: Uses multiple positive w.r.t to C i.e. D1 and D3 are
diodes to convert both halves of the forward biased and conducts.
AC waveform to DC, providing a ❑Path of current ABDCA.
more efficient and smoother output. ❑ During the 2nd cycle, point A
(bridge rectifier becomes negative w.r.t to C.
❑ Diode D2 and D4 forward biased
and conduct.
❑Path of the conventional current.
CBDAC
 • Quiz
Uses of diodes… 1. Silicon diode has a saturation
current of 0.01 µA at a room
temperature of 300 K. Find the
❑ As signal diodes in
saturation current at 400 K(non-
communication circuits
linearity factor =2, V=300mV )
❑ As Zener diodes in voltage
Solution
stabilizing circuits 𝑉
−1
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝜂𝑉
(𝑒 𝑇 )
❑As varactor diodes in radio and
300
TV receivers −1
=0.01x 10-6 (𝑒
2𝑥34.5 )
❑As a switch in logic circuits used
0.01x 10-6 x𝑒 3.3478 = 0.2844𝜇𝐴
in computers
SPECIAL PURPOSE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
• ZENER DIODES ❑in forward bias they behave as
❑can handle breakdown without standard rectifier diode
failing completely. It is also ❑In reverse-bias mode, they do
called voltage-reference or not conduct until the applied
voltage regulator voltage reaches or exceeds the
Zener voltage which can range
between few to hundreds of
volts.
❑Can undergo Zener breakdown
 • When the value of Vin is less
than Zener voltage VZ to the
Zener diode no current flows
through it and the same
voltage appearing across the
the Zener diode of Zener Voltage VZ is load. The Zener diodes
connected across the load RL in reverse conduct a large current when
condition. The constant voltage (V0 = VZ) is the input voltage Vin is more
the desired voltage across the load. than the Zener Voltage Vz
Other application areas include rectifying very high frequency
signals, use in clipping
and clamping circuits, use in mixing and detecting circuits and
use in low power supply circuits
 These diodes offer a relatively
large change in capacitance.
3. Varactor diode This is useful when oscillators
or filters are swept over a
large frequency range. These
diodes are majorly used in
tuned circuits.
 Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium,
arsenic, and phosphorus (called gallium-arsenide-phosphide)

Optical diodes glow bright red, and are some of the most common LEDs
manufactured.
Electroluminescence
Electron-Hole Recombination: In the forward-
biased condition, electrons from the n-type
region gain enough energy to cross the junction
and recombine with holes in the p-type region.

Emission of Photons: When electrons

recombine with holes, they release energy in
the form of photons. The energy of the
emitted photons corresponds to the bandgap
energy of the semiconductor material used in
the LED.

•Gallium arsenide (GaAs) emits infrared light.

•Gallium nitride (GaN) Gallium phosphide
(GaP) emits red or green light.
• emits blue light.
Mirrors/Cavity Resonator: Reflective surfaces at the ends of the semiconductor material to form an optical cavity, providing
feedback to amplify the light.

They produce laser light, which is characterized by its high intensity, coherence, and monochromaticity.
Additional features of Laser Diode
• P-type and n-type semiconductor layers (GaN,GaAs, InP)
• Active region (quantum well) where electron-hole recombination
occurs leading to release of energy in form of photons.
(initially photons are emitted randomly but they reflect btn mirrors,
Stimulated emission-stimulate other excited electrons to drop to a
lower energy )
• Optical cavity formed by polished or coated facets of semiconductor
• Reflective mirrors to emit laser light
 photodiode

Light enters the top of the photodiode through a thin top

P-type layer and allows most photons to pass into the
depletion region where electron-hole pairs are formed

The electric field across the depletion region due to

the built in diode potential causes electrons to be
swept into the N-layer and holes into the P-layer.

a few electron-hole pairs in the N and P-regions, and most in

the depletion region contribute to photocurrent.
Diodes for fiber optic c ommunication
❑The LEDs and Laser diodes forms
major components of the
transmitter side as they emit light.
❑This light is modulated with a
signal.
❑The optical signal is then
transmitted through the optical
fiber and is received by
photodiodes on the destination
side where they are converted back
to electrical signals.
Repeaters are used to amplify weak signals in long distances
 Solar cell/Photovoltaic system
Convert light energy into
N-type layer is thin and transparent , the p-type is thick
electrical energy
When light greater than
its bandgap is impacted
on a solar cell, the p-n
junction produces an
EMF
The junction area is kept
large
Three processes occur at
the junction ; generation
, separation and
collection of EHP.
 Equivalent circuit
Consists of an ideal current
generator in parallel with a
diode in reverse bias
(Rs​): Represents the
resistance of the cell
material, metal contacts,
and interconnections.
Shunt Resistance
(Rsh​): Represents 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐼𝑆ℎ
𝑉
leakage currents due to 𝜂𝑉
−1
manufacturing defects or = 𝐼𝑔𝑒𝑛 − 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑇
recombination in the − 𝐼𝑆ℎ
𝑞𝑉
depletion region. −1
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 − 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )- 𝐼𝑆ℎ
Solar cell parameters
1. Ideal conversion efficiency
This is the percentage of the input solar energy that is converted onto
usable electrical energy.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= 𝑥100
𝑃𝑖𝑛
2. Open circuit Voltage (𝑉𝑂𝐶 )
he open-circuit voltage is the voltage across the terminals of the solar cell
when no current is flowing.
Represents maximum voltage solar cell can provide under illumination.
Its related to the bandgap (𝐸𝑔 ) of the semiconductor; 𝑉𝑂𝐶 =0.7 V for silicon
Standard conditions; Irradiance is 100W/m2, temp=25 °C
IV curve of a solar cell
• The open-circuit voltage (VOC) signifies the maximum
voltage a cell can deliver in an open circuit (Absence of
Load).
• The short-circuit current (ISC) represents the peak
current achievable when the voltage drops to zero.
• The most crucial of all is the maximum power point
(MPP), where the product of current and voltage reaches
its apex, indicating optimal power output.
• Determining the Maximum Power Point
• The maximum power point on a solar power curve is identified
through a process that involves maximizing the product of
current and voltage. This point is vital because it dictates the
most efficient operational state of the solar panel, ensuring
maximal power extraction.
 Activity 3
1. What is the primary function of a diode in a rectifier circuit?
2. How does a Zener diode regulate voltage in a power supply?
3. How does a varactor diode function as a voltage-controlled capacitor?
4. Why are photodiodes typically operated in reverse bias?
5. What is the role of the shunt resistance (Rsh​) in the equivalent circuit of a
solar cell?
6. Compare the operation of a photodiode and a solar cell.
7. Consider a 150 cm2 photovoltaic cell with reverse saturation current 𝐼0 =
10−12 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 . In full sun, it produces a short-circuit current of 40 mA/ cm
2 at 25 ℃. What would be the short-circuit current and open circuit

voltage in full sun and at 50% sun. plot the resulting IV curves.