RATE AND EXTENT OF REACTION

1.THE RATE OF REACTION

*A chemical reaction is written as follows:

Reactant(R) →Product(P)

*** Reaction rate - the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit
time.

△𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝑑𝑚−3 )
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 . 𝑠 −1
△𝑡(𝑠)

NB: Reaction rate can also be calculated as follows:

(i) Measuring change in mass:

△𝑚(𝑔)
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 𝑔. 𝑠 −1
△𝑡(𝑠)

(ii) Measuring change in Volume:

△𝑉(𝑐𝑚3 )
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 𝑐𝑚−1 . 𝑠 −1
△𝑡(𝑠)

(iii) Measuring change in no. of moles:

△𝑛(𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑠 −1
△𝑡(𝑠)

PREPARED BY C. NYATHI 1
Examples

1. calculate the average reaction rate by making use of the given conditions
for each of the following reactions:

1.1. In the presence of manganese(IV) oxide as a catalyst, a 100𝑐𝑚3 of

hydrogen peroxide solution decompose to give 20𝑐𝑚3 of 𝑂2 in
15seconds.

2𝐻2 𝑂2(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑂2(𝑔)

1.2. When the reaction in 1.1. is conducted in a sealed container, the pressure
in the container increases from 1atm to 1.8atm in 15s.

1.3. When 25g of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙3 is added to 500𝑐𝑚3 of a 2𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 𝐻𝐶𝑙 solution,
the release of 𝐶𝑂2 gas results in a mass loss of 2.45𝑔 in 2mins.

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Also calculate the mass of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 that remained after 2mins.

1.4. Nitrogen reacts with oxygen in a sealed container to produce nitrogen

dioxide
𝑁2(𝑔) + 2𝑂2(𝑔) ⟶ 2𝑁𝑂2(𝑔)

The concentration of nitrogen dioxide increases to 0.48𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 in

2seconds.

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Solutions:

△𝑉 20𝑐𝑚3 −0𝑐𝑚3
1.1. 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = = 1,33𝑐𝑚3 . 𝑠 −1
△𝑡 15𝑠−0𝑠

△𝑝 1.8𝑎𝑡𝑚−1𝑎𝑡𝑚
1.2. 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = = 0,053𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑠 −1
△𝑡 15𝑠−0𝑠

△𝑚 12,45𝑔−0𝑔
1.3. 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = = 0,02𝑔. 𝑠 −1
△𝑡 120𝑠−0𝑠

𝑚 2,45
𝑛(𝐶𝑂2 ) = 𝑀 = = 0,05568𝑚𝑜𝑙
44

Mole ratio: 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝐶𝑂2

1 ∶ 1
𝑋 0,05568

𝑛(𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3 )𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑛(𝐶𝑂2 )

= (0,05568)

𝑛(𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3 )𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑛𝑀
= (0,05568)(100)
= 5,568𝑔

𝑛(𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3 )𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 25𝑔 − 5,568𝑔

= 19,432𝑔

△𝑐 0,48𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝑑𝑚−3 − 0𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝑑𝑚−3
1.4. 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = = 0,24𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 . 𝑠 −1
△𝑡 2𝑠−0𝑠

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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RATE OF REACTION

Graph of change in concentration of products vs time

ሾ ሿ (𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 )

• The graph has a positive gradient

• Steepest at 1st ⟶ [products] increases rapidly
• Gradient less steep ⟶ [product] increases slowly
• Graph is horizontal/levels off ⟶ reaction is complete/ concentration
of products remains constant
ሾ ሿ 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3

• The graph has a negative gradient

• Steepest at 1st ⟶ [reactants] decreases rapidly
• Gradient less steep ⟶ [reactants] decreases slowly
• Graph is horizontal ⟶ reaction is complete/ concentration of reactants
remain constant

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 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑅) ⟶ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 (𝑃)

CLASSWORK MARKS: 17

1. 10g of magnesium powder was added to 100cm^3 of a 0,2mol.dm^-3

hydrochloric acid solution in an Erlenmeyer flask. The rate of reaction is
racked by measuring the amount of hydrogen that is formed at regular
time intervals. The reaction:
𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝑀𝑔 𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)

The following results were obtained:

Time taken(mins) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Volume of gas (𝑐𝑚3 ) 0 13 18 22 24 25 25 25

1.1. Define the term reaction rate (2)

1.2. Draw a graph of volume of hydrogen versus time (5)
1.3. How long did it take for the reaction to complete? (1)
1.4. Calculate the reaction rate between t = 0 & t = 5mins. (4)
1.5. Calculate the mass of 𝑀𝑔 used up during the reaction (5)
(The molar gas volume under these conditions is 24.0𝑑𝑚−3 . 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )

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THE COLLISION THEORY

*The collision theory is a model that explains reaction rate as the result of
particles colliding with a certain minimum energy to from products

NB: According to the collision theory, a reaction between particles occurs only
when they collide with each other.
Not all collisions result in a reaction
*Successful collisions are referred to as effective collisions

Conditions for an effective collision:

(i) Particles must have sufficient kinetic energy to react i.e. 𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴

(ii) Particles must have the correct orientation when they collide.

***Activation energy – the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place.

Factors that Affect Reaction Rate

(1) Surface Area/ state of division

(2) Concentration/ pressure for gases
(3) Pressure for gases
(4) Temperature
(5) Presence of catalyst
(6) Nature of reacting substances

Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rate

*Powder
➢ Has larger Surface Area
➢ In a powder more particles are exposed
➢ More effective collisions per unit time
➢ Reaction rate increases
➢
NB: Reaction Rate increases with increase in Surface Area

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Effect of concentration of reactants on Reaction Rate
𝑛
*Increase in concentration of reactant (𝑐 = )
𝑣
➢ More particles per unit volume
➢ More particles have sufficient energy to react/ have 𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴
➢ More effective collisions per unit time
➢ Reaction rate increases

NB: Reaction rate increases with increase in concentration of reactants

Effect of Pressure on Reaction rate

*Increase in pressure of reacting gaseous substances.

➢ Increasing pressure by decreasing volume increases the number of
particles per unit volume
➢ More molecules have 𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴
➢ More effective collisions per unit time
➢ Reaction rate increase

NB: Reaction rate increases with increase in pressure of gaseous reactants

Effect of temperature on Reaction rate

*increase in temperature
➢ An increase in temperature increases the average 𝐸𝑘 of the particles
➢ More particles have 𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴
➢ More particles collisions per second
➢ Reaction rate increases

NB: Reaction rate increases with increase in temperature

Effect of catalyst on Reaction rate

***(Positive) catalyst - a substance that increases the rate of a chemical

reaction without itself undergoing a permanent change.
➢ A catalyst lowers the activation energy
➢ A catalyst provides an alternative path with a lower activation energy
➢ More particles have 𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴
➢ More effective collisions per unit time

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CLASSWORK MARKS: 8

1. The collision theory helps explain reaction rate

1.1. Define the term activation energy (2)

1.2. State two conditions for an effective collision to occur (2)
1.3. Explain using the collision theory how an increase in concentration
affects the reaction rate (4)

HOMEWORK MARKS: 8

2. Use the collision theory to explain how each of the following changes
affect reaction rate

2.1. Decrease in temperature (4)

2.2. Using powdered substance instead of lumps (4)

MEASURING RATES OF REACTION

(a) Gas produced: Measure

(i) The increase in volume of gas produced with time
(ii) The decrease in mass of the reaction mixture as gas is realised

(b) Precipitate formed:

Measure the turbidity/cloudiness or amount of solid product formed
with time

(c) Colour change:

Measure the change in colour or colour intensity with a colorimeter or
spectrometer

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INVESTIGATING FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE

THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON REATION RATE

AIM: To find out the effects of change in concentration on reaction rate

Variables:
Independent: concentration of reactants
Dependent: Reaction rate
Controlled: Mass of 𝑀𝑔; Temperature; volume of 𝐻𝐶𝑙

Magnesium reacts with HCl as follows:

𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙2(𝑙) ⟶ 𝑀𝑔 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)

The table summaries conditions for experiment 1, 2 and 3

Experiment Mass of Volume of Concentration of Temperature

𝑀𝑔(𝑔) 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑐𝑚3 ) 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 ) (𝑜𝐶 )
1 0,8 50 1 21
2 0,8 50 0,8 21
3 0,8 50 0,6 21

The results of this investigation are shown in the graph below:

Graph of volume of 𝐻2 against time

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A ⟶ experiment 3: smallest gradient/reaction rate; longest time for
reaction to complete
B ⟶ experiment 2: medium gradient/reaction rate; medium time for reaction
to complete
C ⟶ experiment 1: largest gradient/reaction rate; shortest time for reaction to
complete

Conclusion: Reaction rate increases with increase in concentration of reactants.

THE EFFECT REACTION SURFACE AREA (STATE OF DIVISION) ON REACTION RATE

AIM: To find out the effect of reaction surface area on reaction rate.

Variables:
Independent: Surface area/state of division
Dependent: Reaction rate
Controlled: Mass of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 , concentration of 𝐻𝐶𝑙

A reaction between 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 and 𝐻𝐶𝑙 is used.

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

Excess 𝐻𝐶𝑙 is used and the 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 is completely covered in all cases.
PREPARED BY C. NYATHI 10
Two experiments are conducted using the conditions below:

Mass of State Concentration of Temperature

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑔) of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 ) of 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑜𝐶 )
Experiment 1 20 Lumps 0,2 25
Experiment 2 20 Powder 0,2 25

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NB: In both experiments the loss in mass is due to CO2(g) that escapes after
being formed
➢ Since the mass of CaCO3 used is the same, the total mass of Cl2 formed
is the same in experiment 1 and 2

Conclusion:
Reaction rate increases with increase in reaction surface area

CLASSWORK MARKS: 16

The results obtained in EXPERIMENT 1 are shown in the table below.

Time(s) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120

Mass(g) 150,0 147,50 146,60 146,00 145,80 145,70 145,60 145,60 145,60

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5.3. Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the substance responsible for the
decrease in mass
(1)

5.4. How long does it take for the reaction in EXPERIMENT 1 to be completed
(1)

5.5. How will the rate of the reaction in EXPERIMENT 2 compare to that in
EXPERIMENT1?
Write down GREATER THAN, SMALLER THAN OR EQUAL TO. Briefly explain
your
Answer by referring to the collision theory
(3)

5.6. The sketch graph below (not drawn to scale) represents the results
obtained for
EXPERIMENT 1.

5.6.1. Use the information in the graph to determine the mass of sodium
carbonate that has reacted in EXPERIMENT 1.
(5)

5.6.2 Redraw the above sketch graph in your ANSWER BOOK. On the same
set of axes, sketch the curve obtained for EXPERIMENT 2. Label your graph as
Exp.2. (2)

[16]

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EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON REACTION RATE
AIM: To find out/investigate the effect of increasing temperature on reaction
rate.

➢ Sodium thiosulphate reacts with HCl to form a yellow sulphur precipitate

➢ The formation of a precipitate can be used to measure the reaction rate.
The reaction:

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑆𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝑆(𝐺) 𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

The hydrochloric acid solution is added to the sodium thiosulphate solution in a flask. The
flask is placed over a cross drawn on a sheet of white paper, as shown in the diagram below.
The time that it takes for the cross to become invisible is measured to determine the
reaction rate.

flask

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) +

white paper

Four experiments, A to D, are conducted during this investigation. The volumes of reactants
used in each of the four experiments and the times of the reactions are summarised in the
table below.
Volume of Volume of Time
Volume of
Experiment 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) (𝑐𝑚3 ) 𝐻 𝑂 (𝑐𝑚3 ) 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) (𝑐𝑚3 ) (s)
2 (𝑙)

A 25 0 5 50,0

B 20 5 5 62,5
C 15 10 5 83,3
D 10 15 5 125,0

Variables:
Independent: concentration of 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3
Dependent: Reaction rate
Controlled: Concentration of HCl; temperature

NB: The cross disappears due to the formation of sulphur (a yellow precipitate)
PREPARED BY C. NYATHI 15
 1
∗ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: 𝑠 −1
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ➢ Rate of reaction
△𝑡
Graph of rate of reaction versus concentration increases with increase
in concentration ( of
𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3)
➢ Or reaction is directly
proportional to
Rate of reaction ( 𝑠 −1 )

concentration

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3

Graph of time for cross to disappear vs concentration

➢ Conclusion:
Time for X to disappear(s)

Reaction rate increases with

increase in temperature

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) (𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3 )

PREPARED BY C. NYATHI 16
QUESTION 5 (Start on a new page.)
The reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulphate (𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3 ) is used
to investigate one of the factors that influences reaction rate. The balanced equation for
the reaction is:

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑆02(𝑔)

The hydrochloric acid solution is added to the sodium thiosulphate solution in a flask. The
flask is placed over a cross drawn on a sheet of white paper, as shown in the diagram
below. The time that it takes for the cross to become invisible is measured to determine the
reaction rate.

flask

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)

white paper

Four experiments, A to D, are conducted during this investigation. The volumes of reactants
used in each of the four experiments and the times of the reactions are summarised in the
table below.
Volume of Volume of Volume of
Experiment 3 Time (s)
𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3 (𝑐𝑚 ) 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) (𝑐𝑚3 ) 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) (𝑐𝑚3 )
A 25 0 5 50.0

B 20 5 5 62,5

C 15 10 5 83,3
D 10 15 5 125,0

5.1. State TWO factors that can influence the rate of the reaction above (2)

5.2. Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the product that causes the cross
to become invisible (1)

5.3. Give a reason why water is added to the reaction mixture in experiments B
to D (1)

5.4. Write down an investigatiVE question for this investigation (2)

PREPARED BY C. NYATHI 17
5.5. In which experiment (A, B, C or D) is the reaction rate the highest (1)

5.6. Use the collision theory to explain the difference in reaction rate between
experiments B and D (3)

5.7. The original 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3 solution was prepared by dissolving 62.50g 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3
crystals in distilled water in a 250 250cm^3 volumetric flask.

Calculate the mass of sulphur, S , that will form in experiment D if

𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3 is the limiting agent (7)
[17]

MECHANISM OF REACTION AND CATALYSIS

ACTIVATION ENERGY

***Heat of reaction(△H) – the energy absorbed or realised during a chemical

reaction

***Exothermic reaction – a reaction that realised energy

➢ △H < 0
➢ Energy of products is lower than energy of reactants

***Endothermic reaction – a reaction that absorbs energy

➢ △H > 0
➢ Energy of products is higher than energy of reactants

***Activated complex – the unstable transition state from reactants to

products

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Graphic Representation of energy and change

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ENERGY OF THE MOLECULE
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution: Distribution of kinetic energy of reactant
molecules

Fraction of
molecules with
sufficient energy to
Molecules react i.e. molecules
without enough with 𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴
energy to react

Minimum 𝐸𝑘 needed for

reaction to take place

Kinetic energy of molecules

➢ The area under the graph represents the total number of molecules
➢ Only a small number of molecules have sufficient energy to overcome
the 𝐸𝐴

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Effect of increase in Temperature

Effects of increase in concentration of a reactant

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Effects of a catalyst

a) Potential energy diagram for Exothermic Reaction

b)
𝐵𝐶 + 𝐷𝐸 ⟶ 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐶𝐸 △ 𝐻 < 0

c) Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Graph

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of kinetic energy of reactant molecules
where a catalyst is used

Particles with
𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴 for
uncatalyzed
reaction
Molecules
without enough
energy to react

For the uncatalyzed

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reaction molecules with
𝐸𝑘 ≥ 𝐸𝐴 increased
PREPARED BY C. NYATHI 25