Construction techniques

In constructing Tigray vernacular houses a combination of local materials

and techniques have been used. These techniques involve quarrying and
shaping stones, foundation work, masonry walls, ceiling construction, and
roofing. Local knowledge and tools, often intertwined with agricultural
practices, are also crucial to the process.

Generally, the geographical context of Tigray is characterized by rugged

highlands, varied elevations, and a semi-arid climate with cold dry winters
and hot dry summers. These conditions have heavily influenced the
construction techniques employed by local communities. Houses are
designed to provide insulation from temperature extremes, protection
from seasonal rains, and stability on uneven terrain

Tigray vernacular houses employ traditional construction techniques that

emphasize thermal regulation, structural resilience, and resource
efficiency. Circular and rectangular hut forms are most common, often
constructed on stone foundations to provide stability on uneven or rocky
terrain. Walls are built using dry-stacked stone layering or mud brick
techniques, applying mud plaster for additional insulation and protection
against erosion.

The roofs are typically conical or dome-shaped, constructed from wooden

frameworks covered by layers of grass or thatch, which facilitate rain
runoff and ensure breathability during hot seasons. These roofing shapes
also minimize wind pressure and help maintain interior comfort.

A notable adaptation is the thick wall construction that offers thermal

mass, reducing indoor temperature fluctuations, crucial in extreme
climates.

Construction Process:

 Stone Quarrying and Shaping: The process begins with quarrying

local stone, followed by shaping each piece to the desired form.
 Foundation: Foundations are laid, often using local materials like
stone or earth.
 Masonry Walls: Walls are constructed using the shaped stones, often
in a simple, dry-stacked masonry technique.
 Ceiling and Roofing: Wooden planks are used to create a ceiling,
supported by beams. The roof is typically a flat, hard-packed mud
structure.
 Plastering: Walls may be plastered with a mixture of mud and other
materials for additional protection and insulation.

1. Dry-Stone Masonry: The Art of Mortarless Construction

- Stones are carefully hand-picked from nearby quarries based on:

- Flatness of surfaces (for better stacking)

- Size gradation (larger stones at base, smaller for upper courses)

- Geological properties (sandstone preferred for workability)

Construction Methodology:

1. Foundation Preparation:

- Site levelled and compacted

- Large foundation stones (30-50cm diameter) placed in trenches

- Depth varies by soil type (deeper in loose soils)

2. Wall Construction:

- Stones placed in alternating "stretcher and header" pattern

- Each course slightly inclined inward (batter of 1:20 for stability)

- "Through stones" placed every 60-90cm for lateral stability

3. Chinking Process:

- Small wedge-shaped stones (5-10cm) hammered into gaps

- Done from both sides of wall for uniform pressure

Structural Physics:

- Weight distribution follows "arching action" principle

- Friction between stones provides shear resistance

- Flexible nature allows up to 2-3cm of movement during quakes

Case Example: Hïdmo House in Inderta*

Typical wall thickness: 70cm at base, tapering to 50cm at top

Construction rate: 30-40cm height per day (allowing mud to set)

Average lifespan: 80-100 years with proper maintenance

2. Monkey-Head Joints: Ancient Seismic Engineering

Beam Specifications: - Typically juniper wood (Juniperus procera)

Diameter: 15-20cm
 Length: 1.5-2m (protruding 30cm each side)

Wall Integration:

Stones carved with semicircular indentations. Beam ends wrapped with

goat leather for moisture protection. Installation at 80-100cm vertical
intervals

Seismic Performance:

Allows up to 5° of rotation during earthquakes. Energy dissipation through

wood-on-stone friction. Post-earthquake repairability (individual beams
replaceable)

3. Rock-Hewn Architecture: Precision Carving Techniques

Tool Inventory:

1. Primary Tools:

- "Mekina" (iron chisel, 25cm long)

- "Wenber" (wooden mallet, acacia wood)

- "Tsini" (stone hammer)

2. Measuring Tools:

- Plumb bob made of stone and string

- Water level using animal bladder

Carving Process:

1. Surface Preparation: Soft sandstone identified by color (yellowish

hue) and Surface smoothed with coarse stones

2. Excavation Sequence: Ceiling first (to establish height), Walls carved

inward from perimeter and Floors levelled last

3. Finishing Techniques: Final smoothing with wet clay slurry

- Smoke treatment for water resistance

Environmental Controls: Air shafts precisely angled for passive

ventilation. Wall thickness calibrated for thermal lag (exactly 72cm in
most cases) and Moisture-wicking channels in floors

4. Roofing Systems: Multi-Layered Climate Buffers

Thatch Roof Construction:
1. Framework:

Primary rafters (juniper, 8-10cm diameter), Secondary purlins (acacia,

5cm diameter) and Spacing: 30cm between rafters are needed.

2. Thatching Process:

Base layer: "Tef straw" (50cm thick)

Top layer: "Serdo grass" (30cm thick)

Pitch angle: 45° for optimal rain runoff

3. Binding Technique:

"Chiya" vine used for lashing. Diagonal lashing pattern resists wind uplift

Mud Roof Composition: done layer by layer

1 layer: Juniper poles which is 10cm thick for structural base.

2 layer: Acacia branches which is 5cm for Reinforcement purpose

3 layer: Straw-clay mix in 15cm thickness for Insulation

4 layer: 2cm Lime-plaster for Waterproofing

Maintenance Cycle:

- Annual re-thatching (before rainy season)

- Mud roof re-plastering every 3 years

- Full structural inspection every decade

5. Climate-Adaptive Engineering Details

Wall Construction

- Thermal Performance: 70cm wall provides 11.5-hour thermal lag. Interior

surface temp variation: ±2°C (vs ±15°C outside)

- Moisture Control: Capillary break layer of crushed basalt at foundation.

"Weep holes" at 1m intervals

Window Technology: - Standard size: 40x60cm

- Triple-function design:

1. Wooden shutters (daytime heat control)

2. Leather curtains (night insulation)

3. Perforated clay screen (ventilation when closed)

Orientation Principles:
- Primary facade within 15° of true east

- Secondary windows aligned with summer wind patterns

- Overhang ratio calculated by latitude (1:1.2 in Tigray)

Materials and Sustainability in Tigray Vernacular Architecture

The key materials used in Tigray vernacular houses are predominantly

stone, mud, wood and thatch, all sourced locally to ensure sustainability
and affordability.

1. Stone: is the Backbone of Tigray Construction

Stone is abundant in the rocky highlands and is carefully selected for size
and durability, used primarily for foundations and structural walls. Its
thermal mass properties aid in temperature regulation of interiors.

Material Properties:

 Types Used:

Sandstone (most common, 60-80 MPa compressive strength)

Basalt (foundations, 100-150 MPa)

Limestone (carved elements, 40-60 MPa)

 Extraction Method:

Hand-quarried within 5 km of sites

Zero blasting (prevents micro-fractures)

Structural Advantages:

✔ Thermal Lag: as said former 70cm walls provide 11.5-hour delay in heat
transfer

✔ 100% Recyclable: Stones reused for 5-6 generations

2. Mud Mortar: The Climate-Responsive Binder

Mud, frequently mixed with straw or other natural fibres, serves as mortar
for stone walls or for creating mud bricks. This composite enhances wall
strength and insulation. The mud plaster applied to walls protects them
from weathering and lends a smooth finish while maintaining
breathability, crucial for indoor air quality.

Mud mortar contains 65% by volume of Clay for plasticity purpose, 25%
by volume of Straw for Tensile reinforcement and 10% by volume of Cow
Dung for Water resistance purpose.
 3. Wood: Precision-Engineered Joinery
Wood used in structural elements, such as roof framing or door frames, is
locally harvested with care to avoid depletion of resources.

Species Selection: Juniper (Juniperus procera): Density: 650 kg/m³ &

Natural durability: Class 1 (resists decay 25+ years)

- Acacia (Acacia tortilis): Flexural strength: 85 MPa

 Thatch from local grasses forms the roofing material, prized for its light
weight, insulative properties, and availability. The layered thatch
roofing is expertly tied to wooden rafters and regularly maintained by
the community, ensuring longevity despite exposure to harsh weather.

6. Threats to Traditional Sustainability

Modernization Pressures:

- Cement use increasing at 14% annually (Ethiopian Construction Bureau,

2023)

- Thatch replacement with corrugated iron:

- Thermal penalty: Indoor temps rise 6-8°C

- Acoustic cost: 12 dB louder during rain

Climate Change Impacts:

- Extended droughts: Thatch grass regrowth down 30%

- Heavier rains: Erodes mud plasters 40% faster

7. Preservation Innovations
Hybrid Solutions:

1. Stabilized Mud Blocks: - 5% cement added improves durability without

thermal penalty

2. Thatch Alternatives: - Banana fiber composites: R-value 1.8, 20-year

lifespan

3. Seismic Upgrades: - Bamboo tension rings in stone walls (adds ductility)

REFERENCE

1. Jetie, S. (2019). Appraisal of vernacular stone housing typology of

Tigrai, Ethiopia. *International Journal of Architecture, Arts and
Applications,
2. Phillipson, D. W. (2012). *Ancient Ethiopia: Aksum - Its antecedents
and successors. London: British Museum Press.
3. Shimizu, N., Weldegiorgi, E., Asfha, A., & Miyaike, R. (2019).
Fundamentals of Hïdmo in Ïnderta: A traditional house type in Tigray
region, Ethiopia. Nilo-Ethiopian Studies, 24, 17-30.
4. Ethiopian Construction Bureau. (2023). *Annual report on
construction material trends in Ethiopia*. Addis Ababa: ECB
Publications.
5. Getachew, Z. (2023). *Tigray vernacular houses: A study of
traditional construction* [PDF]. Retrieved from [source link]
6. Ethiopian Institute of Architecture. (2023). *Material property
database [Unpublished raw data]. Addis Ababa University.