CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY 17CV44

MODULE - 1 CONCRETE INGREDIENTS

Cement
History of cement

Cement can be primary classified as 1) Natural cements and 2) Artificial cements

Natural cements are manufactured by burning and crushing of stones containing clay,
carbonates of lime and small amount of carbonates of magnesia. Clay content in such stones may
vary about 20 to 40%. Natural cements are brown in color and best variety of natural cement is
Roman cement which resembles like hydraulic lime. Because of presence of hydraulic lime, it
sets the cement at faster rate after the addition of water to the cement. Even though Natural
cements resist water action, but not strong as Artificial cements.

Artificial cements are manufactured by burning a mixture of Calcareous (calcium carbonates

predominates) and Argillaceous (clay predominates) materials at very high temperature of about
1400º to 1500º in Rotating Kiln. Kiln is the heart of cement plant, which is 50m long, 5m dia
and placed in inclined position. The mixture of ingredients should have close contact with each
other and should be mixed in proper proportion. Calcination process takes place in the kiln.
Because of this process a calcined product ie. Cement balls are formed and this calcined product
is called Clinker. To the clinker, a small amount of gypsum is added and mixture is finely
grinded, and obtained product is called artificial cement. Best varieties of artificial cements are
ordinary cements and normal setting cements. This cement was invented by Joseph Aspdin in
1824 and he patented this cement as Portland cement, because the color of the obtained cement
resembles the color of sandstone which is abundant in Portland of England.

Note: Calcination is the process of reduction of carbonates to oxides with the release of
carbon dioxide

CaCO 3 → CaO + CO2

(Carbonates) → (oxide) + (Carbon dioxide)

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Cement is a well known building material which has occupied indispansible (means no other
substitute) place in the construction works.

Characteristics of cement

1. The color of the cement is grey with greenish shade. It gives an indication of excess or lime or
clay and the degree of burning.

2. It should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between fingers.

3. If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or in a heap of cement, it should feel cool and not warm.

4. It should be free from any hard lumps.

5. It should not contain any excess amount silica, lime, alumina and alkalies.

Properties of cement

(a) Physical properties: Physical properties of cement mainly depend on chemical composition,
degree of burning and fineness of grinding.

1. It gives strength to the masonry.

2. It is an excellent binding material.

3. It is easily workable.

4. It offers greater resistance to moisture.

5. It possesses a good plasticity.

6. It stiffens or hardens early.

7. A thin paste of cement held in water should feel sticky between the fingers.

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8. When cement thrown in water should sink and should not float on the surface.

9. The particles should have uniformity of fineness and surface area of should not be less than
2250 cm2/gm.

10. The standard consistency of cement should be checked with Vicat apparatus. If the
settlement of plunger is between 5 to 7mm from bottom of the mould, the amount of water
added is correct, otherwise repeat the process with different percentages of water till the
desired penetration is achieved.

11. The initial setting time of ordinary cement is about 30minutes. This initial setting time is the
interval between the addition of water to cement and the stage when the square needle of
Vicat apparatus ceases to penetrate.

12. The final setting time for ordinary cement is about 10hrs. The final setting time is the
difference between the time at which water was added to cement and time required for needle
with annular collar of Vicat’s apparatus ceases to make an impression on test block.

13. The cement should be tested for soundness using Le-Chatelier apparatus. This test is to
detect the presence of uncombined lime in cement. The expansion of cement after heating and
cooling the mould should not exceed 10mm.

(b) Mechanical properties

1. The compressive strength at the end of 3 days should not be less than 11.5 N/mm2 and at the
end of 7 days should not be less than 17 N/mm2.

2. The tensile strength of cement at the end of 3 days should not be less than 2 N/mm2 and at the
end of 7 days should not be less than 2.5 N/mm2.

(c) Chemical properties

1. Total loss of ignition should not exceed 4%.

Note:- Loss of ignition can be calculated by heating up cement sample at 900-1000ºC until a
constant weight is obtained. The weight loss due to heating is then determined. A high
loss on ignition can indicate prehydration and carbonation, which may be caused by
improper and prolonged storage. Maximum of 4% is limited to OPC.

2. Total sulphur content should not be more than 2.75%.

3. Weight of magnesia should not exceed 5%.
4. Weight of insoluble residue should not be more than 1.5%.

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Chemical composition of cement

The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina and
iron oxide. These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high temperature to form more
complex compounds. The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are responsible for
influencing the various properties of cement, in addition to the rate of cooling and fineness of
grinding.

Approximate oxide composition limits of Ordinary Portland cement

Ingredients Percentage Range

Lime (CaO)……………… 62 62 to 67

Silica (SiO2) ……………... 22 17 to 25

Alumina (Al2O3) ……………. 5 3 to 8

Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) …………… 4 3 to 4

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) ……………. 3 3 to 4

Magnesia (MgO) ……………... 2 1 to 3

Sulphur (S) ………………….. 1 1 to 3

Alkalies (K2O, Na2O) ……….. 1 0.2 to 1

Total = 100

Effect of ingredients on properties of cement

Lime: If lime is excess in cement, it imparts unsoundness to the cement. If lime content is
deficient in cement, it decreases the strength and helps in faster setting of cement.

Silica: Imparts strength to the cement due to formation of C3S and C2S after the addition of water
to the cement. If silica content exceeds, it increases the strength and also prolong the
setting time of cement.

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Alumina: Imparts faster setting property to the cement. Alumina content should not be present in
excess amount as it weekens the cement.

Calcium sulphate: This ingredient in the form of gypsum and its function is to increase the
initial setting time of cement.

Iron oxide: This ingredient imparts color, hardness and strength to the cement.

Magnesia: This ingredient, if present in small amount, imparts hardness and color to the cement.
A high content of magnesia makes the cement unsound.

Sulphur: A very small amount of sulphur is used for making sound cement. If it is in excess, it
causes cement to become unsound.

Alkalies: The most of the alkalies present in raw materials are carried away by foul gases during
heating and the cement contains only small amount of alkalies. If it is in excess, it
troubles by forming Alkali-aggregate reaction, efflorescence etc.

Harmful constituents of cement

(1) Alkali oxide k2O and Na2O: if amount of these alkali oxides exceeds by 1%, it leads to
failure of concrete.

(2) Magnesium oxide MgO: if it exceeds 5%, it causes cracks in hardened concrete.

The identification of major compounds of cement is largely based on Bogue’s equations and
hence it is called as Bogue’s compounds. The four compounds are usually regarded as major
compounds are listed below

Name of Formula Abbreviated formula Percentage by mass in

compound cement
Tricalcium 3CaO.SiO2 C3S Alite 30-50
silicate
Dicalcium 2CaO.SiO2 C2S Belite 20-45
silicate
Tricalcium 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A Celite 08-12
aluminate
Tetracalcium 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF Felite 06-10
alminoferrite

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It is to be noted that for simplicity’s sake abbreviated notations are used. C stands for CaO, S
stands for SiO2, A for Al2O3, F for Fe2O3 and H for H2O. The equations suggested by Bogue for
calculating the percentages of major compounds are given below

C3S = 4.07 (CaO) – 7.60 (SiO2) – 6.72 (Al2O3) – 1.43 (Fe2O3) – 2.85 (SO3)

C2S = 2.87 (SiO2) – 0.754 (3CaO.SiO2)

C3A = 2.65 (Al2O3) – 1.69 (Fe2O3)

C4AF = 3.04 (Fe2O3)

Hydration of cement

Anhydrous cement does not bind the fine and coarse aggregates. It acquires adhesive property
only when it is mixed with water. The chemical reaction that takes place between cement and
water is known as hydration of cement.

When anhydrous cement mixed with water, it starts to dissolve and chemically combines with it
to form products. Those products are known as hydrates and these hydrates are less soluble in
water.

Hydration of cement can be visualized in two ways.

(1) Through solution mechanism: In this mechanism, when cement is mixed with water,
cement compounds dissolve to form super saturated solution from which different hydrated
products get precipitated.

(2) Solid state mechanism: In this mechanism, water attacks chemical compounds of cements
which are in solid state and converting them to hydrated products starting from surface to interior
compounds with time.

There is a possibility of occurrence of both stages in same course of reaction. Solution phase
occurs first only when there is large availability of water and then solid state mechanism occurs
in the next stage.

Note: 23% of water by weight of cement is required for chemical reaction of cement with
water and another 15% of water required for filling up gel pores. Therefore total 38% of
water is required for hydration of cement.

Heat of hydration
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The quantity of heat evolved in cal/gm of cement after complete hydration of cement.

For 7 days → 89 – 90 cal/gm

28 days → 90 – 100 cal/gm of heat will be evolved.

Structure of hydrated cement paste

When water is mixed with cement, the chemical compounds react with water to form hydrated
products such as

C3S + H2O → hydrated Tricalcium silicate + Ca(OH)2

C2S + H2O → hydrated Dicalcium silicate + Ca(OH)2

C3A + H2O → hydrated Tricalcium aluminate + Ca(OH)2

Ca (OH)2 in the above equation may be 20 to 30% crystalline in nature and hydrated silicates
and aluminates are colloidal in nature. Calcium hydroxide crystals which are surrounded by
hydrated silicates and aluminates colloids to form cement gel and this gel sets hard to give
strength to cement paste.

Note: when calcium silicates react with water, it forms Calcium Silicate Hydrates gel called C-S-
H gel; C3S reacts to form Calcium Aluminate Hydrates C-A-H and C4AF reacts to form
Hydrated Calcium Ferrite C-F-H.

Role of Bogue’s compounds with respect to strength and heat of hydration

C3S and C2S (Tri Calcium Silicates and Di Calcium Silicates):-

C3S is formed within one week or soon after the addition of water and it is responsible
for the early strength to cement for 1st 4 weeks.
C2S is formed very slowly, so it gives progressive strength to cement after 4 weeks.
At the age of 1 year both contributes equal ultimate strength.
C3S & C2S have strength of 70MPa @18 months, but C2S has 0 when C3S has 40MPa
@7 days.
During course of reaction of C3S & C2S with water calcium silicate hydrates CSH and
Ca (OH)2 are formed.
2(3CaO SiO2) + 6H2O → 3CaO 2SiO2 H2O + 3Ca (OH) 2
2C3S + 6H → C3S2H3 + 3Ca(OH)2
2(2CaOSiO2) + 4H2O → 3CaO 2SiO2 3H2O + Ca (OH) 2
2C2S + 4H → C3S2H3 + Ca (OH) 2

Note :- C3S produce lesser CSH & more Ca (OH) 2 compared to C2S.
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Note: Ca (OH) 2 is not desirable in concrete because, when mass of Ca (OH)2 is about 20 to 25%
of volume of solids in hydrated paste it imparts low durability to concrete.
Ca (OH)2 readily reacts with sulphates present in soil or water to calcium sulphates which further
reacts with C3A leads to deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack
C3S readily reacts with water to produce more heat of hydration & responsible for early
strength. C2S hydrates are formed slowly, hence it is responsible for progressive strength
The quantity & density of product formed by C3S is slightly inferior when compared to
that of C2S.

C3A (Tri Calcium Aluminates) :-

The reaction of C3A with water is very fast and may lead to an immediate stiffening of
paste, and this process is termed as flash set.

To prevent this flash set, 2 to 3 % gypsum is added at the time of grinding the cement
clinkers.

It provides early strength to cement upto 3 days, but causes deterioration of concrete at
later stages.

The hydrates of C3A do not contribute to the strength of concrete. C3A reacts with water
to form calcium aluminate system CaO – Al2O3 – H2O is formed. The cubic compound
C3AH6 is probably the only stable compound formed which remains upto 225ºC.
C4AF (Tetra Calcium Alumina Ferrite) :-

C4AF hydrates rapidly.

A hydrated calcium ferrite of the form C3FH6 is more stable but does not contribute
anything to the strength of concrete.
The hydrates of C4AF show a comparatively more stable the hydrates of C3A.
The hydrates of C4AF show a comparatively higher resistance to sulphate attack than the
hydrates of C3A.
C4AF acts as flux.

Types of cement

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC):

This type of cement is manufactured by mixing limestone and clay in proper proportion at very
high temperature of about 1400-1500ºC in kiln. The resulting mixture is added with small
amount of gypsum to delay the setting action.
Initial setting time is not less than 30min and final setting time not more than 600min or
10hrs.
Uses: Used for the construction of
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Road pavements
RCC structures
Water tanks, pipe lines, culverts.

2. Rapid Hardening Cement:

This cement is similar to that of OPC but with higher percentage of Tricalcium silicate (C3S) and
finer than OPC. The final strength obtained from this cement is almost same as that of OPC.
Initial setting time is not less than 30min and final setting time not more than 600min or
10hrs.
This cement is used where a rapid development of strength is desired. The rapid development of
strength is accompanied by higher rate of heat of hydration, so it not suitable for mass concreting
and it is about 10% costlier than OPC.
Uses: It is used for repair of bridges and roads etc.

3. Quick Setting Cement:

This cement sets much faster than OPC. This cement is produced by mixing small percentage of
aluminium sulphate and by finely grinding the cement. Percentage of gypsum to be added is also
reduced.
Initial setting time is 5min and final setting time is 30min.
Uses: It is used for making concrete that is required to set early as for laying under water or in
running water.

4. High Alumina Cement:

It is manufactured by fusing together a mixture of limestone and bauxite in correct proportion at
very high temperature and resulting product is grinded finely. The ultimate strength is much
higher than OPC and color of this cement is black and proves to be costlier than OPC.
Initial setting time is not less than 30min and final setting time not more than 600min or
10hrs.
Uses:
It can be used in low temperatures.
They resist chemical attacks.

5. Low Heat Cement:

This cement is obtained by increasing the proportion of C2S and decreasing C3S and C3A. This
cement gains strength slowly but ultimate strength is same as that of OPC and not suitable for
ordinary structures.
Initial setting time is not less than 60min and final setting time not more than 600min or
10hrs.
Uses: This cement is used only when the shuttering has to be kept for long period and curing is
prolonged.

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6. Sulphate Resisting Cement:

This cement is manufactured from well granulated slag (80 to 85%) & calcium sulphate (10 to
15%) along with 1 to 2% of OPC. It gives less heat of hydration, resistance to sulphate attack and
strength and physical properties are same as that of OPC.
Initial setting time is 2.5 to 4hrs and final setting time is 4.5 to 7hrs.
Uses: Used in the construction of
Marine works
Mass concreting
Underground waterworks and sewer works.

7. Portland Slag Cement:

This cement is made by intergrinding finely the mixture of clinkers, gypsum and granulated slag
in proper portions. This cement is less reactive than OPC and gains strength slowly during 28
days and adequate curing is required.
Uses: this cement is used for marine works.

8. Portland Puzzolana Cement:

This cement has same properties as compared to that of OPC. This cement produces less heat of
hydration and more resistant to sulphate attack. This cement can be used in marine works and
mass concreting. This cement is manufactured by intergrinding of clinkers and Puzzolana with
the addition of gypsum. Tim required to gain the strength is little more and ultimate strength is
more than that of OPC.

9. White Cement:
This cement has pure white color and it posses same properties as that of OPC. The grey color of
the cement is due to the presence of iron oxide. So if the percentage of iron oxide is kept very
less, then the color of the cement will be white. This cement is manufacture by mixing white
chalk and clay which is free from lime and oil is used instead of coal for burning of the cement.
This is costlier than OPC and generally used for architectural and decorative purposes.

10. Coloured Cement:

Coloured cement is manufactured by adding suitable mineral pigments to ordinary cement at the
time of grinding. The percentage of these pigments to be added varies from 5 to 10%. Pigments
used in cement should be chemically inert and durable. Chromium oxide gives green color,
Cobalt gives blue color and Iron oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow color.
This cement is used in flooring, exterior surfaces and decorative purposes.
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11. Air entraining cement:

This is made by mixing a small amount of air entraining agent with OPC at the time of grinding.
Some of the air entraining agents are
1. Alkali salts of wood resin.
2. Calcium lingo-sulphate
These agents in powder or in liquid form are added to the extent of 0.1 to 0.25% by weight of
cement. Air entraining cement will produce at the time of mixing, a tough, tiny discrete air
bubbles in the concrete which will modify the properties of plastic concrete wrt to workability,
segregation, bleeding and hardness.

Manufacture of OPC
Following are three distinct operations are involved in the manufacture of cement.
(i) Mixing of raw material
(ii) Burning
(iii) Grinding
• In the wet process, raw materials are mixed wet in required proportions and slurry is formed.
While in the dry process raw materials are mixed in required proportions in dry form and dry
raw mix is formed. The remaining two operations, namely, Burning, and Grinding are the
same for both the processes.

• The correct slurry is fed into a rotary kiln from upper end. As the slurry gradually descends,
there is rise in temperature and small lumps, known as nodules are formed. These nodules,
reach to the burning zone, where the temperature is about 1400 0C to 1500 0C. In the burning
zone, calcined product is formed and nodules are converted into small hard balls, known as
clinkers.

• The size of clinkers varies from 3 mm to 20 mm.

• Clinker which is obtained from rotary kiln is finely ground in ball mills and tube mills. A
small quantity about 2 to 3 % of gypsum is added to prevent flash-setting of the cement.

• The final ground cement is stored in silos. It is then weighted and packed in bags by
automatic machine.

• Each bag of cement contains 50 kg of about 0.035 m3 of cement.

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Manufacturing of cement by Wet process (old technology)

In this process, the calcareous materials such as limestone are crushed and stored in the silos or
storage tanks. The argillaceous material such as clay is thoroughly mixed with water in a
container known as the wash mill. This washed clay is stored in basins. Now crushed limestone
from silos and wet clay from basins are allowed to fall in a channel in correct proportions. This
channel leads the materials to grinding mills where they are brought into intimate contact to form
slurry. The grinding is carried out either in ball mill or tube mill or both. The slurry is led to
correcting basin where it is constantly stirred. At this stage, the chemical composition is adjusted
as necessary. The corrected slurry is stored in storage tanks and kept ready to serve as feed for
rotary kiln from upper end. Fuel (coal, oil or natural gas) is fed into rotary kiln from lower end
and temperature in the kiln raises upto 1400 to 1500ºC and slurry is converted into Clinkers.

Manufacturing of cement by Dry process (modern technology)

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In this process, the raw materials are first reduced in size of about 25mm in crushers. A current
of dry air then passed over these dried materilas. These dried materials are then pulverised into
fine powdered in ball mills and tube mills. All these operations are carried separately for each
raw materials and they are stored in hoppers. They are then mixed in correct proportions and

made ready for the feed of rotary kiln. This finely groung powder of raw materials is known as
raw mix and it is stored in storage tank. Then raw mix is fed into the rotary kiln and fuel (coal,
oil or natural gas) is added from lower end and temperature raises about 1400-1500ºC in the kiln
to form clinkers . 2 to 3% of Gypsum is added to the clinker and finely grinded in ball mill to
obtain cement and stored in silos and after it is packed in bags.
Testing of cement
It can be brought under two categories ie, 1. Field testing and 2. Laboratory testing

Field Testing of cement as per Indian standard:

The following field tests are necessary to perform, to ascertain the quality of cement at site.

• Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should be no visible lumps.
• The color of the cement should be greenish grey
• When hand is inserted in cement bag it should feel cool.
• Take a pinch of cement and feel between fingers. It should give a smooth feeling and not
a gritty feeling.

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• Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucketful of water, the particles should float
on water for some time before they sink.
• Take about 100gms of cement, add some water and prepare a stiff paste. From stiff paste,
pat a cake with sharp edges. Put it on a glass plate and slowly take it under water in a
bucket. The shape of the cake should not be disturbed, while taking it down to the bottom
of the bucket. After 24 hours the cake should retain its original shape and at the same
time it should also set and gain some strength.

Laboratory test

1. Fineness test: Fineness of cement has an important bearing on rate of hydration, rate of gain
of strength and also on rate of evolution of heat. Finer the cement, greater will be the surface
area and faster will be the development of strength.
Fineness of cement can be tested in two ways
1. By sieving method: Weigh correctly 100gms of cement and take it on a standard sieve of 90μ
and breakdown the air set lumps in the sample by means of fingers. Sieve the sample
continuously for 15mins and weigh the residue left out on the sieve. This weight should not
exceed 10% of the sample for the OPC.
2. By Blaine Air Permeability method: The apparatus consists of

1. Wooden stand 5. Perforated disc of size 1mm

2. Manometer 6. Plunger
3. Rubber cork 7. Tube
4. Permeability cell 8. Dibutyphthalate

Procedure

Calibration of the Blaine apparatus

Calculate the bulk volume of the compacted bed of cement V by the following formula
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V = (WA – WB) / P

Where WA = mass of the mercury required to fill permeability cell.

WB = mass of mercury to fill the portion of the cell not occupied by of the cement
formed by 2.8gms of the standard cement sample
P = density of mercury at the temperature of test.
The masses WA and WB are obtained by weighing the mercury in the crucible.

Determine the mass of standard sample W, required to produce a bed having porosity of
0.500 ± 0.005 (e) as follows:
W = 3.15 V (1-e) where, V = bulk volume of compacted cement powder,

e = Desired porosity of bed of cement (0.500 ± 0.005)

Determine the time taken by the manometer liquid to fall from second mark from the top to
the third mark on the manometer when air is allowed to penetrate through the compacted bed
of cement using the quantity of standard cement calculated in step 2
Calculate the constant of the apparatus (k) by using the formula
熠ᆍ䐰√ 熠
熠
k ᆍ
√ 熠
Where Ss = fineness of standard Portland cement in cm2/gm.

Using the same quantity of the cement, find the time (Ts) in sec required for the manometer
liquid to fall from second mark to third mark.
Calculate the specific surface of cement in cm2/gm by using the formula,

ᆍ䐰√ 熠
2. Standard Consistency test: This test is used for finding out initial setting time, final setting
time, soundness and also strength.

“Standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit the
Vicat plunger having 10mm dia and 50m length to penetrate to a depth of 33-35mm from top of
the mould”. The apparatus used for
determination of standard consistency
is known as Vicat apparatus. This
apparatus is used to find out the
percentage of water required to
produce a cement paste of standard
consistency.

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Procedure

Take about 500gm of cement

Make the cement paste with a known quantity of water (let it be 24%)
Fill this paste into the Vicat mould
Shake the mould to expel the air
Bring the mould near to the Vicat apparatus needle
Make the needle of the Vicat plunger just to touch the top surface of the mould
Note down the initial reading
Allow the Vicat needle to plunge into the cement paste which is inside the mould
Note down the final reading
Take the difference of these readings. If the reading is not within 33-35mm, then repeat the
procedure with the increase in % of water by 2% of weight of cement taken
The particular % of water which allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 33-35mm
from top of the mould is known as % of water required to produce cement paste of standard
consistency.

3. Setting time test

An arbitrary division has been made for the setting time of cement as

1. Initial setting time

2. Final setting time

It is difficult to draw rigid line between initial and final setting time. The initial and final setting
time can be determined by using Vicat’s apparatus

“Initial setting time is the time elapsed between the moments that the water is added to the
cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity”.

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Procedure

Mix a known % of water to the cement to make a cement paste simultaneous start the stop
clock
Fill this cement paste into the Vicat mould
Gently release the needle to the surface of cement paste, note down the initial reading
Release the needle so that the needle fall freely, when the needle has penetrated to a depth of
33-35mm from top of the mould and note down the reading and time
This period elapsed between the time when water is added to the cement and the time at
which needle penetrates to a depth of 33-35mm from top is known as initial setting time.
“Final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment water added to the cement and
time taken when the paste lost completely its plasticity and has attained sufficient stiffness to
resist certain definite pressure”.

Procedure

Replace the needle of Vicat apparatus by means of a circular attachment

The cement shall be considered as finally set, when upon lowering the attachment gently
over the surface of the cement paste, the attachment fails to make an impression on test block.
The period elapsed between the time when water is added to the cement and the time at
which the circular attachment fails to make an impression on the surface of the hardened
cement block is known as finial setting time.

Note:-

False setting is the rapid development of rigidity in freshly mixed Portland cement paste, mortar,
or concrete occurs after few minutes of mixing cement with water without the generation of
much heat. It can be controlled by re-mixing without additional water or strength loss and causes
for false setting are 1) drying of gypsum, 2) bad storage and 3) activate effective C 3A exposed to
humidity.

Flash setting is a rapid development of rigidity in freshly mixed Portland – cement paste, mortar,
or concrete. It happened due to rapid reaction of aluminates – when insufficient of sulphate
content.

4. Soundness of cement

It refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting without
delayed destructive expansion. This destructive expansion is caused by excessive amount of free
lime (CaO), sulphate (SO3) or
magnesia (MgO).Soundness
of cement is tested with Le-
Chatelier apparatus which

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consists of a small brass cylinder of 30mm dia, 30mm high and 0.5mm thick. 2 indicators with
pointed ends are attached to the cylinder on either side of the split.

Procedure

The cement paste is prepared. The % of water used will be equal to % of water determine by
the standard consistency test.
The cylinder is placed on a glass plate and is filled with cement paste. It is covered at top
with another glass plate. A small weight is placed on the top of the glass plate.
The whole assembly is immersed in water at 24ºC to 35ºC for 24hrs at the end of that period
the distance between the indicators is measured. The mould is again immersed in water and
brought to boil in 30min and after boiling for 1hr, the mould is removed and after cooling the
distance between the indicators is measured again. The increase in this distance represents
the expansion of the cement and according to IS specification it should not exceed 10mm for
any type of cement.

Steps to reduce Carbon footprint in cement manufacturing process

Cement is a vital for a country’s economic development and the basic ingredient required to
build housing and infrastructure. However, cement manufacturing generates CO2 and the
industry as a whole represents around 5% of global CO2 emission.

Around 60% of these result from the transformation of lime stone at high temperature
because of “Carbonation” to produce ‘Clinker’, the basic component of cement.
Approximately 40% are generated from the energy used in the burning process.

There are three ways to reduce CO2 emission associated with cement production.

I. Increasing energy efficiency by optimizing processes and modernizing factories.

Introducing new cement plants using the best available technology or upgrading old plants.

II. Substituting fossil fuels with other energy sources.

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Alternative fuels such as biomass, tires and industrial waste can be used to replace fossil fuels in
cement kilns. This allows not only a reduction in the consumption of fossil fuels but also the safe
disposal of waste that would otherwise be incinerated or land filled.

III. Using additives in cement to develop a large range of products according to their
application.

Natural products such as Puzzolanas or industrial by-products such as fly ash (a by-product of
coal-fired power stations) or slag (a by-product of the steel industry) can be used in the cement
production process as cement additives. These de-carbonated additives have hydraulic binding
qualities and can be used to produce less carbon-intensive cements.

Aggregates
Introduction

Aggregates are defined as inert, granular and inorganic materials that normally consist of stone
or stone like solids. Aggregates can be used alone (in road bases and various types of fill) or can

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be used with cementing materials (such as Portland cement or asphalt cement) to form composite
materials or concrete.

Since aggregates constitutes about 3/4th of the volume of concrete, it contributes significantly to
the structural performance of concrete especially strength, durability and volume stability.
Aggregates are formed from natural sources by the process of weathering and abrasion or by
artificially by crushing a large parent rocks.

Classification of aggregates

Aggregates can be divided into several categories according to different criteria.

a) In accordance with size:

Coarse aggregate: if particle size is greater than 4.75mm are regarded as coarse aggregates

Fine aggregates: if particle size in between 75μ & 4.75mm are regarded as fine aggregates

b) In accordance with sources:

Natural aggregates: This kind of aggregates is taken from natural deposits without changing
their nature during the process of production such as crushing and grinding. Some examples in
this category are sand, crushed limestone and gravel.

Manufactured aggregates: This is a kind of man-made materials produced as main product or

an industrial by-product. Some examples are blast furnace slag, lightweight aggregate (e.g.
expanded perlite), and heavy weight aggregates (e.g. iron ore or crushed steel)

c) In accordance with unit weight:

Light weight aggregates: the unit weight of aggregates is less than 1120kg/m 3. The
corresponding concrete has a bulk density less than 1800kg/m3. (Cinder, blast-furnace slag,
volcanic pumice).

Normal aggregates: The aggregates have unit weight of 1520-1680kg/m3. The concrete made
with this type of aggregates has a bulk density of bulk density of 2300-2400kg/m3.

Heavy weight aggregate: The unit weight is greater than 2100kg/m3. The bulk density of the
corresponding concrete is greater than 3200kg/m3. A typical example is magnesite limonite, a
heavy iron ore. Heavy weight concrete is used in special structures such as radiation shields.

Fine Aggregates
Quality of a good aggregate

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Good sand should have coarser and angular grains of pure silica.
The particles of aggregates should be hard, strong, durable and tough in nature.
The aggregates should be free from silt, clay or any deleterious materials.
The aggregate should not contain any organic substances.
The aggregate should be well graded.
The aggregate should not be porous in nature.

Function of Aggregates

It fills the voids existing in coarse aggregates.

It reduces shrinkage and cracking of concrete.
It helps in hardening of cement by allowing water through its voids.
By varying the proportions of fine aggregates, concrete can be prepared economically for any
required strength.
To form hard mass of silicates.

Grading of aggregates

Particle size distribution of an aggregate is determined by sieve analysis is known as

‘grading of the aggregate’
Aggregate comprises about 55% of the volume of mortar and about 85% of volume of
concrete. Mortar contains aggregates of size 4.75mm and the concrete contains aggregates
upto a max. size of 150mm.
Strength of concrete is dependent upon water-cement ratio. One of the most important factors
for producing workable concrete is good grading of aggregates.
Grading of aggregates are of 3 types

Good graded or well graded: It implies that a given sample of aggregates contains all standard
fractions such there will be minimum number of voids.

Uniformly graded or poor graded: It contains aggregate particles that are almost of the same
size. This means that the particles pack together, leaving relatively large voids in the concrete.

Gap graded: It consists of aggregate particles in which some intermediate size particles are
missing.

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A sample of good grading of aggregate containing min. voids will require min. paste to fill up
the voids in the aggregate and this will produce a higher strength, lower shrinkage and greater
durability.

Sieve: It is a circular disc consists of wire mesh of square apparture.

Sieve analysis: This is the name given to the operation of dividing the given sample of
aggregates into various fractions each consisting of particles of same size. The sieve analysis is
conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregates which is also
called as Gradation.

The aggregates used for making concrete are normally of the maximum size 80 mm, 40 mm,
20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron and 150 micron.

The aggregate fractions from 80 mm to 4.75 mm are termed as coarse aggregate and those
fractions from 4.75 mm to 150 micron are termed as fine aggregate.

Sieves are placed one above the other, maximum size is placed at the top and minimum size in
the bottom. Sieving can be done either manually or by mechanically with sieve shaker. From the
sieve analysis, the particle size distribution in a sample is found out; from this fineness modulus
can be determined.

Fineness Modulus: It is a relative index which indicates the particles are either coarser or finer.
The sum of cumulative percentage retained on the sieves divided by 100 gives fineness modulus
of given sample of aggregates.

For sand the following limits are taken as guidelines

Fine sand → 2.2 – 2.6

Medium sand → 2.6 – 2.9

Coarse sand → 2.9 – 3.2

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Tests on Fine aggregates

Specific Gravity:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of the mass of solid in a given volume of
sample to the mass of equal volume water at the same temperature.

They are of two types 1) absolute specific gravity and 2) apparent specific gravity.

Absolute specific gravity is defined as ratio of mass of solid to the mass of an equal void-
free volume of water. If the volume of aggregate includes the voids, then resulting specific
gravity is called apparent specific gravity.

Average specific gravity of the rocks varies from 2.6 to 2.8.

It’s required for calculation of the quantity of aggregate for a given volume of concrete.

1) Determination of Specific gravity of fine aggregates by Pycnometer method

Procedure

1. Find the weight an empty Pycnometer with stopper. Let it be W1 gms.

2. Take about 1/3rd the volume of Pycnometer full of sand. Find the weight of Pycnometer with
sand and let it be W3 gms.

3. Now fill the Pycnometer to its half with water so as to submerge the sand inside. Allow the
entrapped air from sand to escape. Then fill the Pycnometer with water. Replace the stopper and
find the total weight Pycnometer with its constituents and let it be W3 gms.

4. Remove the constituents from the Pycnometer and clean it. Fill completely with water and
replace the stopper. Find the weight with water and let it be W4 gms.

(W2 − W1 )
Specific gravity ᆍ
(W2 −W1 )−(W3 −W4 )
2) Bulking of sand

Bulking can be defined as that property of sand by virtue of which it expands in volume
when it is wet. This is because, when water is added to the sand, each particle will be coated by
a film of water and keeps far apart from each other due to surface tension. Hence it is necessary
to take the moisture content into account while measuring the sand by volume for proportioning

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concrete. Bulking increases with the increase in water content up to 4% by weight and then
decreases. Bulking also increases with fineness of particles.

Procedure

1. Take about 300gms of dry sand and pour it into a measuring jar. Note down the initial volume
of sand.

2. Transfer the sand into a non absorbent pan and add 1% (by weight of sand) of water. Mix the
sand thoroughly with a glass rod so that a uniform color is obtained.

3. Then pour the wet sand into the measuring jar and note down the rise in volume.

4. Again transfer the san into the pan and add another 1% of water by weight of sand. Mix
thoroughly and pour back into the jar and note down the new volume.

5. Repeat this process by increasing the water content at the rate of 1% up to 3, 4, 5, 6% and so
on until the volume starts decreasing.

6. Plot a graph of % increase in volume V/S % of water added.

3) Measurement of moisture content for fine aggregate

Moisture content means free water held on the surface of aggregate which includes the
absorbed water and the water held in the interior portion of the aggregate.

1. Drying method: The drying method is carried out in a oven and the loss in weight before and
after drying will give the moisture content of the aggregate. If drying is done at high
temperature for long time, the loss in weight will include not only the surface water but also
some absorbed water. A fairly quick result can be obtained by heating the aggregate in an
open pan and the process can be speed up by pouring inflammable liquid like acetone on the
aggregate and igniting it.

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2. Displacement method: In the laboratory, the moisture content of aggregate can be determined
by means of Pycnometer. The principle made use of is that specific gravity of normal
aggregate is higher than that of water and that a given weight of wet aggregate will occupy a
greater volume than the same weight of dry aggregate. By knowing the specific gravity of dry

aggregate, specific gravity of wet aggregate can be calculated. From the difference between
specific gravity of wet and dry aggregates, the moisture content of the aggregate can be
calculated.

3. Calcium Carbide method: A quick and reasonably accurate method of determining the
moisture of fine aggregate is to mix with excess amount of calcium carbide in a strong air-
tight vessel fitted with pressure gas. Calcium carbide reacts with surface moisture in the
aggregate to produce acetylene gas. The pressure of acetylene gas generated depends upon
the moisture content of the aggregates. The pressure gauge is calibrated by taking a measured
quantity of aggregate of known moisture content and then such a calibrated pressure gauge
could be used to read the moisture content of aggregate directly. The method is often used to
find out the moisture content of fine aggregate at the site of work. The equipment consists of a
small balance, a standard scoop and container fixed with dial gauge. The procedure is as
follows; weigh 6gms of wet sand and pour it into the container. Take one scoop full of
calcium carbide powder and put it into the container. Close the lid of the container and shake
it rigorously. Calcium carbide reacts with surface moisture and produces acetylene gas, the
pressure of which drives the indicator needle on the pressure gauge. The pressure gauge is so
calibrated, that it gives directly the percentage of moisture present in the sample. The whole
job takes only less than 5mins and as such, this test can be done at very close intervals of time
at the site of work.

4. Electrical meter method: Recently electrical meters have been developed to measure
instantaneous or continuous reading of the moisture content of the aggregate. The principle
that the resistance gets changed with the change in moisture content of the aggregate has been
made use in some sophisticated batching plant. Electrical meters are used to find out the
moisture content and also to regulate the quantity of water to be added to the continuous
mixture.

5. Automatic measurement: In modern batching plants surface moisture in aggregates is

automatically recorded by means of some kind of sensor arrangements. The arrangement is
made in such a way that, the quantity of free water going with aggregate is automatically
recorded and simultaneously that much quantity of water is reduced. This sophisticated
method results in an accuracy of ± 0.2 to 0.6%.

Alternatives to river sand

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Sand is a vital ingredient in making two most used construction materials viz. Cement Concrete
and mortar. Traditionally River sand, which is formed by natural weathering of rocks over many
years, is preferred as fine aggregate. The economic development fuelling the growth of
infrastructure and housing generates huge demand for building materials like sand. The
indiscriminate mining of sand from riverbeds is posing a serious threat to environment such as
erosion of riverbed and banks, triggering landslides, loss of vegetation on the bank of rivers,
lowering the ground water table etc. Demand for sand is increasing day by day and at the same
time mining threats cannot be ignored. Hence, sand mining from riverbeds is being restricted or
banned by the authorities like National Green Tribunal, State Environmental Impact Assessment
Authority and Pollution Control Board

Some of the Alternatives to River sand

Manufacture Sand
Processes Quarry dust
Processed Crushed rock fines
Offshore Sand
Processed glass
Aluminum saw mill waste
Granite fines slurry
Washed soil (filtered sand)
Fly ash (bottom ash/ pond ash)
Slag sand
Copper Slag sand
Construction Demolition waste.

Manufacture Sand

Manufactured sand is crushed fine aggregate produced from a source material and designed for
use in concrete or for other specific products. Only source materials with suitable strength,
durability and shape characteristics should be used.

Production generally involves

Crushing,
Screening and
Possibly Washing.
Crushing:- Manufactured Sand is produced by feeding hard stones of varying sizes to primary
and secondary crushers (Jaw crusher and Cone crusher), for size reduction and these crushed
stones are further crushed in Vertical Shaft Impact (VSI) crusher to reduce the particle size to
that of sand. The VSI crusher by its unique design and action of attrition produces well shaped
fine aggregate particles that are cubical and angular. The process of attrition also enables the
reduction of surface roughness of the fine aggregate particles to some extent. The fine particles

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obtained, as a by-product during crushing of rocks to produce coarse aggregates (by jaw crusher
and / or cone crusher) is known as Crusher Dust / Quarry Dust. This often contains higher
percentage of dusty, flaky particles and particle sizes are un-controlled. This is not suitable for
construction, as they result in higher water demand leading to lack of control on workability /
retention of workability as well as strength issues.

Screening and Washing:- With built-in process of different stages of screening, Manufactured
Sand plants ensure proper grading for better particle size distribution. By washing, the
percentage of micro fines (passing 75 micron) is controlled below 15% by weight. The washing
facility also provides keeps the Manufactured Sand in wet or partially wet condition. This will
help to reduce the water absorption rate by Manufactured Sand during concrete manufacturing
and hence better workability and workability retention.

Coarse Aggregates

Importance of size, shape and surface texture of aggregates on workability and strength

Size of aggregate: Bigger the size of particles less will be the surface area and hence less
amount of water is required and also less cement paste required for lubricating the
surfaces of aggregates. So bigger the size, gives higher workability.
Shape of aggregate: Angular, elongated or flaky aggregates make the concrete very
harsh when compared to rounded or cubical aggregates. Contribution to better
workability of rounded aggregate will come from the fact that for a given volume or
weight. It will have a less surface area and less voids. Not only is that being in rounded in
shape, the frictional resistance between the aggregates also reduced. Hence the
workability will be more in case of rounded than compared to flaky aggregates. Hence
the strength will be more by using rounded or cubical aggregates.
Surface texture: Surface texture is the property, the measure of which depends upon the
relative degree to which particle surface are polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface
texture depends on hardness, grain size, pore structure and structure of the rock.

Total surface area of rough texture aggregate is more than that of surface area of smooth
rounded aggregates of same volume. Rough textured aggregates will show poor
workability and smooth textured aggregates will give better workability because of lesser
frictional resistance of inner surface particle.

Testing of Coarse Aggregates

Test for determination of flakiness index

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An aggregate having least dimension less than 3/5th of mean dimension is termed as flaky.
This test is not applicable to aggregates less than 6.3mm. This test is conducted by using a metal
thickness gauge. A sufficient quality of aggregates is taken ie, a minimum of 200 pieces of any
fraction to be tested. Each fraction is gauged in terms of thickness on metal gauge. The total
amount of aggregate pieces passing through each gauge is weighed accurately. Flakiness index
is calculated by taking the ratio of total weight of materials passing through the various
thickness gauges to the total weight of aggregate sample taken.

Test for determination of elongation index

The elongation index of an aggregate is the particle having largest dimension (length) is
greater than 9/5th of mean dimension. The elongation index is not applicable to sizes lesser
than 6.3mm. This test is conducted by using metal length gauge. A sufficient quantity of
aggregate is taken to provide a minimum number of pieces of 200 of any fraction to be tested.
Each fraction shall be gauged individually for the length on metal gauge. The amount retained by
the gauge length shall be weighed to an accuracy of 0.1% of the weight of sample taken. The
elongation index is calculated in percentage by taking the ratio of total weight of materials
retained on various length gauges to the total weight of aggregate sample taken.

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Test to determine Specific Gravity of coarse aggregate by wire basket method

1. Take about 5kg of coarse aggregates passing through 4.75mm sieve.

2. Wash thoroughly to remove dust, dry to constant mass at a temperature of 105± 5ºC.

3. Immerse the sample in water in water at 22 to 32ºC for a period of 24±1/2 hours (30min in
practice).

4. Remove the aggregates from water & roll the same in a large piece of an absorbent cloth until
all visible films of water are removed, although the surface of the particles will still appears to
be damp.

5. Now, weigh 3kg of this sample in the in the saturated dry condition and note down the mass as
W1gm.

6. Place the weighed aggregate immediately in the wire basket & dip it water. Weigh this bucket
with aggregates, keeping it in water with the help of a balance. Note down the mass as W3 gm.

7. Note down the weight of suspended empty wire basket in water without aggregates and note
down the mass as W2 gm.

8. Dry the sample to the constant weight at the temperature of 100 to 110ºC for 24±1/2 hours.

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9. Cool to room temperature and weigh it & note down the mass as W4 gm.

10. Calculate specific gravity and repeat the procedure for fresh sample of aggregates.

Weight of oven dry aggregate (C) = W4 gm.

Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate (B) = W3 gm.

Weight of basket & aggregates in water (A1) = W2 gm.

Weight of empty basket submerged in water (A2) = W1gm.

Actual Specific gravity ᆍ

−

Apparent specific gravity ᆍ

−
−
Water absorption ᆍ 즨즨

Where A = weight of saturated aggregate in water = A1 – A2.

Testing of mechanical properties of aggregates

A. Test for determination of aggregate crushing value

The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of

the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a
gradually applied compressive load.

Apparatus required for this test are as follows

1. Steel cylinder (dia-15.2cm, height-14cm)

2. Cylindrical measure (dia-11.5cm, height-18cm)
3. Steel tamping rod (dia-1.6cm, height- 40 to 60cm)
4. Balance
5. Compression testing machine

Procedure

1. Oven dry aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on 10mm IS sieve is selected for
the test.

2. The sample aggregates in filled three layers and each layer being tamped 25 blows by rounded
end of the tamping rod.

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3. After tamping the third layer, the top surface is leveled using the tamping rod as straight edge.
The test sample weight is taken as W1 gms.
4. The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate and the test sample is
transferred into the cylinder in three layers and each layer is tamped with 25blows.

5. The surface of the aggregate is leveled and the plunger inserted.

6. The cylinder with the test sample and plunger in position is placed on CTM.

7. Load is then applied through the plunger at a uniform rate of 4tones/min until the total load of
40tones and then the load is released.

9. Aggregates including the crushed portion are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a
2.36mm IS sieve, the material which passes this sieve is collected and taken W2 gms.

Aggregate crushing value ᆍ 즨즨

Note: According to Indian road congress & ISI has specified that aggregate crushing value of the
coarse aggregate used for cement concrete pavements should not exceed 30% and used for
concrete other than wearing surface should not exceed 45%.

B. To determine the aggregate impact value

The aggregate impact value gives the relative measure of

the resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact.

Apparatus required for the experiment are as follows

1. Impact testing machine

2. Cylindrical measure
3. Tamping rod
4. Balance

Procedure

1. Oven dry aggregate passing through 12.5mm IS sieve and retained in 10mm IS sieve are
selected for the test.

2. The cylindrical measure is filled by the sample aggregates in three layers and each layer being
tamped by 25blows with rounded end of the tamping rod.

3. After tamping the third layer, the top surface is leveled using the tamping rod as straight edge.
The test sample weight is taken as W1 gms.

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4. The cup of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate and test sample is
transferred to the cup in a single layer and being tamped 25 blows and top surface is leveled.

5. The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38cm above the upper surface of the aggregate in
the cup, and allowed to fall freely on aggregate for 15 times at an interval not more than 2
seconds and not less than 1second.

6. The crushed aggregate is then removed from the cup and the whole sample is sieved on
2.36mm IS sieve, the material which passes this sieve is collected and taken W2 gms.

Aggregate impact value ᆍ 즨즨

Note: According to IS specification, the aggregate impact value

< 10% → exceptionally strong
10 – 20% → strong
20 – 30% → satisfactory for road surfacing
> 30% → weak for road surfacing

Recommended aggregate impact value for different types of pavements

No. Type of pavement surfaces Max. aggregate impact

value (percentage)

1 Bituminous surface dressing; penetration 30

macadam; cement concrete wearing course

2 Bitumen bound macadam 35

3 Cement concrete base course 45

C. Test for the determination of aggregate abrasion value

Apparatus required for the

experiment are as follows

1. Los-Angeles machine
2. Steel balls (dia - 48cm,
weight - 390 to 445g)
3. Balance

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4. Sieves

Procedure

1. Clean dry aggregate, confirming to any one of the grading A to G is used for the test.
Aggregate weighing 5kg for grading A, B, C or D and 10kg for grading E and for G may be
taken as test specimen and placed in the cylinder and is noted as W1 gms.

2. The abrasive charge is also chosen depending upon the aggregate and is placed in the cylinder
of the machine; the cover is then fixed dust tight.

3. The machine is rotated for 500 revolutions for grading A, B, C and D & for grading E, F and
G it shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions.

4. After the desired number of revolutions, machine is stopped and the material is discharged
from the machine taking care to take out entire stone dust.

5. Using 1.7mm IS sieve the material is sieved and the coarser material is retained on the sieve is
taken as W2 gms.

Percentage wear ᆍ 즨즨

Specifications for Los-Angeles test

No. Sieve size Weight (in gms) and grading of test samples
Passing Retained A B C D E F G
on mm on mm
1 80 63 - - - - 2500 - -
2 63 50 - - - - 2500 - -
3 50 40 - - - - 5000 5000 -
4 40 25 1250 - - - - 5000 5000

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5 25 20 1250 - - - - - -
6 20 12.5 1250 2500 - - - - -
7 12.5 10 1250 2500 - - - - -
8 10 6.3 - - 2500 - - - -
9 6.3 4.75 - - 2500 - - - -
10 4.75 2.36 - - - 5000 - - --
Number of spheres to be 12 11 8 6 12 12 12
used
Number of revolutions 500 1000

Maximum allowable Los-Angeles abrasion values

No. Type of surface Maximum abrasion values

1 W.B.M subsurface course 60
2 W.B.M base course with bituminous surfacing 50
3 W.B.M surface course 40
4 Cement concrete surface course 35
5 Bituminous / Asphalt concrete surface course 30

Recycled Aggregates

Aggregates which are obtained from demolished concrete structures are referred as Recycled
aggregates.
Used in road pavement construction and for non-structural works.
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) has classified these aggregates as
Artificial aggregates.
It has low strength, lower young’s modulus, low density, high drying shrinkage, higher
porosity and higher absorption capacity.
It produces a concrete of low density than compared to conventional aggregates.
It is an added advantage if it is saturated. Because it helps in internal curing.

Process of manufacturing Recycled aggregates

Crushing

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Pre-sizing
Sorting
Screening
Contaminant elimination

Aggregates which are obtained from demolished concrete structures are first crushed with the
help of crushing equipment. Then with the help of Vertical Shaft Impact machine it is made into
different sizes, sorted, screened and washed with water to remove the impurities which are
present on the surface of aggregates.

Blending of Aggregates

Sometimes aggregates available at sites may not be of specified or desirable grading. In such
cases two or more aggregates from different sources may be combined to get the desired grading.
Often, mixing of available fine aggregate with available coarse aggregate in appropriate
percentages may produce desirable grading. But sometimes two or more fractions of coarse
aggregates is mixed first and then the combined coarse aggregate is mixed with fine aggregate to
obtain desirable grading.

Water
Quality of mixing water

A popular yard stick to the suitability of water for mixing concrete and cement is that, if the
water is fit for drinking is fit for mixing concrete. This statement may not be true for all
conditions. Some water containing a small quantity of sugar is fit for drinking but it is not
desirable for mixing concrete and conversely water suitable for mixing concrete may not be fit
for drinking.

Some of the Qualities of water can used for mixing are

The use of portable water is generally safe for mixing of concrete.

Any water with a pH of 6 to 8 which does not taste saline is suitable for use to mix the
concrete.
Sea water contains large quantities of chlorides tends to cause persistent dampness and
efflorescence.
In RCC, sea water increases the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement.
Water containing less than 2000ppm of dissolved salts can generally be used satisfactory for
making concrete.

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Presence of zinc, copper, tin, manganese and lead reduce the concrete strength.
Sodium phosphate, sodium borate etc., acts as retarders which results in loss of strength.
Sugar up to 0.05% by weight of water is harmless.
Sugar up to 0.05% by weight of cement retard the setting time, reduce the early strength and
increases 28days strength.
Sugar up to 0.2% causes quick setting of cement.
Mineral oils in concentration greater than 2% by weight of cement may reduce the concrete
strength by 20%.
Algae present in water or on the surface of aggregates either reduce the bond by combining
with cement or entraining large amount of air in concrete.
Curing water should be free from impurities, oils etc.
Water containing more than 0.08ppm of iron is not recommended for curing.
When aggregates are washed with water containing impurities, they get coated with silts,
salts etc., and reduces the bond strength between cement and aggregate.

Use of sea water for mixing concrete

Sea water has a salinity of about 3.5%. In that about 78% is NaCl and 15% is chlorides and
sulphates of magnesium. Sea water also contains small quantities of sodium and potassium salts.
This will react with aggregates and cement used for mixing. Hence sea water should not be used
for mixing concrete. It is seen that use of sea water for mixing concrete does not appreciably
reduce the strength of concrete but it may lead to corrosion of reinforcement. Sea water slightly
accelerates the early strength of concrete but it reduces 28days strength of concrete by about 10-
15%.

Admixtures

Admixtures are chemical or mineral substances other than fine aggregates, coarse aggregates,
cement and water, which are added in small amount before or at the mixing stage to the
concrete product.
They can also be blended at the time of grinding of clinker in cement manufacturing process.
Added only when properties of fresh or hardened concrete need to be modified.

Most commonly used Chemical admixtures are

Plasticizers
Super plasticizers
Retarders and Retarding plasticizers
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Accelerators and Accelerating plasticizers

Air-entraining Admixtures
Damp proofing and Water proofing Admixtures
Gas forming Admixtures
Air detraining Admixtures
Workability Admixtures
Bonding Admixtures
Coloring Admixtures

How Chemical Admixtures act?

Reaction of chemical admixtures with cement takes place in three different stages

1. Physico Chemical reaction:-

In this stage, C3S & C3A are formed early when water is added to the cement and because of
adhesive property of cement, an intermolecular force of attraction will be created between the
cement grains as a result cement floc will be formed in the cement paste.

2. Chemical adsorption and interaction:-

When chemical admixtures are added to the cement, it gets adsorbed on cement compounds or
cement grains and on the products of hydration (especially on C3A), which stiffens the hydrated
compounds. But sometimes it also initiates very early stiffening. They really combine and never
slowdowns the setting but initiates long term hydration.

3. Deflocculation or Dispersion:-

Flocculated cement compounds consists of certain amount of water in it. But due to the attack of
admixtures, it deflocculates or disperses the cement grains by creating an intermolecular
repulsion between the cement grains which releases the water in the cement paste as a result,
workability of concrete increases. The intermolecular repulsion between the cement grains is
known as “Zeta Potential”.

1. Plasticizers ( Water reducers):-

Workability is the inherent property of concrete. High degree of workability is required in

deep beams, thin walls, column- beam junctions and in RMC’s.
Plasticizer helps in providing high workability even in difficult situations.
Addition of extra water will only improve the fluidity but not workability.
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Addition of plasticizers will improve the plastic properties of concrete.

It reduces the water-cement ratio for a given workability, which increases strength and
durability.
Used to reduce the cement content and heat of hydration in mass concreting.
Some of the chemical admixtures which are commonly adopted are,
Lignosulphonates
Hydroxylated Carboxylic acids

Usually added in the range of 0.1 to 0.4% by weight of cement.

When it is added, it entrains air as a result mechanical property of concrete is reduced.
Therefore a good plasticizer should not entrain air more than 1-2%.

2. Super plasticizers:-

These are chemically different form normal plasticizers.

Reduces water content up to 30% without reducing the workability.
Used for producing self leveling, flowing, self compacting and high performance concrete.
Can produce high workability at same workability.
Can reduce w/c ratio for a given workability.
Can reduce cement content for given w/c ratio.
Provides homogenous cohesive concrete but no tendency of segregation and bleeding.
Commonly used as base for super plasticizer are
Sulphonated Melanie – Formaldehyde condensates (SMF)
Sulphonated Naphthalene – Formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
Modified Ligno sulphonate (MLS)
Poly Carboxylated Ether (PCE)

Retarders:-
It is an admixture which slowdowns the hydration process and concrete remains plastic for
long time.
Use to overcome the accelerated effect of high temperature on setting in weather conditions.
Calcium sulphates are the best retarding admixtures which retards setting of concrete
Sometimes common sugar is also used to delay setting of concrete.

Retarding Plasticizers:-
We know that plasticizers and super plasticizers show certain extent of retardation.
Retarding plasticizers are mixed in RMC’s for retaining slump loss in case of long distance
transportation.

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Accelerators:-
Added to increase the early strength development in concrete.
Allows earlier removal of formwork
Reduce required period of curing
Used in emergency repair works
Commonly used chemicals are
Calcium chlorides
Sulphates
Aluminates
But CaCl2 is not desirable for concrete because it leads to corrosion of reinforcement in RCC.

Accelerating Plasticizers:-
When accelerated super plasticizers are added to the concrete, it increases the strength.
Commonly used chemicals are
Tri-ethanolamine chlorides
Nitrates and fluorosilicates

Air entraining admixtures

Mixing small quantity of air entraining agents will increases the voids or air bubbles in
concrete which improves the plastic and hardened properties and have improved resistance
against frost action and permeability.
Air voids in concrete can be brought into two groups
Entrapped air is due to insufficient compaction of concrete
Entrained air is intentionally added and distributed uniformly.
Some of the chemical air entraining agents are Natural wood resins, Animal and vegetable
fats and oils

Mineral admixtures
Mineral admixtures are inorganic, finely grained materials having Pozzolanic properties added to
the concrete mix in order to improve the properties of concrete.

Fly ash:-

A by-product of coal fired electric generation plant, used for partially replacing cement up to
60% by mass.
It is obtained by Electro static precipitator.
It is produced in large quantity in India.
In India, Fly ash is classified as Class F because it contains less calcium.

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It contributes strength and durability and enhances workability due to spherical nature.
There are two types of Fly ash
Low lime Fly ash → produces cementitious property because of lime or cement
High lime fly ash → Exhibit cementitious property by itself

Applications:- Building blocks, Fine aggregate, Blending cements, geotechnical applications etc.
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS/ GGBS):-
It is a by-product of steel production
Used to partially replace cement by 80% by mass.

Silica Fume:-
A by-product of production of silicon and Ferro-silicon alloys similar to Fly ash but particle
size is 100 times smaller. This helps in more Pozzolanic reaction.
It is used to increase the strength and durability of concrete and super plasticizer is
necessary for obtaining workability.

High reactive Metakaolin (HRM):-

Similar to silica fume and it is also used to increase the strength and durability of
concrete.
Silica fume → dark grey or black where, Metakaolin → bright white
Metakaolin is usually employed for providing architectural effects to concrete structures.

Rice Husk Ash:-

Obtained by burning Rice husk.
Exhibits Pozzolanic properties
Contributes high strength, durability and highly impermeable concrete.
Consists of more percentage of SiO2 which can be used as admixture.

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