UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA

FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

BIO 2106 -
THE BIOLOGY OF PLANTS
The Gymnosperms
Overview of Gymnosperms
• Gymnosperm is from the Greek “gymnos”
naked, and “sperma” seeds
• Gymnosperms are groups of vascular plants
that reproduce by means of an exposed
seeds or ovules
• They are phanerogams according to Eichler

• They include 83 genera, 12 families and

1,080 living species
 Classification of Gymnosperms
• They include four surviving phyla:
• Coniferophyta (Conifers) • Ginkgophyta( ginkos)
• Pine, Spruce, redwood. - Ginkgo biloba

Conifer • Gnetophyta/Gnetopsida
• Cycadophyta (Cycads) Ephedra, Welwitschia

Fig 1.1 Cycad

Characteristics of Gymnosperm
• Most gymnosperms are evergreen with
a small percentage that tend to be
deciduous.
• Most are trees (woody stem) Eg:
redwood, A few are shrubs
• Seeds are not borne on flower or in fruit
as angiosperms

• They are paraphyletic taxonomically

• They have a root system similar to a

dicot stem.
Characteristics Cont’d…
• Also called spermatophytes (seed plants)
• Most possess needle-like leaves

• Have vascular tissues

• Water is not required for the process of

fertilisation or for the survival of the
zygote.
• Tracheids (are present in all) and vessel
elements (present only in Gnetophytes).
• The presence of seeds and pollen
(distinguishes seed plants from seedless
vascular plants).
Characteristics Cont’d...
• They have cones as their reproductive
structure (strobili-strobilus)
• Two types of cones: pollen cone
(pollen) and ovulate cones (eggs)
Ovulate cone • They form spores: micro &
megaspores are produced by
sporophyte generation
• These gymnosperms include the tallest
and oldest trees
Pollen cone
General Characteristics: Habitat
• Gymnosperms occupy a large area of the earth
surface
• Some are xerophytic

• Some live in equatorial regions

• Concentrated in forests and woods

• They can also grow at high altitudes

• Lithophytes – grown in or on rocks.

• Psammophytes- grown on sandy/unstable soils

Selective Advantages of Seeds In Seed Plants
• Seeds include food for developing
embryos and germinating seedlings.
• They provide nourishment for the
embryo during the dormant state.
• Attract seed-eating animals which
destroy some seeds, but distribute
others
• Seed coat serves as a barrier against
bacterial and fungal decay
Evolution of Gymnosperms
• Gymnosperms are believed to have evolved from the paleozoic (390 million years
ago) to the mesozoic eras (240 million years ago)
• The fossil plant Elkinsia polymorpha , a “seed fern” from the Devonian period—
about 400 million years ago—is considered the earliest seed plant known to date.
• It is widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the late Carboniferous
Period.
• There are groups of extinct plants that played important roles in the evolution of
modern gymnosperms.
• They are progymnosperms which are aneurophytales , and a group of primitive
gymnosperms: archaeopteridales.
• In middle Devonian period, progymnosperms arose from the trimerophytes
which were extant until the lower carboniferous period.
Evolution Cont’d…
• Progymnosperms gave rise to aneurophytales that
gave rise to pteridosperms and archaeopteridales.

• Aneurophytales were homosporous, producing

many identical spores and had three dimensional
branching.

• Unlike the progymnosperms, the pteridosperms

produced seeds appearing in the late Devonian
period.
Evolution Cont’d…
• Pteridosperms (extinct) were the first seed plants,
with integuments protecting ovules to various
degrees.

• Another extinct group of Pteridosperms are the

Bennettitales, which resemble present cycads.

• The Archaeopteridales may have given rise to the

Cordaitales and the Voltziales

• The Archaeopteridales arose from the

Aneurophytales. Bennettitales
Evolution Cont’d...
• The Cordaitales were trees and shrubs during the
Carboniferous and Permian periods both in the swamp and
dry land which had slender leaves.

• They also had vascular cambium tissues and ovulate cones.

• The cordaitales apparently gave rise to the phylum

ginkgophyta (first gymnosperms to appear during the lower
Jurassic period) which persists to present day and others
which have relatives to Cycadophyta, Gnetophyta and
Coniferophyta.

• Voltziales is an extinct order of trees that gave rise species

related to modern conifers.
Distinguishing Features between Angiosperm and
Gymnosperm
• Pollination
• Angiosperms rely on wind and animals
• Gymnosperms rely on wind

• Time interval between pollination and fertilization

• In Angiosperms it occurs simultaneously
• Gymnosperms pollen sits within the cone for up to 15 plus months before
fertilization
Distinguishing Features between Angiosperm and
Gymnosperm
• Double fertilization
• In Angiosperm one sperm fertilizes egg, the other combines to form an
endosperm
• Double fertilization in Gymnosperms is absent

• Fruits
• Angiosperms produce fruit, animals are used as agents of pollination
• Gymnosperms form seeds without fruits
Comparing The Sporophyte-gametophyte Relationship
In Seedless Plants and Gymnosperms

Seedless plants Gymnosperms

❑ Sporophyte depends on the ❑ Seed can germinate and
gametophyte throughout its grow into an independent
life. sporophyte.
❑ Exosporic development
❑ Endosporic development

❑ Homosporous, with one ❑ Heterosporous; producing

type of spore produced by two types of spores:
one type of sporangium. microspore and megaspore.
Comparing the sporophyte-gametophyte relationship in seedless
plants and Gymnosperms
Reproduction In Gymnosperms
• Gymnosperms were the most dominant phylum is the mesozoic era.
• The life cycle in gymnosperms involves an alternation of generation.
• Dominant sporophyte in which the female gametophyte and
reduced gametophytes resides.
• The male and female reproductive organs can be formed in cones or
strobili.
• The male and female sporangia are produced either in the same
plant or on separate plants.
Reproduction Cont’d…
• Sporangia are either monoecious or dioecious.
• Diploid sporophyte stage in most of their life time (cycle), with a haploid
gametophyte that is short lived.
• Two spore types: microspores and megaspores are typically produced in the
pollen cone or ovulate cone respectively.
• There are two main modes of fertilization found in gymnosperms.
• The sperm of modern gymnosperms lack flagella, with the exception of cycads
and Ginkgo (which allows them to swim down pollen tube, still enclosed in pollen
grain).
Phylum Coniferophyta
• The Coniferophyta division contains conifers
which have the greatest variety of species
among gymnosperms.
• Most conifers are evergreen (they retain their
leaves throughout the year)
• They include some of the largest, tallest and
oldest trees on the planet.
• Examples of conifers include the familiar pines,
firs, spruces, yews, hemlocks, and junipers
• The word conifer means ‘cone-bearer’, it is a
distinct characteristic common to conifers.
 CONIFEROPHYTYA
• With approximately 588 living species in 50 genera, this is the most
diverse and by far the most ecologically and economically important
gymnosperm group.
• They are usually long, branched and evergreen trees.
• The branches usually dimorphic and bear needle like, linear or
lanceolate leaves.
• The wood is pycnoxylic, characterised by the presence of resin canals.
• The micro and megasporophylls form compact cones.
• The male gametes are non- motile and the fertilization is
siphonogamous (use of pollen tubes to deliver male gametes to eggs).
Coniferophyta Cont’d...
• They have needle-like leaves and bear cones.

• Needle leaf conifers also have a waxy coat on

the leaf surface to help prevent water loss in
the dry climate.

• This taxon includes secondary growth and the

production of protective buds.

• They also have a significant amount of

intermodal elongation which allows them to
grow faster than many other plants.
Coniferophyta Cont’d...
• Not all of the conifers resemble the needle‐leaved pines in appearance or
length of time to complete the sexual reproductive cycle
• Some conifers are deciduous, such as larch (Larix), bald cypress (
Taxodium), and the dawn redwood (Metasequoia)
• They have vascular tissues, meristems and other plant tissues.
• Cones house their reproductive structures.
Coniferophyta Cont’d...

Figure 26.2.2:
Conifers are the dominant form of
vegetation in cold or arid environments
and at high altitudes. Shown here are the
(a) evergreen spruce Picea sp., (b)
juniper Juniperus sp., (c) sequoia Sequoia
Semervirens, which is a deciduous
gymnosperm, and (d) the tamarack Larix
larcinia. Notice the yellow leaves of the
tamarack.
 Sporophytic Plant Body
• Adult plants are tall trees up to 200 feet in height.
• Perennial, xerophytic plants appearing pyramidal or conical
due to radial branching.
• Branches are dimorphic– long shoots and dwarf shoots
(spurs).
• Leaves are dimorphic–scale leaves and green acicular
leaves.
• Male and female cones present on the
same plant, hence monoecious.
 REPRODUCTION – PINUS/PINOPHYTA
▪ Takes place by means of spores – microspores (male) and megaspores
(female).
▪ The male and female cones are on the same plant, but on different
places (monoecious).

▪ The male cones (staminate cones):

1. Found on the lower branches of the tree.
2. Has about 60 – 100 spirally arranged microsporophylls.
3. Two microsporangia are present on the underside of each
microsporophyll.
4. Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cells undergo
meiotic divisions to form haploid microspores.
 Female cone (Ovulate cone)
• Borne on the upper branches of the tree, in axils of scale leaves either singly or in
groups of 2-4.
• Female cones are seen in February and get pollinated within 3-4 months
• Complete maturation and seed dispersal takes place in the 3rd year of development
• Each cone consists of central axis bearing spirally arranged ovuliferous scales (60-
70)
• On young cones a small thin & leathery bract scale can be below the ovuliferous
scale
• Each ovuliferous scale has two ovules on its upper surface
• Cone on maturity is usually cylindrical and 15-20 cm in length
 Male Gametophyte
• Early development takes place inside the microsporangium.
• Pollen grains are released at the 4-celled stage (2 prothalial, a generative cell
and a tube cell ).
• Pollination is anemophilous (by wind) and pollen reaches the pollen chamber
of the ovule through micropyle.
• Further development here, results in the formation of pollen tube which
carries the two unequal male gametes to the neck of the archegonium.
• The released male gametes will fertilize the egg cell resulting in zygote
formation.
• Time gap of 12-14 months is seen between pollination and fertilization.
 Female Gametophyte

• The innermost functional megaspore further gives rise to the

haploid female gametophyte tissue wherein the archegonia
develop.
• The centre of the archegonia contains the upper ventral canal
cell and the larger egg cell.
Classification of Cycadophyta
o Kingdom: Plantae
o Phylum: Cycadophyta
o Class: Cycadopsida
o Order: Cycadales
o Family: Cycadaceae
o Genus: Cycads
Phylum Cycadophyta
• Cycads are found in tropical forests and sub-
tropical regions.
• First appeared in the Pennsylvanian Period
over 300 million years ago but became
dominant in the Jurassic period which is often
referred to as the “Age of the Cycads”.
• Second largest group of gymnosperms
consisting of three families Cycadaceae,
Stangeriaceae, and Zamiaceae, with
approximately 185 extant species in 11
genera.
• Pseudoparasitic which are epiphytic.
• Evergreen gymnosperms – about 200 species
found around the world.
Cycadophyta Cont’d...
• Characterized by large croon of
compound leaves
• Palm like or fernlike
• Dioecious
• Found in subtropical and tropical
parts of the world
• Grow in semi-desert climates and in
sand
• Carry on symbiotic relationship with
bacteria
Cycadophyta Cont’d...
• These microbes produce toxins or poisons that accumulate in seeds
• These toxins are thought to provide protection against bacteria or
fungal parasite,
• Seeds can be dangerous to humans or animals if they are ingested.
• Seeds are propagated by agents of pollination mainly wind.
• The extinct seed plant group Peltaspermales bears some
resemblance to the cycads, considered a sister group.
Phylum Ginkgophyta
• Ginkgo comes from the Chinese word
meaning “Silver apricot” (gin=silver, kyo=
apricot).
• Biloba comes from the Latin meaning “double
leaves” (bi=double, loba= leaf.
• G.biloba is one of the oldest living tree
species, over 300 million years ago.
• Individual tree can live for over 1000 years.
• Only one extant species: Ginkgo biloba
Phylum Ginkgophyta
• Leaves are unique among seed plants, fan-
shaped with veins radiating out into the
leaf blade
• Ginkgo leaves are bi-lobed, tough and
more resistant to decay than other leaves.
• Have motile sperms.
 Ginkgophyta Cont’d...
Seeds
• Have fleshy coats, but they are not like the true
fruits of Angiosperms.
• Consists of a woody inner nut surrounded by the
fleshy, yellow coat.
• They are attractive in appearance, but contains
butanoic acid and have a bad odor like rancid
butter
• Seeds may be dispersed by animals e.g. squirrels.

• Ginkgos are dioecious (male and female organs

on different trees).
• Vascular system of ginkgos, and also
conifers, are different to that of Ginkgophyta Cont’d..
flowering plants. gingko_tree_meiji_jingu_gaien_7693

• Flowering plants have a series of

tube-like cells to conduct water.
• Ginkgos have connecting cells with
tiny perforations.
• These are valves(perforations) that
close when water is in short supply so
that turgidity is preserved.
• Ginkgos have a tendency to put out
suckers from the ground.
Ginkgo - Reproduction
• The Ginkgo tree produces both male and female plants.
• Male plant produces pollen cones with sporophylls, which hold the
pollen.
• The female plant produces two ovules at the end of each stalk, and
these produce fruit.
• After pollination, the pollen can enter one or both of the ovules into
seeds.
Ginkgophyta Cont’d...
• Older trees sometimes also have odd
downward growths, called Chi Chi.

• They grow from a damaged stem or by

putting out new shoots from the ground

• When these growths hit the ground they

can start growing new roots and
eventually form into a new tree

• This seems to be a form of reproduction

for when the main tree is coming to the
end of its life, or when there are no
females around.
Phylum Gnetophyta
• Gnetophyta are a small group of vascular seed plants composing one
of the four phyla of gymnosperm.
• About 100 known species and divided into three species: Ephedra,
Gnetum, and Welwitschia
• They have more angiosperm-like features than any other
gymnosperms
• Welwitschia and Gnetum are similar to flowering plants: not having
archegonia, and some species of Ephedra and Gnetum are the only
plants to go through double fertilisation.
 Phylum Gnetophyta: Gnetum species
• Gnetum are mostly vines or shrubs

• 30 species
• They are found in South Asia,
Tropical Africa, and Amazon basin
Gnetum species • Their leaves are broad and
resemble flowering plants

• Their seeds are eaten

Gnetum seeds
Phylum Gnetophyta: Ephedra Species
• Ephedra known as Mormon tea or
joint firs.
• 30 species.
• They are found in Northern Mexico
and South Western US.
Ephedra equisetina (Bluestem Joint Fir)
• Strobili usually emerge from the
axils of leaves.
• Some species undergo double
fertilization.
Phylum Gnetophyta: Welwitschia Species
• Welwitschia contains only one
species(Welwitschia mirabilis)
• They are found in South Western Africa
• They survive in extreme drought
• Their leaves grow perennially and they are
larger.
• Stomata open at night.
• They have the largest leaves in the plant
kingdom, obtain water from dew mostly.
• Is dioecious: male and female strobili
emerge from the leaf axes.
END OF LECTURE