Biological Macromolecules

Lecture 6-8
MRIs
 Biological Macromolecules
Living
Organic
systems
All organisms are composed of biological
macromolecules. These are carbon-based
compounds, which means that they have a
Inorganic fundamental structure composed of carbon atoms.

Macromolecules are very large molecules that are formed by the

polymerization of smaller molecules called monomers.

There are four major classes of biological macromolecules:

1. Carbohydrates Cellular composition

2. Proteins
3. Nucleic acids
4. Lipids
 Introduction
Living
Systems

Organic Inorganic And the

Carbon
compounds compounds rest!
containing!

Assembling into
Macromolecules
complex form

Carbohydrates

Lipids
Building Blocks of
living organism
Proteins

Nucleic Acids
Biological Macromolecules
 Cellular Structure Polymer Monomer

How are

Carbohydrate
macromolecules
formed? Starch grains in a chloroplast Glucose
Starch

Nucleic acid
Monomers are small molecules
or building blocks that may be
joined together in a repeating
Chromosome Nucleotide
fashion to form more complex DNA strand

molecules called polymers.

Protein

A polymer may be a natural or

synthetic macromolecule
comprised of repeating units of
Amino acid
a smaller molecule Intermediate filament Polypeptide

(monomers).
Lipid

Adipose cell with fat Fatty acid

Cellular Structure Triglyceride
 Monomers and macromolecules

Carbohydrates
Glucose

Building Blocks/monomers
Macromolecules

Proteins
Amino acids

Lipids Fatty acid and

glycerol

Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide
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How are
macromolecules
broken or Hydrolysis
digested?

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 Metabolism

Metabolism refers to activities by which cells acquire and use energy as they
make and break apart organic compounds.
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 Monomers join
together by
covalent bond

A condensation reaction, also commonly referred to as dehydration synthesis,

is a chemical reaction in which two molecules or moieties (functional groups)
combine to form a larger molecule, together with the loss of a small molecule
(usually water in the biological system).
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 Carbohydrate
• The hydrate of carbon is known as carbohydrates.
• Chemically carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes
or ketones

• Common symbol: (CH2O)n

 Functions of Carbohydrates
• Providing energy and regulation

• Store energy as glycogen

• Build macromolecules

• Sparing the use of proteins and fats for energy

• Preventing ketosis and breakdown of fatty acids and

• Biological recognition processes

• Flavor and Sweeteners

• Dietary fiber, which is also a form of carbohydrate, is essential for

the elimination of waste materials and toxins from the body
 Carbohydrates

/Cellulose

Fruits, vegetables, Sugar, milk Rice, potato,

honey, nuts wheat, corn
 Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides: Examples of Aldoses

Main “fuel” for

bacteria, plants
and animal cells
 Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides: Examples of Ketoses

Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all hexoses. They are structural
isomers, meaning they have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6)
but a different arrangement of atoms.
Disaccharides

Glucose Glucose

Maltose (grain sugar) = glucose + glucose

glucose

galactose

(milk sugar) = glucose + galactose

 Polysaccharides
Amylose (20-25%) is composed of
unbranched chains of glucose
monomers connected by α-1,4
glycosidic linkages.

Amylopectin (75-80%) is composed of

branched chains of glucose monomers
connected by α 1,4 and α 1,6 glycosidic
linkages.
Starch is converted into sugars,
for example by malting, and
fermented to produce ethanol in the
manufacture of beer, whisky and
biofuel. it is the most common
carbohydrate in human diets, and is
contained in large amounts in staple
foods such as wheat, potatoes, maize
(corn), rice, and cassava
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates and is made
up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly
branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells.
 Cellulose
• Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of
green plants. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth.
• Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms.
• Ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-
organisms in their guts, such as Ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose
with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms in their guts, such as Ruminococcus
flavefaciens, Ruminococcus albus and Fibrobacter succinogenes are the major
cellulolytic bacteria and Trichonympha a protist.
• In human, cellulose is a non-digestible constituent of insoluble dietary fiber,
acting as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and potentially aiding in
defecation.
• Paper products; cellulose fibers in textile; Microcrystalline cellulose- inactive
fillers in drug tablets; building insulation; nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate).

In cellulose, glucose monomers are linked in unbranched chains by β 1-4 glycosidic

linkages
alpha-1,4- and beta-1,4-glycosidic bond

1 4
1 4
 Common Polysaccharides

Starch

Glycogen

Cellulose

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 Chitin is a long-chain polymer of N-
acetylglucosamine, an amide
derivative of glucose.
Found in cell walls in fungi, the
exoskeletons of arthropods such as
crustaceans and insects, and gladii of
mollusks.
β 1!4 glycosidic linkages
 Starch and
Cellulose Chitin
Glycogen
• Starch is • Different • Partly
energy bond formed derived from
storage than starch non-sugars
molecule in • Structural (nitrogen)
plants component • Composes
• Glycogen is in plants exoskeletons
energy • Cannot be of insects
storage digested by
molecule in animals
animals. • Ruminococcus
• Starch and flavefaciens, and
glycogen can Ruminococcus
be digested albus digest
by animals. cellulose
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 Proteins are polymers of amino acids
Amino Acids: Building Block of Proteins

• Thousands of different kinds of proteins are made from only

twenty monomers, called amino acids.
• Contains an amine group (NH3) (basic/positive)
• A carboxyl group (COOH) (acidic/negative)
• One or more atoms called an “R group”
• All three groups are attached to the same carbon atom
 Amino acid
• Amino acids contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S)
• There are 20 different kinds of amino acids ( AA)
• Amino acids are divided into two groups-
Essential: must be supplied in the diet.
Non-essential: not supplied in the diet.
 AA1 AA2

Peptide bond is an
amide type of
covalent chemical
bond linking two
consecutive alpha-
amino acids

AA1 AA2
 Levels of protein structure

1. Primary structure: The linear arrangement of

amino acids in a protein
2. Secondary structure: Areas of folding or coiling
within a protein. e.g. α-helices and β-pleated
sheets
3. Tertiary structure: Final three-dimensional
structure of a protein, which results from a large
number of non-covalent interactions between
amino acids.
4. Quaternary structure: Non-covalent interactions
that bind multiple polypeptides into a single,
larger protein. e.g. Hemoglobin
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Primary Structural Features
Secondary Structural Features
Tertiary Protein Structure
Levels of Protein Structure

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 Protein Denaturation

(1) the correctly folded intact protein.

(2) applies heat to the system that is above the threshold
of maintaining the intramolecular protein interactions.
(3) the unfolded or denatured protein.

Primary structure is unchanged by denaturing.

 Main functions of proteins
• Protein's main function is to build, maintain and repair all our body
tissues
• Protein can also be used as energy source by body

Biological functions of proteins

• Protein acts as storage material of food and energy.
• Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions
• Proteins are molecular instrument through which genetic information is
expressed.
• They act as antibodies to prevent disease.
• The milk proteins help the growth of infant mammals.

For detail functions see the notes underneath…

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 Lipids
• Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

• Differ from carbohydrates: no specific ratio (C:H:O)

• Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol.

• Energy storage molecules “store the most energy” 2X of
Carbohydrates. 1g of Carbohydrate or Protein = 4 cal, 1g of Fat
= 9 cal
• Structurally heterogeneous, Not soluble in water
• Are soluble in hydrophobic solvents.
• Examples: 1. Fats 2. Oils 3. Phospholipids
4. Waxes 5. Steroid hormones 6. Triglycerides
 Building
Fatty blocks
Glycerol Lipids
acids

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CAN BE

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 Fatty acid
• A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which
is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty
acids.
Saturated Fatty acid: In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single
bonds between neighbouring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain.

Stearic acid

Unsaturated Fatty acid: When the hydrocarbon chain contains a

double bond, between neighbouring carbons.

Oleic acid
The term essential fatty acids (EFA) refers to those polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) that must be provided by foods because these cannot be synthesized in
the body yet are necessary for health. Only two fatty acids are known to be
essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3; an omega-3 fatty acid) and
linoleic acid (18:2n-6; an omega-6 fatty acid).

linoleic acid
LA (18:2n-6)

α-linolenic
acid
ALA (18:3n-3)
Oils and fat
 Fat and oils
• Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and
are called oils. If there is one double bond in the molecule,
then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil),
and if there is more than one double bond, then it is known
as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
• Cis and trans indicate the configuration of the molecule
around the double bond. If hydrogens are present in the
same plane, it is referred to as a cis fat; if the hydrogen
atoms are on two different planes, it is referred to as a trans
fat.
• The cis double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents
the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at
room temperature. Olive oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod
liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats.
• Unsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels
where-as saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in
the arteries.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds. Each double
bond may be in a cis or trans configuration. A cis double bond causes
a kink in the chain.
 Phospholipids
" Phospholipids are a variation on the triacylglycerol theme in which
– One fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate group, which in turn is
bound to additional functional groups.
" Structurally and functionally, the important thing about
phospholipids is that
– These molecules are simultaneously hydrophobic (at one end, the
fatty acid end) and hydrophilic (at the other end, the phosphate
end). Amphiphile
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• Phospholipids are the most abundant lipids in cell
membranes, which have two layers of lipids

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 Steroids
• All steroids possess a common ring structure.
• These ring structures vary by attached functional groups.
• Cholesterol is example of a steroid; cholesterol is a
membrane component
• The common steroid structure is the
basis of sterol hormones including the
Membrane
human sex hormones component
(the estrogens and the
androgens, including
testosterone).

Trans fat ??
Sex specific
hormones
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 The fat guidelines
• Limit total fat intake to less than 25–35% of your
total calories each day;
• Limit saturated fat intake to <7% of total daily
calories;
• Limit trans fat intake to <1% of total daily
calories;
• The remaining fat should come from sources of
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats such
as nuts, seeds, fish and vegetable oils; and
• Limit cholesterol intake to less than 300 mg per
day, for most people.
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 Nucleic Acids
• The chemical link between generations

• The source of genetic information in chromosomes

• Dictate amino-acid sequence in proteins

• Simple units called nucleotides, connected in long

chains

• Nucleic acids are composed of long chains of

nucleotides linked by dehydration synthesis

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 Nucleic Acids
Two types:
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA-double helix)
b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA-single strand)
Nucleotides have 3 parts:
1. phosphate group (P)
2. pentose sugar (5-carbon)
3. nitrogenous bases:
• adenine (A)
• thymine (T) DNA only
• uracil (U) RNA only
• cytosine (C)
• guanine (G)
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 The sugars of nucleic acids

• Note the OH in the 2-position of ribose and its absence in deoxyribose.

 Nucleosides (purine)
Nucleosides are glycosylamines consisting of-
# nucleobase
# ribose or deoxyribose sugar
These are bound together via a beta-glycosidic
linkage.

S
H
Nucleoside 2-deoxy
Adenosine guanosine
 S

P
B
or
Nucleotides

Nucleoside

Nucleotide
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DNA contains thymine, but not uracil, while RNA
contains uracil but not thymine

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Polynucleotides
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Cells Genes

Chromosomes DNA

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 Central dogma of molecular biology
The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of
the flow of genetic information within a biological system.
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THANK YOU

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