A WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF THE UPPER RIO

FONSECA DRAINAGE BASIN, BOACO, NICARAGUA

BY

ERIN ALICIA CARROLL

B.S. Geological Sciences with Spanish minor

University of Oregon, 2003

THESIS

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science
Earth and Planetary Sciences

The University of New Mexico

Albuquerque, New Mexico

May, 2006
 iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many individuals and organizations that I would like to acknowledge
for their academic, emotional, and financial support in this project. I heartily thank Dr.
Michael E. Campana, my advisor, for encouraging my passion to work on water projects
in Latin America. Dr. Campana gave me the freedom to make this project my own, but
provided me with feedback, extensive edits to my manuscript and grant proposals, and
academic and professional advice that enhanced my writing and career potential. I also
thank Dr. Bruce Thomson, Dr. Abdul-Mehdi Ali, and Dr. Laura J. Crossey for serving on
my thesis committee and providing valuable recommendations and assistance. In
addition, I am very appreciative of Cindy Jaramillo in the Department of Earth and
Planetary Sciences (E&PS) main office for her organizational skills and attentiveness.

My gratitude is extended to all of my Nicaraguan connections, and especially Dr.

Katherine Vammen, Heyddy Calderon, Nelson Buitrago Trujillo, and Miguel Garcia
from the Center for Water Resource Investigations (CIRA) in Managua for their
cooperation in this project. Without their support, this project would not have been
possible. The analytical laboratories at CIRA did an exceptional job and I’m grateful to
all of their staff for running the analyses for me and for taking the time to show me the
procedures that they were using.

I would also like to thank Dr. Zach Sharp and Dr. Nicu-Viorel Atudorei for
generously running my stable isotope analyses in their UNM laboratory facility and
helping me interpret the data. Another UNM laboratory that was generously made
available for my work was the analytical chemistry laboratory run by Dr. Abdul-Mehdi
Ali. Thanks to Dr. Ali and Johanna Blake for their patience and willingness to teach me
water chemistry procedures and for running the heavy metal analyses on my water
samples.

Financial support for this project was acquired through student research grants
provided by the following UNM organizations/individuals: Latin American and Iberian
Institute (LAII), Office of Graduate Studies (OGS), Student Research and Allocations
Committee (SRAC), E&PS, Dr. Bruce Thomson, and Dr. Michael E. Campana. An
external student research grant was also awarded by the American Council of
Independent Laboratories (ACIL). These funding sources generously allowed me to not
only complete my research in Nicaragua, but also to attend a number of professional
conferences.

Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family for their emotional support
throughout the years. Mom, without having you as my personal crisis hotline, I might
have given up. Dad, thanks for your support, insight, and long phone conversations. To
Krissy, Emily, Kate, my siblings, and my new friends here at UNM, my gratitude for
their social diversions and personal advice. I am blessed to have people who believe in
me at my side.
A WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF THE UPPER RIO
FONSECA DRAINAGE BASIN, BOACO, NICARAGUA

BY

ERIN ALICIA CARROLL

ABSTRACT OF THESIS

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science
Earth and Planetary Sciences

The University of New Mexico

Albuquerque, New Mexico

May, 2006
 v

A WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF THE UPPER RIO

FONSECA DRAINAGE BASIN, BOACO, NICARAGUA
By

Erin Alicia Carroll

B.S., Geological Sciences with Spanish Minor, University of Oregon, 2003
M.S., Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New Mexico, 2006

ABSTRACT

The city of Boaco, Nicaragua, is suffering from an insufficient supply of potable

water. Current surface water and groundwater resources are susceptible to contamination

from urban, agricultural, and geologic sources. This study assesses the extent of

physicochemical and microbial contamination, describes the spatial distribution of

contaminants, and presents a design for an integrated water quality monitoring plan that

will aid national and local authorities in managing their water resources.

Surface water and groundwater samples collected in June and July 2005 indicate

groups of parameters that vary collectively in response to variations in contaminant

inputs with distance downstream from the headwaters of the Rio Fonseca. At the top of

the drainage basin groundwater is highly alkaline, hard, and has high dissolved and

suspended solids concentrations. The groundwater chemistry in this region is strongly

controlled by the fractured volcanic geology. Major ion concentrations in surface water

peak downstream of urban Santa Lucia and Boaco, due primarily to the extraction of

groundwater for potable use and its subsequent return to the river. Concentrations of

major ions decrease with distance downstream from these cities as less alkaline

tributaries discharge into the Rio Fonseca.

 vi

Anthropogenic contamination in the Rio Fonseca generally increases with

distance downstream. Agricultural activities in the Rio Luna microbasin contribute to the

values of turbidity, conductivity, true color, nitrate, iron, chemical oxygen demand, and

total solids. In addition, a dramatic increase in ammonium (0.08 to 0.9 mg/L) and nitrite

(0.05-0.3 mg/L) concentrations occur where the Rio Chingastosa, which is full of

Boaco’s untreated wastewaters, discharges into the Rio Fonseca. Fecal contamination, as

indicated by E. coli, also increases by a factor of 1,000 as the Rio Fonseca passes through

the city of Boaco.

Surficial contaminants were also detected in groundwater samples and are

expected to migrate relatively quickly through fracture flow systems and poorly designed

wells. Due to the fractured volcanic lithology and urban cycling of groundwater there is a

close interconnection between surface water and groundwater quality. Stable isotope

analyses demonstrate that all of the water in the study area is purely meteoric in origin.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ IX

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... XI

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................ XII

1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 The Problem.............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Previous Investigations ............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................. 3

2. PROFILE OF STUDY AREA ..................................................................................... 6

2.1 Local Climate, Geomorphology, and Land Use ....................................................... 6
2.2 Regional Geology ................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Regional Hydrology................................................................................................ 12
2.3.1 Surface Water Hydrology ................................................................................ 12
2.3.2 Groundwater Hydrology.................................................................................. 15
2.3.3 Annual Hydrograph/Hydrologic Budget.......................................................... 18
2.4 Infrastructure of Potable Water............................................................................... 20
2.5 Water Quality.......................................................................................................... 25

3. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 28
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 28
3.2 Selection of Sampling Locations ............................................................................ 28
3.2.1 Sampling Frequency ........................................................................................ 31
3.3 Water Sample Collection and In-Situ Analysis ...................................................... 31
3.4 On-Site Discharge Calculations.............................................................................. 33
3.5 Water Quality Analysis........................................................................................... 35
3.5.1 Selection of Water Quality Parameters ........................................................... 35
3.5.2 Physicochemical and Microbiological Analysis.............................................. 35
3.5.3 Heavy Metal Analysis ...................................................................................... 37
3.5.4 Stable Isotope Analysis .................................................................................... 37

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................. 39

4.1 Outline..................................................................................................................... 39
4.2 Water Chemistry ..................................................................................................... 39
4.3 Contamination......................................................................................................... 48
4.3.1 Sources and Distribution of Contamination .................................................... 48
 viii

4.3.2 Effects of Contamination.................................................................................. 54

4.4 Isotopic Data ........................................................................................................... 61
4.4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 61
4.4.2 Defining the Local Meteoric Water Line ......................................................... 62
4.4.3 Seasonal Variability......................................................................................... 64
4.4.4 Identifying Water Sources................................................................................ 67
4.4.4 Remaining Questions ....................................................................................... 68

5. Proposed Water Resource Monitoring Plan............................................................. 70

5.1 Importance of Monitoring Water Resources........................................................... 70
5.2 Objectives of the Monitoring Plan.......................................................................... 70
5.3 Suggested Monitoring Locations ............................................................................ 73
5.4 Monitoring Frequency ............................................................................................ 78
5.5 Suggested Monitoring Parameters .......................................................................... 78
5.6 Possible Candidates for Managing the Monitoring Program.................................. 82
5.7 Quality Assurance/Quality Control Plan ................................................................ 83

6. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH................ 86

LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................ 93

APPENDIX A. WATER QUALITY RESULTS.......................................................... 94
APPENDIX B. CORRELATION MATRIX................................................................. 98

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 100
 ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Location of the study area. The country of Nicaragua contains sixteen
departments (similar to US states) and each department is further divided into
municipalities (similar to US counties). The upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin
is contained by the department of Boaco and covers a portion of the
municipalities of Santa Lucia and Boaco. .......................................................... 6
Figure 2. Boaco, Nicaragua, facing south from the upper level of the city. This capital
city has a population approaching 20,000 and is the largest urban center in the
study area............................................................................................................ 7
Figure 3. Distribution of soils in the upper Rio Fonseca Drainage Basin. The suitability of
the soil for agriculture depends on the soil type and terrain. Of the five soil
classes, Mollisols are the most common and are used to cultivate beans, corn,
sugarcane, and bananas (among other crops.) Where the soils are thin and
agricultural production is limited, the land is often converted into pastures for
grazing cattle. (Modified from INYPSA, 2003)................................................. 9
Figure 4. Faulted and fractured Tertiary volcanic rocks of the Coyol and Matagalpa
Groups characterize the regional geology of the study area. (Enlarged from
Ehrenborg, 1999).............................................................................................. 11
Figure 5. Primary hydrologic basins of Nicaragua. The study area is contained within the
Rio San Juan drainage basin, which drains southwest into Lake Nicaragua.
[Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER, 1997) ................ 13
Figure 6. Microbasins and major tributaries within the study area................................... 14
Figure 7. Water table elevation in meters amsl. Groundwater flow, as indicated by the
bold curved line, roughly parallels the Rio Fonseca. (Modified from Buitrago,
2006)................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 8. Spring locations, as inventoried by Buitrago (2006). The linear alignment of
springs suggests that they appear along fault traces......................................... 18
Figure 9. Annual hydrologic balance calculated from data collected at the INETER
meteorological station in Boaco (INYPSA, 2003). The water deficit increases
during the dry season, when precipitation is virtually non-existent and the
potential evapotranspiration (PET) rate and demand for irrigation water are
greatest.............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 10. Annual hydrologic balance modified to incorporate the actual
evapotranspiration rate (AET), the amount of water stored in vegetation (plant
storage), the water excess (leading to groundwater recharge) and the water
deficit. (Modified from Buitrago, 2006). ......................................................... 20
Figure 11. Rio Fonseca at its crossing through the city of Boaco, Nicaragua.................. 22
Figure 12. Concrete diversion dam on the Rio Fonseca. Water diverted from this locality
is piped to the drinking water treatment plant in upper Boaco. ....................... 22
Figure 13: Locals washing their cars and the containers in which they store milk and
cheese in the Rio Fonseca, upstream of where the city of Boaco diverts water
for drinking. January 2005. .............................................................................. 27
Figure 14. Sampling locations in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. ........................ 30
Figure 15: Don Miguel Garcia of CIRA performing field tests on a water sample from the
Rio Fonseca. ..................................................................................................... 32
 x

Figure 16. Piper diagram indicates that surface water and groundwater in the upper Rio
Fonseca drainage basin are in the bicarbonate hydrochemical facies and contain
a mixed cation composition.............................................................................. 42
Figure 17. Stiff diagrams indicating groundwater chemistry. Groundwater composition
ranges from calcium enriched bicarbonate water near Santa Lucia (N1& N5) to
sodium enriched bicarbonate water in the community of San Nicolas (N11).. 43
Figure 18. Distribution of major ions in the Rio Fonseca with distance downstream from
the headwaters. Surface water chemistry is strongly influenced by the influx of
tributaries, as indicated by the black vertical lines. The two Rio Chingastosa
tributaries in Boaco and Santa Lucia cause major ion concentrations to increase
dramatically. ..................................................................................................... 45
Figure 19. Concentrations of color, turbidity, COD, TSS, nitrate, TKN, and iron in the
Rio Fonseca remain low until the confluence of the Rio Luna 9.76 km
downstream from the headwaters..................................................................... 47
Figure 20. Concentrations of SRP, nitrite, and ammonium do not increase until the
confluence with the Rio Chingastosa in the city of Boaco, about 11.4 km
downstream from the headwaters..................................................................... 48
Figure 21. Mass flow of nitrogen species in the Rio Fonseca. The nitrate load increases
due to agricultural impacts on the Rio Luna. Nitrite and ammonium loads
increase due to urban impacts on the Rio Chingastosa in Boaco. .................... 49
Figure 22. Mass flow of TDS and conductivity with distance downstream in the Rio
Fonseca. Increased values at 9.76 km downstream can be attributed to
agricultural contamination of the Rio Luna. .................................................... 50
Figure 23. The strong correlation between iron and turbidity in surface water samples
indicates that iron is either colloidal in nature or adsorbed onto suspended
organic matter or sediment in the water column. The source of iron is likely
agricultural runoff over iron rich soils. ............................................................ 51
Figure 24. The Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) intersects the Global Meteoric
Water Line (GMWL) at a value of -4.9 per mil and has a slope of 7.2 and an
intercept of 6.1. The precipitation that falls below this line is enriched in heavy
isotopes, presumably due to evaporation. ........................................................ 64
Figure 25. A seasonal shift towards more negative δ values during the wet season is
apparent in the study area. This effect is more pronounced in surface water
than groundwater, indicating that surface water is directly influenced by local
precipitation events whereas groundwater reflects a longer term average in
these values....................................................................................................... 66
Figure 26. Proposed water quality monitoring locations in the upper Rio Fonseca
drainage basin, Boaco, Nicaragua. ................................................................... 75
 xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Potable water sources in rural Boaco and Santa Lucia....................................... 21

Table 2: Justification for Proposed Sampling Locations .................................................. 29
Table 3: Summary of Water Quality Analytical Methods ................................................ 36
Table 4: Correlation Coefficients for Major Ions in Nicaraguan Water Samples ............ 41
Table 5: Drinking Water Guidelines................................................................................. 56
Table 6: Justification for Proposed Water Quality Monitoring Locations ....................... 76
Table 7: Justification for Proposed Monitoring Parameters ............................................. 80
Table A1: Water Quality Results...................................................................................... 95
Table B1: Correlation Matrix............................................................................................ 99
 xii

LIST OF ACRONYMS
AET Actual Evapotranspiration
amsl above mean sea level
APHA American Public Health Association
AWWA American Water Works Association
bgs below ground surface
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CAPRE Coordinating Committee of Potable Water and Sanitation Institutions of
Central America, Panama, and the Dominican Republic.
CCV Continuing Calibration Verification
CIRA Centro para la Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos (Center for Water
Resource Investigations)
CIGEO Centro de Investigaciones Geocientíficas (Center for Geoscientific
Investigations)
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DO Dissolved Oxygen
DWTP Drinking Water Treatment Plant
ENACAL Empresa Nicaragüense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados (Nicaraguan
Company of Aqueducts and Sewers)
E&PS Earth & Planetary Sciences
FISE Fonda de Inversión Social Económica (Nicaraguan Socio-economic
Investment Fund)
GMWL Global Meteoric Water Line
GPS Global Positioning System
ICBV Initial Calibration Blank Verification
ICP-AES Inductively Coupled Plasma – Atomic Emission Spectrometry
ICV Initial Calibration Verification
INAA Instituto Nicaragüense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados (Nicaraguan
Institute of Aqueducts and Sewers)
INETER Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (Nicaraguan Institute of
Territorial Studies)
INPSA Información de Proyecto Sociedad Anónima (Information about the
Anonymous Society Project)
IRENA Instituto de Recursos Naturales (Institute of Natural Resources).
LMWL Local Meteoric Water Line
MAGFOR Ministerio Agriopecuario y Forestal (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry)
MARENA Ministerio del Ambiente de Recursos Naturales (Ministry of the
Environment and Natural Resources)
MIFIC Ministerio de Fomento, Industria y Comercia (Ministry of Promotion,
Industry and Commerce)
MINSA Ministerio de Salud (Ministry of Health)
PET Potential Evapotranspiration
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
 xiii

RASNIC Red de Agua y Saneamiento de Nicaragua (Water and Sanitation System

of Nicaragua)
SMOW Standard Mean Ocean Water
SAR Sodium Adsorption Ratio
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TOC Total Organic Carbon
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TVS Total Volatile Solids
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNM University of New Mexico
USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
WEF Water Environment Federation
WHO World Health Organization
 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Problem

The water crisis in Nicaragua is similar to that in most of the developing world.

The United Nations estimates that one billion people in the world do not have access to

clean drinking water and up to ten million people die from illnesses caused by

contaminated drinking water every year (CNN, 1998). In Nicaragua, 80% of the rural

population is without access to clean drinking water [Información de Proyecto Sociedad

Anónima (INYPSA), 2003]. Women and children in rural communities often collect their

water supply directly from either heavily contaminated rivers or communal wells.

In urban Nicaragua, the water crisis can be equally severe. Boaco, Nicaragua, is a

city suffering from a limited and insufficient supply of potable water. During the dry

season, from November until April, the region’s principal source of water, the Rio

Fonseca, suffers a fifty percent reduction of flow and is not sufficient to meet the

demand. Outbreaks of waterborne illnesses, such as cholera, occur frequently in the

region and reflect human exposure to poor quality water. Surface water is visibly

contaminated by domestic and industrial waste discharged in to the rivers without

treatment. Wastewater regulations and enforcement are virtually nonexistent. Uncovered

community wells are often located near latrines, washing stations, and livestock.

Overgrazing by cattle, deforestation, and slash-and-burn agriculture create additional

adverse affects within the regional watershed.

1.2 Previous Investigations

Very little is known about the quality of water in the Rio Fonseca drainage basin

although several studies have examined the quality of Nicaragua’s water as a whole. A
 2

recent collaboration between the Instituto Nicaragüense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados

(INAA), Empresa Nicaragüense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados (ENACAL), Ministerio

de Salud (MINSA), Red de Agua y Saneamiento de Nicaragua (RASNIC), and the

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) resulted in a report that summarizes the

quality of Nicaragua’s drinking water (INAA et al., 2005). This study performed

physicochemical and microbiological analysis on 1,488 drinking water samples from

public and community aqueducts, perforated wells, and protected excavated wells

throughout Nicaragua. The waters of the department of Boaco, which contains the upper

Rio Fonseca drainage basin, are characterized as having near neutral pH (pH=7.3) values,

an average conductivity of 600 µS/cm, and an average turbidity of 0.63 TNU. Some of

the 123 samples collected in the department of Boaco exceed the CAPRE (Coordinating

Committee of Potable Water and Sanitation Institutions of Central America, Panama, and

the Dominican Republic) drinking water guidelines for arsenic (3.4% > 0.01 mg/L), iron

(10.9% > 0.3 mg/L), and fluoride (2.5% > 1.5 mg/L). Microbial analyses show that

almost 80% of these samples test positive for thermo-tolerant coliforms, which may

indicate fecal contamination of these drinking water sources.

Although limited water quality data has been collected in the study area,

numerous studies have shown that surface water pollution is a major problem facing

Nicaragua. Factors affecting the quality of rivers include the discharge of untreated

sewage in urban areas, contamination by pesticides and agrochemicals (including nitrate

and phosphate based fertilizers), gasoline spills, accelerated erosion caused by

deforestation, and an overall lack of environmental education and consciousness by many

poor Nicaraguans. A recent study diagnosing the environmental issues in the department
 3

of Boaco indicates that surface water in this region is of medium to poor quality,

primarily as a result of the discharge of raw organic material contained in urban and

agricultural wastewater directly into the rivers [INYPSA, 2003]. In the May 2001 report,

A Water Resources Assessment of Nicaragua, the US Army Corps of Engineers

(USACE) recommended the following actions be taken in order to improve Nicaragua’s

water quality and supply: obtain a general perspective of the quality of surface water and

groundwater; prepare elaborate maps with different water quality problems (metals,

sulfates, nitrates, etc.); estimate the nutrient transportation in rivers; characterize the

potential water contamination risks; and establish an environmental water monitoring

system.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

This thesis describes a project that expanded upon a water quality proposal titled

Microbiological and Physicochemical Quality of Surface Water and Groundwater in the

Upper Rio Fonseca Drainage Basin, Boaco, Nicaragua submitted by Heyddy Calderon

of the Centro para la Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos (CIRA) in Managua,

Nicaragua (Calderon, 2004). The proposal involved collecting 10 surface water and 20

groundwater samples and analyzing them for microbiological and physicochemical

parameters. The primary goal of the proposed project was to determine the

microbiological and physicochemical quality of water in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage

basin and to recommend methods of protection and treatment for these resources. Despite

an enthusiastic response by the regulating authorities in Boaco, the work was not

performed due to lack of financial resources.

 4

This study expands the goals and modifies the procedures proposed by Calderon

in order to develop a deeper understanding of the extent of contamination within the

upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. In particular, this study implemented many of the

USACE recommendations on a local scale. A preliminary assessment of the quality of

Boaco's regional water resources has been acquired through physicochemical and

microbial water quality analyses of both surface water and groundwater. This data was

then used to assess the extent of physicochemical and microbial contamination, describe

the spatial distribution of contaminants, and design an integrated water quality

monitoring plan. The results of this study are intended to help regulatory authorities and

the public gain an understanding of the current state of their water resources and outline

areas of concern. By documenting existing sources of pollution and proposing a water

quality monitoring plan the local authorities will have the ability to implement

sustainable solutions to water resource management.

The specific objectives of this study were to:

• Obtain an accurate water quality assessment of the surface water and

groundwater within the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin
o Determine the physicochemical composition of the waters
o Determine the extent of microbial contamination

• Identify sources of contamination

o Visually display the spatial distribution of contaminants

• Make suggestions to improve and monitor water quality

o Design an integrated surface water and groundwater monitoring plan
o Make suggestions for future research

This research is significant because to date, little work has been done to

characterize the quality of water in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. Water quality

data is an important prerequisite in identifying and understanding the problems facing the
 5

region’s potable water supply and coming up with sustainable solutions. With this

background information and the proposed monitoring plan, authorities can begin to

identify short and long term trends in water quality and monitor sources of

contamination.
 6

2. PROFILE OF STUDY AREA

2.1 Local Climate, Geomorphology, and Land Use

The study area is located in the central highlands of Nicaragua and encompasses

part of the municipalities of Boaco and Santa Lucia, both of which lie within the

department of Boaco (Figure 1). The municipalities’ populations are approximately

54,644 and 11,080, respectively (INYPSA, 2003). The capital city of Boaco, also known

as the city of two stories, is nestled alongside the Rio Fonseca in the Ammerisque

Mountain Range, 379 meters above mean sea level (amsl) (Figure 2). This city is the

largest in the study area and has a population approaching 20,000.

Map of Study Area

R io
de
Santa Lucía Rio Chiscolapa

Lu
na
Rio Fonseca

Boaco

San Jose de Los Remates

Boaco
Camoapa

Santa Lucia

Legend
Teustepe Study Area
Primary Rivers

±
Primary Roads
San Lorenzo Elevation
200 - 400 m
400 - 600 m
600 - 800 m
800 - 1,000 m
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
Primary Rivers
Kilometers

Figure 1. Location of the study area. The country of Nicaragua contains sixteen
departments (similar to US states) and each department is further divided into
municipalities (similar to US counties). The upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin is
contained by the department of Boaco and covers a portion of the municipalities of Santa
Lucia and Boaco.
 7

Figure 2. Boaco, Nicaragua, facing south from the upper level of the city. This capital
city has a population approaching 20,000 and is the largest urban center in the study area.

The upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin covers an area of approximately 94 km2.

The elevation varies from 330 m amsl in Boaco to 1000 m amsl north of Santa Lucia. The

climate and precipitation are that of a tropical jungle with an average daily temperature

between 21 and 24◦C, an annual precipitation ranging from 1,200 to 1,300 mm/yr, a

potential evapotranspiration rate of 800 to 1,200 mm/year and an average relative

humidity of 78 percent according to IRENA, Instituto de Recursos Naturales (IRENA,

1992). Evapotranspiration rates, temperature and relative humidity decrease with

increasing elevation. In contrast, precipitation is greatest at higher elevation.

The climate is marked by two distinct seasons. The wet season (in which the

region receives about 90 percent of its precipitation) lasts from May through November,

while the dry season spans December through April. In addition to seasonal variability in

precipitation and surface water discharge, there has been a long-term decrease in annual
 8

precipitation. According to IRENA, this reduction in precipitation has been occurring at a

rate of 6.8 mm/yr over the past 30 years (IRENA, 1992).

Due to the precipitous volcanic terrain, much of the study area is covered by

shallow soils that limit agricultural production (Figure 3). Mollisols are the most common

type of soil in the Rio Fonseca valley and are considered suitable for pastures and the

cultivation of corn, sorghum, rice, sugarcane, peanuts, sesame seeds, and some fruits

(INYPSA, 2003). Alfisoles and Utisols, which like Mollisols have a thick B horizon

enriched in clay, are also found in the northern part of the drainage basin. Although

INYPSA classifies these soils as acidic and relatively infertile they are used to

successfully cultivate a variety of crops in the study area. Inceptisols cover the hills north

of Santa Lucia and although acidic, are suitable for the cultivation of coffee, cotton, fruit,

peanuts, coco, and banana. A fifth class of soil found in the study area are Vertisols,

which are thicker and rockier than the other soil types and are dominated by swelling

clays, which lead to seasonal differences in internal drainage capabilities of the soil.

Nonetheless, INYPSA considers these soils appropriate for the cultivation or rice,

sorghum, and sugarcane and believes with preparation they can be made suitable for

other types of crop.

 9

Legend
Study Area
Primary Rivers

Soils
LEYENDA
Alfisols

±
Inceptisols
Molisols
Utisols 0 0.5 1 2 3 4
Vertisols Kilometers

Figure 3. Distribution of soils in the upper Rio Fonseca Drainage Basin. The suitability of
the soil for agriculture depends on the soil type and terrain. Of the five soil classes,
Mollisols are the most common and are used to cultivate beans, corn, sugarcane, and
bananas (among other crops.) Where the soils are thin and agricultural production is
limited, the land is often converted into pastures for grazing cattle. (Modified from
INYPSA, 2003)

Much of the natural forest has been burned and removed for agricultural and

domestic purposes. Seventy-one percent of the land covered by the department of Boaco

is pasture, 23 percent is cultivated crops, 3 percent is nonproductive and only 3 percent

has been left as natural forest (INYPSA, 2003). Beans, corn, coffee, bananas, sugarcane

and benca (a grass used for weaving hats) are among the crops cultivated in the region.

Although agriculture is abundant, the region is best known for its production of dairy

products, with dairy farming and cattle ranching being the primary occupations.
 10

2.2 Regional Geology

Nicaragua’s unstable tectonic setting, along the convergence of the Caribbean

(Chortis) Plate and the Cocos Plate, has resulted in major volcanic activity since the

middle Tertiary. Rhyolitic shield volcanism that produced a highland ignimbrite (welded

and well consolidated pyroclastic flow) dominated the Oligocene (Ehrenborg, 1996).

Tectonic deformation during the Oligocene-Miocene resulted in northwest-oriented folds

and northeast tensional faults. A second prominent system of normal faults appeared as

decoupling between the Caribbean and Cocos Plates allowed for the opening up of

northwest trending extensional features such as the Nicaraguan depression (Ehrenborg &

Alvarez, 1988). Extrusion of basaltic to andesitic magmas along the NW-SE trending

normal faults created the Miocene aged Coyol Volcanic Arc followed by the

southwesterly shifted Pliocene-Pleistocene Modern Volcanic Arc in the Nicaraguan

Depression (Ehrenborg & Alvarez, 1988).

Jan Ehrenborg redefined the Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy of central Nicaragua

after identifying a volcanic history that abandons the old idea of cyclic volcanism and

layer-cake stratigraphy in support of interstratified basaltic to andesitic lava flows, lahars,

and volcanic conglomerates from contemporaneous volcanic centers. The Nicaraguan

Volcanic Field is thought to have evolved from mafic lava and debris flows (as evident in

the basaltic to andesitic fragments in the Matagalpa Group) to silicic lava flows and ash-

flow tuffs (corresponding to the Highland ignimbrite), to the bimodal strato-shield and

rhyolite dome volcanism of the Coyol Group (Ehrenborg, 1996).

Fractured and faulted Tertiary volcanic rocks characterize the geology of Central

Nicaragua. The geologic map in Figure 4 shows the surficial geologic units. Two
 11

prominent lithologic groups in the study area are the Matagalpa and Coyol Groups, which

are summarized below. The descriptions are based on Jan Ehrenborg’s paper, titled A

New Stratigraphy for the Tertiary Volcanic Rocks of the Nicaraguan Highland and the

associated Geologic Map of the Western Nicaraguan Highlands, Central America

(Ehrenborg, 1996 and 1999).

Coyol Group

Matagalpa
Group
KEY
Approximate Scale: 1:165,000
Contour Interval is 100 m
City
Road
Quaternary Deposits (Upper Miocene)
Qg
: Rió Grande de Matagalpa
Coyol Group (Pleistocene – Tertiary)
Ts : Santa Lucia Unit
Tcm
: Cerro de Monte Subunit
Tl
: La Libertad Unit
Matagalpa Group (Pleistocene – Tertiary)
Tj
: Juigalpa unit

Figure 4. Faulted and fractured Tertiary volcanic rocks of the Coyol and Matagalpa
Groups characterize the regional geology of the study area. (Enlarged from Ehrenborg,
1999)
 12

Matagalpa Group (late Oligocene)

These thick (> 1500 m) deposits are characterized by rhyolitic to dacitic ignimbrites,
accretionary lapilli-rich pyroclastic fall deposits and rare thin epiclastic deposits of
medial-facies rhyolitic shield deposits (Ehrenborg, 1996). The Matagalpa Group is
further divided into the Cuapa (dark-brownish-violet pyroclastic flow and fall deposits)
and Juigalpa (interstratified greenish to whitish pyroclastic fall deposits and reddish-
brown pyroclastic flows) subunits. The Juigalpa unit is common near the city of Boaco
and the thickness ranges from 500 to 1,000 m. The Matagalpa Group is cut by numerous
northwest to west-northwest striking normal faults.

Coyol Group (Miocene-Pleistocene)

The strato-shield volcanic units of interest within the study area include La Libertad,
Santa Lucia and the younger subunit of Santa Lucia, Cerro de Monte. All of these consist
of Tertiary volcanic rocks with basaltic to andesitic composition. The La Libertad unit is
composed of lava flows and autobreccias that form a relatively homogenous stratigraphy
with a thickness ranging from 100 to 400 m. The volcanic centers of the La Libertad unit
are virtually non-identifiable compared to those of the Santa Lucia Unit. The lithology of
the Santa Lucia unit is typical of a stratovolcano and is dominated by lava flows, lahars,
volcanic conglomerates and pyroclastic fall deposits (Ehrenborg, 1999). Vent facies are
200 to 1,000 m thick. In the crater of Santa Lucia, the Cerro de Monte Subunit is visible
and consists of intracaldera domes that are rhyolitic to dacitic in composition.

Volcanic Dikes (middle Miocene – early Pliocene)

Basaltic dikes that tend in a northwesterly direction are common in the study area and are
believed to fill fractures in zones of tectonic vulnerability [Centro de Investigaciones
Geocientíficas (CIGEO), 2001]. Some of these dikes may have fed the strato-shield
volcanic units of the Coyol Group.

Quaternary Deposits
A few thin unconsolidated fluvial deposits are evident along the Rio Fonseca and other
surface water features.

2.3 Regional Hydrology

2.3.1 Surface Water Hydrology

The Ammerisque Mountains serve as a drainage divide separating the hydrologic

basins of Rio San Juan (29,824 km2), which drain southwest into Lake Nicaragua, and

those of Rio Grande de Matagalpa (18,455 km2), which drain east toward the Atlantic

Ocean (Figure 5). The upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin lies just west of this boundary

and is a subbasin of the larger Rio San Juan drainage basin. The Rio San Juan drainage
 13

basin is significant in that it transports water to Lake Nicaragua (8,270 km2), which is the

largest body of surface water in Central America.

KEY
Study Area
Hydrologic Basins of Interest: Rio San Juan Rio Grande de Matagalpa

Figure 5. Primary hydrologic basins of Nicaragua. The study area is contained within the
Rio San Juan drainage basin, which drains southwest into Lake Nicaragua. [Instituto
Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER, 1997)

The Upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin can be further subdivided into six

microbasins (Figure 6). The headwaters of the Rio Fonseca lie in the Fonseca-Santa

Lucia microbasin, which attains a maximum elevation of about 1000 m amsl. The
 14

primary tributaries constitute individual microbasins that discharge into the Rio Fonseca

in the following order with distance downstream: Rio Chiscolapa, Rio Luna, Quebrada

Honda, and Quebrada San Pio. The Fonseca-Boaco microbasin includes the combined

flow from the Fonseca-Santa Lucia and Rio Luna microbasins and several smaller

tributaries in the vicinity of Boaco.

Drainage Basins in the Department of Boaco

RIO GRANDE DE MATAGALPA

RIO ESCONDIDO

RIO SAN JUAN

Microbasins within the

Upper Rio Fonseca
Subbasin

Legend
Study Area
Name of Microbasin
Fonseca-Boaco
Fonseca-Santa Lucia

±
Quebrada Honda
Rio Chiscolapa
Rio Luna
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
San Pio Kilometers

Figure 6. Microbasins and major tributaries within the study area.

 15

2.3.2 Groundwater Hydrology

In contrast to the visible surface water supply, groundwater reserves are contained

within the faults and fractures of Tertiary volcanic rocks. The Coyol and Matagalpa rock

units are characterized as having very low primary porosity (except for some pyroclastic

fall deposits) and are only useful as aquifers when the secondary porosity (faults and

fractures) are permeable enough to store and transmit significant quantities of water that

can be utilized for human consumption. Very little is known about these aquifers.

Numerous studies have concluded that the geology of the region impedes the storage of

groundwater and that large-scale exploitation of the resource is physically and

economically infeasible (USACE, 2001 and INYPSA, 2003). Despite the odds, there are

a number of perforated wells in the study area whose success as a source of drinking

water was dependent upon encountering water-bearing fractures.

Nelson Buitrago Trujillo, a recent M.S. graduate at CIRA, inventoried perforated

and excavated wells in the study area and recorded the static water level and geographic

coordinates of each well (Buitrago, 2006). The groundwater elevations in these wells

were used to create a potentiometric surface map. According to the map, groundwater

should flow perpendicular to the groundwater elevation contours and generally flow in a

southwesterly direction (Figure 7). In actuality, groundwater flow paths are expected to

be more erratic based on the anisotropy of the volcanic aquifers within the Coyol and

Matagalpa Groups.
 16

´
Legend
Primary Rivers
Cities
Study Area
Wells
Groundwater Flow Direction

Figure 7. Water table elevation in meters amsl. Groundwater flow, as indicated by the
bold curved line, roughly parallels the Rio Fonseca. (Modified from Buitrago, 2006)

Groundwater in the region is expected to follow fracture flow paths through the

tectonically disturbed Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy. The well logs for the region show

that water is extracted from fractured basalt and volcanic ash from a depth of about 12 to

over 61 meters below ground surface (bgs). The inconsistent quality and terminology

between the lithologic logs make it difficult to correlate units between wells.

A pump test was performed on Well 6, which lies in the bed of the Rio Fonseca

northwest of the city of Boaco, by ENACAL in May of 2002. This perforated municipal

water supply well reaches a depth of 108 meters, has a diameter of about 20.3

centimeters, and as of May 2002 had a static water depth of 2.4 meters bgs. The well log

indicates a basaltic lithology and well perforations at a depth of 3-12 meters bgs and 60-
 17

90 meters bgs. The temperature of the water extracted is approximately 35◦C. The results

of the pump test determined the aquifer beneath the Rio Fonseca to have a transmissivity

on the order of 22.5 m2/d and a specific capacity (after 50 hours of pumping) around 44.7

m2/d (ENACAL, 2002). The pump test indicated that this well is capable of supplying a

maximum of 13-25 L/s. A geophysical study of this area identified a basaltic dike (60-

130 ohm-m resistivity) that filled a northwest oriented normal fault in the midst of

pyroclastic flow deposits (~20 ohm-m) of the Matagalpa unit (CIGEO, 2001). Pump test

data was not located for the other wells included in this study.

As groundwater flow paths intersect the primary tensional faults at depth, the fault

planes appear to act as groundwater conduits allowing groundwater to make its way to

the surface where it discharges as springs, or ‘ojos de agua’ as they are termed locally. In

plotting the spring locations against their geographic coordinates, numerous springs seem

to appear along a fault that runs roughly parallel to the west side of the Rio Fonseca and

extends in a NW-SE direction from the city of Boaco (Figure 8). Additional springs are

likely along other fault traces.

 18

Legend
Study Area
Cities
Primary Rivers
Elevation
200 - 400 m
400 - 600 m
600 - 800 m
800 - 1,000 m
SpringLocations
Approximate
Fault Trace

±
1 0.5 0 1
Kilometers

Figure 8. Spring locations, as inventoried by Buitrago (2006). The linear alignment of

springs suggests that they appear along fault traces.

2.3.3 Annual Hydrograph/Hydrologic Budget

The hydrologic deficit increases dramatically during the dry season (especially

January through April). During this time agriculture can be cultivated only with irrigation

water due to a lack of precipitation. Unfortunately for farmers, the seasonally abundant

surface water reserves all but dry up during the summer months. In addition, the

evaporative demand of the atmosphere is so high during this time period that any

precipitation is likely to be evapotranspired before it can be harnessed for human use.

From January to April the demands placed on groundwater resources will increase and it
 19

is likely that groundwater levels will fall. In contrast, the aquifers are likely to be

recharged from July to November as water percolates to the water table. Figure 9 shows

the hydrologic balance calculated from data collected at the Instituto Nicaragüense de

Estudios Territoriales (INETER) meteorological station in Boaco (INYPSA, 2003).

250
ETP
PETpot. mm.
mm.(mm)

200
150 Precipit. mm.
Precipitation
Amount

100 Drenaje mm.

Drainage
50 Riego mm.
Irrigation
0

Diciembre
Septiembre

Noviembre
Julio
Enero

Junio

September
Mayo

October
February

May

July

November
Marzo

August

December
March

April

June
Febrero

Octubre
Abril

Agosto
January

Meses
Month

Figure 9. Annual hydrologic balance calculated from data collected at the INETER
meteorological station in Boaco (INYPSA, 2003). The water deficit increases during the
dry season, when precipitation is virtually non-existent and the potential
evapotranspiration (PET) rate and demand for irrigation water are greatest.

Buitrago (2006) used the Thornthwaite-Mather method to calculate the potential

evapotranspiration rate, which with additional parameters can be used to calculate the

actual evapotranspiration rate (AET), the amount of water stored in vegetation (plant

storage), the water excess (leading to groundwater recharge) and the water deficit. Figure

10 shows the hydrologic balance modified to incorporate these other variables (Buitrago,

2006). From June through October the amount of precipitation exceeds the potential

evapotranspiration (PET) rate, meaning that the AET rate reaches its maximum potential

and any excess precipitation that is not used by plants, animals, and human activities will

recharge groundwater reserves. The amount of precipitation is less than the potential
 20

evapotranspiration rate from November through May, leading to a hydrologic deficit

during the months of January through April.

200

180

160

140
Excess
Amount (mm)

120 Deficit
100 Plant Storage
AET
80
Precipitation
60 PET
40

20

0
January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

Figure 10. Annual hydrologic balance modified to incorporate the actual December

evapotranspiration rate (AET), the amount of water stored in vegetation (plant storage),
the water excess (leading to groundwater recharge) and the water deficit. (Modified from
Buitrago, 2006).

2.4 Infrastructure of Potable Water

In the municipalities of Boaco and Santa Lucia, the sources of potable water are

the Rio Fonseca and its tributaries, springs, and perforated and excavated wells. The

dependence upon source type varies between the rural and urban setting. In the rural area,

citizens collect their water directly from individual and public wells, rivers, and springs,

or from small gravity driven aqueducts, which are usually spring fed. Table 1 shows the

percentage of the rural population who collect their water from each source in the

municipalities of Boaco and Santa Lucia (INYPSA, 2003).

 21

Table 1: Potable water sources in rural Boaco and Santa Lucia

Municipality Source Type % Population
Wells 53
Boaco
Rivers 26
Gravity Driven Aqueducts 21
Wells 22
Santa Lucia
Rivers 41
Gravity Driven Aqueducts 37

The sources and distribution of drinking water and the organizations that are in

charge of these resources in the urban area are discussed below for each municipality.

The primary source of potable water in the city of Boaco is the Rio Fonseca

(Figure 11). At least 65 percent of the drinking water supply is captured via small

concrete dams that are situated perpendicular to flow in the Rio Fonseca, northwest of

Boaco (Figure 12). Once captured, the diverted river water is pumped to a drinking water

treatment plant (DWTP) in Upper Boaco. The treatment plant processes the water

according to the following methods: rapid mixing with sulfate and aluminum (to reduce

the turbidity and color of the water), flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and

disinfection by 1.5 to 2 mg/L of chlorine gas. Water leaving the treatment plant is

pumped to a 150,000-gallon capacity storage tank, which feeds the ENACAL distribution

system in Upper Boaco.

 22

Figure 11. Rio Fonseca at its crossing through the city of Boaco, Nicaragua.

Figure 12. Concrete diversion dam on the Rio Fonseca. Water diverted from this locality
is piped to the drinking water treatment plant in upper Boaco.

As mentioned previously, the Rio Fonseca’s flow is critically reduced during the

dry season, at which time some of the dependence on surface water is transferred to

groundwater sources. Perforated wells augment the potable water demand in the city of

Boaco. One of these wells, Well 6, is located in the bed of the Rio Fonseca and its water

is pumped to a holding tank where it mixes with the treated river water before entering

the distribution system in Upper Boaco. Another ENACAL well, ‘Quinta Aurita’, is

located in a pasture east of the city near two inactive ENACAL Wells named ‘Pozo
 23

Smith’ and ‘Pozo Educación.’ The water from Quinta Aurita is pumped directly into

another storage tank (without treatment) and enters a separate distribution system that

reaches southern parts of the city.

The DWTP is capable of producing 79,105 m3 per month while Quinta Aurita is

capable of producing another 1,945 m3 per month (INYPSA, 2003). Much of the water

that is diverted from the Rio Fonseca and Well 6 is lost between the diversion center and

the treatment plant. In addition, about 50 percent of the water distributed by ENACAL is

lost en route due to the poor quality of the 40-year-old distribution lines (INYPSA, 2003).

ENACAL’s treatment plant distributes water to 2,275 domestic residences, which

encompass about 60 percent of the population (INYPSA, 2003). The remaining 40

percent of the population gets their water through illegal connections to the system, other

wells, or by buying bottled water for drinking and using alternate contaminated sources

for washing.

The combined production of ENACAL’s sources is about 80,000 m3 per month.

With an urban population approaching 20,000 that number corresponds to a production

rate of about 130 L/person/day if the produced quantity was conservative. Due to loss of

water along the distribution system, the actual daily consumption rate is roughly half of

the potential. Despite the fact that most of Boaco is on the ENACAL distribution system,

water deficits require ENACAL to ration water to different areas of the city on different

days of the week so that no one actually has a constant supply of running tap water.

According to Rodrigo Garcia, the head of the DWTP, Upper Boaco receives water on

Monday, Wednesday, and Friday whereas water is delivered to Lower Boaco on

Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday (Garcia, 2005). Domestic users stockpile water in
 24

buckets, sinks, or roof-top tanks to be used on the days they don’t receive water, which

leaves these resources susceptible to contamination.

In Santa Lucia, the urban water supply is derived from a single perforated well.

ENACAL pumps water from the well for about 14.8 hours per day at a rate of 4.19 L/s or

225 m3/day (INYPSA, 2003). Water from that well is pumped directly into the

distribution system and any unused water ends up in a storage tank below town.

ENACAL recently started adding chlorine to the well in Santa Lucia and performs field

tests to make sure the residual chlorine values meet their standards (Garcia-Angulo,

2005). The distribution system provides coverage for 60 percent of Santa Lucia’s

population.

As mentioned above, the regulating water authority in the cities of Boaco and

Santa Lucia is ENACAL, which is regulated on a national level by the INAA. ENACAL

is responsible for supplying water and sanitation services to the urban citizens and has a

domestic coverage rate of 60 percent in both Boaco and Santa Lucia. In addition to

ENACAL and INAA, other authorities that are assigned responsibility of Nicaragua’s

water resources are as follows (INYPSA, 2003 and USACE, 2001):

• Ministerio Agriopecuario y Forestal (MAGFOR): in charge of irrigation waters.

• Ministerio del Ambiente de Recursos Naturales (MARENA): responsible for
water quality control.
• MINSA [and ENACAL]: in charge of supervising waters destined for human
consumption.
• Ministerio de Fomento, Industria y Comercia (MIFIC): allows exploitation of
water resources, and issue permits for water use.
• INETER: collects, processes and publishes hydrological data, and assumes
responsibility for flood control.
• Fonda de Inversión Social Económica (FISE): governmental organization that
primarily provides funding for water projects.
 25

The problem with having numerous water authorities is that the blame for water

distribution, quality, and coverage problems can be passed around among these

organizations without any of them taking action to resolve the problem. The creation of a

single water regulating authority that would take action when water-related problems are

presented would be the solution to many of the region’s water resource management

issues.

2.5 Water Quality

In addition to a potable water shortage, there is also a severe threat of both surface

water and groundwater contamination by activities within the upper Rio Fonseca

drainage basin. Activities that contribute to contamination include: discharging untreated

domestic and industrial waste to the rivers; building latrines or washing stations next to

potable water sources; adding agrochemicals and/or fertilizers to cultivated crops;

allowing livestock to run loose and defecate near water sources; washing clothes, cars,

people, etc. in the rivers; and not properly protecting wells from contamination (by not

covering them, allowing animals near them, using a bucket to collect water, etc.)

The lack of sanitary sewer coverage and the discharge of raw sewer directly into

the rivers is one of the primary sources of water resource contamination in the study area.

In Santa Lucia, there is no sewer system and the latrine is the only form of sanitary

disposal available. Latrines are used by 82 percent in the rural and 100 percent in the

urban areas of the municipality (INYPSA, 2003). The risk of water resource

contamination by latrines depends on the proximity of the latrine to the drinking water

source, the permeability of the ground underlying it, the amount of precipitation and the

effectiveness of the latrine’s filtration system. Similarly, rural Boaco has 63 percent
 26

sanitary coverage by latrines and 37 percent of the residencies are without any sanitary

sewer precaution (INYPSA, 2003). In urban Boaco, these numbers are 31 percent and 9

percent, respectively, and are concentrated in lower Boaco (INYPSA, 2003). The

remaining 60 percent of the population (upper Boaco) is serviced by an aged and

defective sewer system.

Boaco’s 50-year-old sewer system consists of concrete pipes that carry water

under the streets and discharge directly to the Rio Chingastosa without any treatment. At

least eight points of significant discharge have been identified, with the largest source

being continuous flow from a 70 cm diameter tube, where 30 percent of the population’s

waste discharges into the northern Chingastosa River (Delmeire, 1995). In addition,

serious risk of contamination occurs within the potable water distribution system in upper

Boaco. Although water leaves the ENACAL treatment plant under potable conditions, the

quality of this water may degrade en route due to cross-connections between sewer lines

and drinking-water distribution lines under low water pressure. Many Boacans do not

drink the water from their faucets because of the high risk of waterborne disease.

Sewage discharged into the Chingastosa River flows directly into the Rio

Fonseca, which is used by many people to wash their clothes, their dishes, their vehicles

and even themselves (Figure 13). Farther downstream, rural communities collect their

drinking water from this same river. Even farther downstream, these waters are

discharged into Lake Nicaragua, the largest and most important body of surface water in

Nicaragua. These activities are not only contributing to the contamination of the Rio

Fonseca, but also put the health of downstream users at risk.

 27

Figure 13: Locals washing their cars and the containers in which they store milk and
cheese in the Rio Fonseca, upstream of where the city of Boaco diverts water for
drinking. January 2005.

The consumption of contaminated water can cause serious health problems in

humans. Waterborne diseases like cholera, which occur frequently in the region, reflect

human exposure to water of poor quality. In 1995, there were 91 cases of cholera in the

city of Boaco alone (Delmeire, 1995). Childhood diarrhea is the leading cause of death in

Nicaragua (Gorter et al., 1998). The costs associated with treatment of these diseases are

often too high for a Nicaraguan family to bear. As a result, what would be a treatable

disease in the developed world can prove fatal for children in Nicaragua. Although many

of these diseases (like diarrhea) are preventable, the public lacks the basic health and

sanitation knowledge and resources necessary to protect themselves against waterborne

ailments.
 28

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Strict methodology was followed in compiling the water quality data used in this

study. Preventive measures were taken throughout each process to minimize human and

technical error and produce reliable results. CIRA in Managua was chosen as the primary

analytical lab due to their advanced analytical capabilities, which are considered by some

to be the best in Central America. The samples were analyzed in Nicaragua, rather than

brought back to the United States, so that any data anomalies could be identified and

addressed more readily. In addition, collaboration with CIRA gives the project more

stature with the regulatory authorities in Nicaragua.

3.2 Selection of Sampling Locations

Sampling locations were proposed prior to the summer 2005 field season in

Nicaragua and modified as necessary due to accessibility, amount of water, proximity,

and demand of source for potable water uses. Final sampling locations were selected

based on visual inspections of the study area and an expected understanding of the

activities that are contributing to water quality degradation. Locations that were believed

to indicate the natural (baseline) water quality and the degradation in water quality due to

human activity were included in this selection. At least one sample was selected in each

of the microbasins identified in Figure 7. Table 2 lists the justification for choosing each

sampling site.

Five perforated wells, one excavated well, one spring, the ENACAL treatment

plant, and fifteen locations on the Rio Fonseca and its tributaries (23 locations in total)

were sampled (Figure 14). An emphasis was placed on surface water sampling locations
 Table 1: Justification for Proposed Sampling Locations
Sample Elevation
Source Type Source Description Name of Sub-basin Easting Northing Justification
ID (m)
N1 Perforated Well ENACAL Well/ Santa Lucia Fonseca-Santa Lucia 640260 1386140 550 Municipal water supply well for Santa Lucia
N3 River Rio Chingastosa Fonseca-Santa Lucia 640840 1384830 520 Rio Chingastosa downstream of Santa Lucia
N4 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Santa Lucia 641190 1385460 530 Headwaters of the Rio Fonseca
N5 Perforated Well FISE Well/ Los Garcia Fonseca-Santa Lucia 641750 1384470 500 Covered water supply well for the community of Los Garcia
N6 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Santa Lucia 641690 1384370 495 Rio Fonseca downstream of confluence with Rio Chingastosa
N7 River Rio Chiscolapa Rio Chiscolapa 643620 1383270 440 Rio Chiscolapa, tributary to Rio Fonseca
N8 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Santa Lucia 644020 1381870 390 Rio Fonseca downstream of confluence with Rio Chiscolapa
N9 River Rio Luna Rio Luna 646440 1382110 400 Rio Luna, tributary to Rio Fonseca
N10 Spring Covered Spring Rio Luna 646500 1382070 440 Covered spring with spout
N11 Perforated Well FISE Well/ San Nicolas (#2) Fonseca-Boaco 646700 1381470 420 Covered water supply well for the community of San Nicolas
N12 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Boaco 645100 1380190 340 Rio Fonseca by Well 6, north of Boaco/Rio Chingastosa
N13 Perforated Well ENACAL Well/ "Well 6” Fonseca-Boaco 645030 1379330 320 Municipal water supply well for the city of Boaco
N14 Perforated Well ENACAL Well/ "Quinta Aurita" Fonseca-Boaco 647900 1380440 395 Municipal water supply well for the city of Boaco
N15 Treatment Plant DWTP - ENACAL Fonseca-Boaco 645300 1379130 360 Municipal water supply for the city of Boaco
N15-D1 Tap Water ENACAL Distribution System Fonseca-Boaco 645830 1378600 350 Test the efficiency of the ENACAL distribution system
N16 River Rio Chingastosa Fonseca-Boaco 646230 1379130 360 La Chingastosa upstream of Boaco
La Chingastosa downstream of Boaco, upstream of confluence
N17 River Rio Chingastosa Fonseca-Boaco 645190 1379300 330
w/ R. Fonseca
N18 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Boaco 644980 1378950 310 Rio Fonseca downstream of confluence with Rio Chingastosa
N19 Excavated Well Excavated Well in Lower Boaco Fonseca-Boaco 645190 1378850 360 Sample of excavated communal well in lower Boaco
N20 River Quebrada Honda Quebrada Honda 645330 1377910 330 Quebrada Honda, Tributary to Rio Fonseca
N21 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Boaco 644410 1377610 300 Rio Fonseca downstream of confluence of Quebrada Honda
N22 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Boaco 642950 1376600 250 Rio Fonseca
N23 River Quebrada San Pio Quebrada San Pio 642040 1375680 235 Quebrada San Pio, final tributary to Rio Fonseca
N24 River Rio Fonseca Fonseca-Boaco 641530 1375840 230 Rio Fonseca as it drains the study area (outlet)

29
 30

because they are expected to be more susceptible to contamination and have an impact

not only on the health of those who depend on them for a source of potable water, but

also for everyone downstream and, ultimately, Lake Nicaragua. Perforated wells were

given sampling priority over excavated wells because they are capable of supplying water

to more people.

N1
N4
N3
N5
N6
N7
N9
N8 N10
N11
Legend
Study Area N14
Cities
N12
Primary Rivers
N18 N17
Sampling Locations N16
Source Type N15-D1
Excavated Well
N19
N20
Perforated Well
N21
Treatment Plant

River
N22
N24
Spring
N23
Tap Water

Second Round Sampling Locations

Elevation
200 - 400
400 - 600
m
m 2 1 0
± 2
600 - 800 m
800 - 1,000 m Kilometers

Figure 14. Sampling locations in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin.
 31

3.2.1 Sampling Frequency

In order to ensure the accuracy and precision of the water quality results and/or

variance within the rainy season, samples were collected twice during the eight week

field season. Each round of sampling took about four days to complete. The first round of

sampling concluded on June 30, 2005 and second round of sampling was completed July

28, 2005. The analyses were initiated at CIRA immediately upon return to Managua and

it took about two weeks from the date of arrival to receive the final water quality results.

In order to conserve the project’s limited budget and expedite analytical

processing, the second round of sampling was cut back, both in number of locations and

in parameters analyzed. Sampling locations were eliminated due to the similarity of

analytical results among sampling stations. Thirteen of the original twenty-three sampling

locations were re-sampled and are portrayed as an orange dot in Figure 14. In addition,

one sampling location on the ENACAL distribution system (N15-D1) in Boaco was

added to assess the efficiency of the system in delivering clean water to its customers.

Most parameters that are not included in the price of the complete physicochemical

analysis were excluded from this round of sampling.

In addition to the water samples collected for analysis at CIRA, 20-50 mL

samples were collected from each location and brought back to the University of New

Mexico (UNM) to be analyzed for heavy metals and stable isotopes.

3.3 Water Sample Collection and In-Situ Analysis

Water samples were collected with the help of CIRA, which provided the

equipment, transportation and personnel necessary to travel to the field area from

Managua and conduct fieldwork. Sanitary sampling collection and preservation

 32

procedures were followed in accordance with section 1060 of Standard Methods for the

Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th Edition [American Public Health

Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and the Water

Environment Federation (WEF), 1992] in order to maintain the integrity of the samples.

The sites were located using a portable Geographic Positioning System (GPS) and

topographic maps. Field tests for pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity and

temperature were performed at each location (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Miguel Garcia of CIRA performing field tests on a water sample from the Rio
Fonseca.

CIRA provided six separate sterilized containers for each sampling location. The

samples that would be analyzed for chemical oxygen demand (COD) and

ammonium/nitrogen were preserved with 1 mL of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and those that

would be analyzed for arsenic were preserved with 1 mL of nitric acid (HNO3). The

microbiological samples were stored in sealed containers enclosed with aluminum foil.
 33

All samples were immediately placed on ice in a cooler and transported to Managua for

analysis within 36 hours of collection. Upon arrival in Managua, the samples were

filtered and further preserved as required for prompt analysis.

3.4 On-Site Discharge Calculations

In order to calculate the contaminant load carried by the Rio Fonseca it is

important to approximate the river’s discharge at each sampling location. The discharge

(Q), the volume flux of water, can be calculated from the average stream velocity (v) and

the cross-sectional area (A) perpendicular to flow as follows:

Q=v*A

The simple “float method” was used to calculate the velocity of the river surface.

The only equipment that the “float method” requires is a tape measure, a stopwatch,

oranges, and at least two people. Before performing the velocity calculation a site should

be chosen that is relatively straight and free of obstacles or vegetation. Once an

appropriate reach is selected the stream velocity is easily estimated by: 1) marking out a

reach of the waterway upstream of the sampling site; 2) positioning a person at each end

of the reach; 3) having the person at the top of the reach release an orange in the center of

the stream surface at least 2 meters upstream of the beginning of the measured reach so it

has time to come up to water speed; 4) starting the stopwatch when the orange passes the

top boundary of the reach; 5) stopping the stopwatch when the person at the bottom of the

reach signals that the orange has passed the bottom boundary. The surface velocity can

then be calculated by dividing the distance of the reach by the time that it took for the

orange to travel that distance. Since the actual velocity varies within the stream profile,
 34

the surface velocity should be multiplied by a correction factor of 0.85 to account for

frictional effects near the streambed (USGS, 2003).

The cross-sectional area can be estimated by multiplying the river’s width and

average depth at the sampling location. Because the Rio Fonseca is a wide, shallow

channel, and thus has a fairly rectangular cross section, this approach should provide a

reasonable estimate of the cross-sectional area. Deviations from a rectangular cross

section can contribute to inaccurate discharge measurements and it is recognized that this

method provides only an estimate of the river’s actual discharge.

Once the stream discharge was calculated and the water samples analyzed, an

estimate was made of the mass flow of each constituent. The mass flow of a hypothetical

species ‘i’ can be calculated from the stream discharge (Q) and the concentration of

species ‘i’ (Ci) as follows:

Mass Flowi = Q*Ci

The mass flow depends on the accuracy of both the water quality analysis and the

discharge measurements and is therefore a rough estimate with inherent error. In addition,

since the sampling was performed in June and July, during the rainy season, the high

flow may lead to an overestimation of mass flow compared to the dry season.

Nonetheless, calculating the mass flow can provide insight as to what is happening within

the catchments and aid the identification of source pollutants and spatial variability of

contamination.
 35

3.5 Water Quality Analysis

3.5.1 Selection of Water Quality Parameters

Parameters were selected in order to develop an understanding of the physical,

chemical, and biological quality of water in the Upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. In

addition to the physical properties that were analyzed in-situ (temperature and

conductivity), laboratory analyses of turbidity and total dissolved solids (TDS), total

suspended solids (TSS), and total volatile solids (TVS) were performed. A suite of

standard chemical parameters included in CIRA’s physicochemical analysis (listed in

Table 3) was chosen for analysis. Although the list of parameters included in the

‘complete physicochemical analysis’ is thorough enough to give an understanding of the

water quality, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), COD, boron, arsenic, and soluble reactive

phosphate (SRP) were added since they were expected to be prevalent in the study area.

Biological analysis includes tests to detect the presence of coliform bacteria, which

indicate the suitability of water for human consumption. Due to high concentrations of

coliforms in surface water, Escherichia coli (E. coli) was selected for analysis in these

waters because it is an explicit indicator of fecal contamination.

3.5.2 Physicochemical and Microbiological Analysis

The analytical facilities at CIRA, in Managua, performed the analyses shown in

Table 3 Most of these methods are described in the text Standard Methods for the

Examination of Water and Wastewater, published in conjunction by APHA, AWWA, and

WEF (APHA et al., 1992).

 36

Table 3: Summary of Water Quality Analytical Methods

Method Methodology
Type of Analysis Method Name Number Reference
Physicochemical
pH pH Meter and Electrometric Method 4500-H+ B APHA et al., 1992
Temperature pH and Conductivity Meter 2550 APHA et al., 1992
Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved Oxygen Meter 4500-O A APHA et al., 1992
Conductivity Conductivity Meter and Laboratory Method 2510 B APHA et al., 1992
Turbidity Nephelometric Method 2130 B APHA et al., 1992
Total Alkalinity Titration Method 2320 B APHA et al., 1992
Carbonate Titration Method 2320 B APHA et al., 1992
Bicarbonate Titration Method 2320 B APHA et al., 1992
Total Hardness EDTA Titrimetric Method 2340 C APHA et al., 1992
Color Visual Comparison Method 2120 B APHA et al., 1992
Total Solids Total Dissolved Solids Dried at 103-105°C 2540 B APHA et al., 1992
TDS Total Dissolved Solids Dried at 180°C 2540 C APHA et al., 1992
TSS Total Suspended Solids Dried at 103-105°C 2540 D APHA et al., 1992
VSS Fixed and Volatile Solids Ignited at 500°C 2540 E APHA et al., 1992
Total Hardness EDTA Titrimetric Method 2430C APHA et al., 1992
Calcium Calcium by EDTA Titration 3500-Ca D APHA et al., 1992
Magnesium By Calculation 3500-Mg E APHA et al., 1992
Potassium Flame Photometric Method 3500-K D APHA et al., 1992
Sodium Atomic Absorption Spectrometer 3500-Na B APHA et al., 1992
Dissolved Silica Molybdosilicate Method 4500-Si D APHA et al., 1992
Iron Phenanthroline Method 3500-Fe D APHA et al., 1992
Chloride Inorganic Anions by Ion Chromatography 4110 B APHA et al., 1992
Fluoride SPADNS Colorimetric Method 4500-F D APHA et al., 1992
Sulfate Inorganic Anions by Ion Chromatography 4110 B APHA et al., 1992
Nitrate Inorganic Anions by Ion Chromatography 4110 B APHA et al., 1992
Nitrite Colorimetric Method 4500 NO2 B APHA et al., 1992
Ammonium Blue of Indophenols Rodier, 1981
TKN Second-Derivate Spectroscopy Crumpton, 1992
COD Open Reflux Method 5220 B APHA et al., 1992
Boron Colorimetric/Carmine Method 4500-B B APHA et al., 1992
Arsenic Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Method 3500-As B APHA et al., 1992
SRP Colorimetric, Ascorbic Acid Method 4500-P E APHA et al., 1992
Microbiological
Standard Total Coliform Fermentation
E. Coli 9221 F APHA et al., 1992
Technique
Total Coliforms Most Probable Number Technique 9221 B APHA et al., 1992
 37

3.5.3 Heavy Metal Analysis

The Analytical Chemistry Laboratory at UNM was used to analyze the

Nicaraguan water samples for aluminum, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,

manganese, nickel, lead, selenium, vanadium, and zinc, using an Inductively Coupled

Plasma – Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). A method comparable to the

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) method number 200.7 was

used in this analysis. The Perkin Elmer Optima 3000DV instrument was calibrated

axially and the calibration was verified using Initial Calibration Blank Verification

(ICBV) and Initial Calibration Verification (ICV). With each sample batch (20 samples)

duplicate, replicate, and Continuing Calibration Verification (CCV) samples were

analyzed for quality assurance purposes. The signal peaks were examined, adjusted,

background points were set, and data was reprocessed. The data was then compiled,

validated, and reported.

3.5.4 Stable Isotope Analysis

Oxygen and hydrogen isotopic analyses of the Nicaraguan water samples were

performed in the Stable Isotope Laboratory located in the Department of Earth and

Planetary Sciences (E&PS) at UNM. Hydrogen isotope measurements were done using

the on-line reduction technique (Sharp et al., 2001), using a high temperature reduction

unit (TC-EA, Thermo-Finnigan) coupled to a Delta Plus XL mass spectrometer. Oxygen

isotope measurements were performed using the CO2-water equilibration method. For

each sample, 1ml of water was injected into a vial pre-flushed with a mixture of He and

CO2 (0.5%CO2), equilibrated for 36 hours at 25◦C, and the CO2 was measured for oxygen

isotope ratios by continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry using a Gasbench II
 38

system coupled to a Delta Plus mass spectrometer. For both hydrogen and oxygen,

corrections were made using laboratory water standards, calibrated against the

international standards for Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW).

 39

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Outline

All of the water quality results are included in Appendix A. Impacts on water

chemistry arising from the regional geology and soil type are discussed and comparisons

in major ion concentrations are made between different sources throughout the drainage

basin. The distribution of physicochemical parameters in the Rio Fonseca and its

tributaries are described as concentration variations with distance downstream. Sources

of contamination are speculated upon to explain the distribution of contaminants in

surface water. The effects of contamination are interpreted based on their anthropogenic

source. Parameters that exceed drinking water guidelines are given priority in this study

although the effects of water quality on livestock, irrigation, recreation, and aquatic

health are also considered. The interconnection of groundwater and surface water sources

is studied in an effort to understand contaminant pathways. Finally, the stable isotope

analyses are included in attempt to understand the origin of these water sources.

4.2 Water Chemistry

Regional geology is expected to affect the chemistry of both surface water and

groundwater in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. As water interacts with soil or

rocks at or below the earth’s surface, mechanical, physical, chemical, and biological

weathering processes break down these materials and transport dissolved ions or colloids

into water bodies. This transport may occur by surface runoff, infiltration, and

groundwater flow through fractures.

Although igneous rocks are relatively insoluble, small quantities of mineral matter

are dissolved over time as groundwater passes through these units. The dissolution of
 40

silicate minerals results in dissolved silica being added to the groundwater. The dissolved

silica content in the water samples collected during this study was in the range of 37-76

mg/L with higher concentrations in groundwater than surface water. Silicate minerals

common in basaltic to andesitic volcanic rocks include plagioclase feldspar

[(Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8], pyroxene [(Mg, Fe)SiO3], olivine [(Mg,Fe)2SiO4], amphibole

[Ca2(Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe)Si7AlO22(OH)], and biotite (K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2). In addition

to dissolved silica, the other elements that comprise these rocks are evident in the

region’s water supply as a result of chemical reactions at or below the earth’s surface.

Some of the major ions in natural waters are strongly correlated due to mineral

weathering reactions within the Coyol and Matagalpa Groups and the overlying soils.

Ions with a high correlation coefficient are usually the end products of such reactions. An

obvious example is the correlation between sodium and chloride, which results from the

dissolution of halite (NaCl). Similarly, the correlation between calcium and/or

magnesium and sulfate is likely due to the dissolution of calcium and/or magnesium

sulfates (like gypsum). The correlation between these ions and TDS is included to show

that these elements prefer the dissolved state while others (like iron) form precipitates

and commonly constitute the suspended load. The correlation between dissolved silica

(SiO2) and other ions, although not high, are determined by the proportion of elements in

silicate minerals. A correlation matrix for some of the major ions is provided in Table 4

(see Appendix B for a correlation matrix including all of the analyzed parameters).
 41

Table 4: Correlation Coefficients for Major Ions in Nicaraguan Water Samples1

Na+ Ca2+ Mg+ Cl- SO42- TDS HCO3- F- SiO2
+
Na 1.00 0.46 0.27 0.73 0.18 0.75 0.80 0.26 0.55
Ca2+ 1.00 0.81 0.51 0.76 0.90 0.76 0.76 0.21
Mg+ 1.00 0.31 0.61 0.73 0.71 0.66 0.32
Cl- 1.00 0.17 0.70 0.60 0.10 0.26
2-
SO4 1.00 0.66 0.30 0.93 -0.10
TDS 1.00 0.86 0.70 0.38
-
HCO3 1.00 0.42 0.60
F- 1.00 0.10
SiO2 1.00
1
High Correlation Coefficients that can be related to mineral weathering reactions
are highlighted in yellow

Both surface water and groundwater in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin are

in the bicarbonate hydrochemical facies (Figure 16). This is due in part to the neutral pH

values of these water samples, which control the speciation of inorganic carbon and

identifies bicarbonate as the preferred ion (as opposed to carbonate or carbonic acid) in

solution. Bicarbonate originates from carbon dioxide that is either released by root

respiration, organic decomposition in the soil, or added through contact with the

atmosphere and reacts with hydrogen ions at pH values between 6.35 and 10.33 to form

the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).

 42

Figure 16. Piper diagram indicates that surface water and groundwater in the upper Rio
Fonseca drainage basin are in the bicarbonate hydrochemical facies and contain a mixed
cation composition.

Most of the samples show a mixed-cation composition and contain sub-equal

amounts of sodium, calcium, or magnesium. Slight variations in these compositions exist

throughout the drainage basin and range from calcium enriched bicarbonates near Santa

Lucia (N1) to sodium enriched bicarbonates in the well in San Nicolas (N11). Figure 17

shows chemical comparisons of the major ions between the five perforated wells sampled

in this study. Although bicarbonate is by far the dominant anion, sulfate makes up 18% of

the anions in the perforated well near Santa Lucia (N1) and 4-6% in the Los Garcia well

(N5) and Well 6 (N13). Sulfate is not an important ion in the San Nicolas (N11) or

Quinta Aurita (N14) wells, located east of the city of Boaco in the Matagalpa Group.
 43

Nitrate is present in groundwater samples from wells N11, N5, and N13 and chloride is

present to varying degrees (2-16% of anions) in all of the wells.

Na
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
(meq/L)
Stiff Diagrams of
Cl
Groundwater Chemistry
Ca HCO3
(meq/L)
N1: Santa Lucia 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8

Mg 8% Na Cl
30%
N1 SO4
R
12% io
Fo

(meq/L) N1
ns
ec Ca HCO3
a
8 6 4 2 0 2 41% 6 8 Santa Lucía

Rio Chiscolapa
Na 9% Cl N5
Mg SO4
N11
Ca 40%
HCO3

N11

na
Lu
Mg SO4

de
N14

o
N5
Ri
N13
(meq/L) (meq/L)
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
Na Cl Boaco Cl
Na

Ca HCO3 HCO3
Ca

Mg SO4
N13 SO4 Mg N14

Figure 17. Stiff diagrams indicating groundwater chemistry. Groundwater composition

ranges from calcium enriched bicarbonate water near Santa Lucia (N1& N5) to sodium
enriched bicarbonate water in the community of San Nicolas (N11).

Although chemical weathering of minerals is often the primary source of solutes

in surface water and groundwater, solutes can also be derived by atmospheric influxes

(precipitation), changes in biomass (either natural or human induced), and changes in ion

exchange due to variations in soil composition. Trace amounts of sulfate, sodium,

chloride, calcium, magnesium, potassium, ammonium, and nitrate may have been added

through local precipitation (Drever, 2002). In addition to solutes accounted for by these

sources, sulfate and trace amounts of fluoride and boron were present in the region’s
 44

water, especially in groundwater near Santa Lucia, possibly due to hydrothermal activity

at depth.

Analysis of surface water chemistry indicates groups of parameters that vary

collectively in response to source contributions with distance downstream from the

headwaters of the Rio Fonseca. At the top of the drainage basin, near the city of Santa

Lucia, both surface water and groundwater are highly alkaline, conductive, and relatively

hard in comparison to water further downstream. Concentrations of calcium, magnesium,

sodium, potassium, chloride, fluoride, boron, sulfate, and bicarbonate in surface water are

highest in this region of the study area. The concentrations are higher in the Rio

Chingastosa (N3), which is down gradient from the city of Santa Lucia, than in the

headwaters of the Rio Fonseca (N4) on the north side of the city. As this tributary enters

the Rio Fonseca it causes the major ion concentrations in the river to increase by about

twenty percent. Concentrations then decrease with distance downstream from the

headwaters as the less alkaline Rio Chiscolapa and Rio Luna tributaries discharge into the

Rio Fonseca. At the Rio Fonseca’s intersection with Boaco major ion concentrations

increase again due to the confluence with the Rio Chingastosa. After passing the city, the

concentrations level off until the San Pio River discharges its dissolved load into the Rio

Fonseca. Figure 18 shows the distribution of major ions in the Rio Fonseca with distance

downstream from the headwaters and the vertical lines indicate the confluence of the Rio

Fonseca with its tributaries.

 45

Figure 18(a)

R. Chingastosa R. Chiscolapa R. Luna R. Chingastosa Q. Honda Q. San Pio

60.0

50.0
Concentration (mg/L)

40.0 Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
30.0 Potassium
Chloride
Sulfate
20.0

10.0

0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Distance downstream (km)
Figure 18(b)

R. Chingastosa R. Chiscolapa R. Luna R. Chingastosa Q. Honda Q. San Pio

500.0

450.0

400.0
Bicarbonate
(mg/L)
350.0
Concentration

Total
300.0 Hardness
(mg/L)

250.0 Total
Alkalinity
(mg/L)
200.0
Conductivity
@ 25 C
150.0 (uS/cm)

100.0

50.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Distance downstream (km)

Figure 18. Distribution of major ions in the Rio Fonseca with distance downstream from
the headwaters. Surface water chemistry is strongly influenced by the influx of
tributaries, as indicated by the black vertical lines. The two Rio Chingastosa tributaries in
Boaco and Santa Lucia cause major ion concentrations to increase dramatically.
 46

In addition to changes in major ion concentrations with distance downstream,

variations in color, turbidity, total iron, COD, TSS, TDS, nitrate, and TKN occur

collectively with distance downstream (Figure 19). Concentrations of these parameters in

the Rio Fonseca remain fairly constant until its confluence with the Rio Luna 9.76 km

downstream from the headwaters. At this point, all of these concentrations increase due

to the quality of water in the Rio Luna. The concentrations increase again, yet to a lesser

extent, for everything except COD (which decreases) as the Rio Chingastosa enters the

Rio Fonseca near Boaco. These concentrations reverse in trend and become less variable

downstream of the confluence with Quebrada Honda before reaching another maximum

as the San Pio tributary makes its decent into the Rio Fonseca. In contrast to the

parameters displayed in Figure 19, the concentrations of nitrite, ammonium, and SRP are

not affected much by the quality of the Rio Luna but increase drastically due to inputs by

the Rio Chingastosa in Boaco (Figure 20).

 47

Figure 19(a)

R. Luna R. Chingastosa
R. Chingastosa R. Chiscolapa Q. Honda Q. San Pio
100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0
True Color
Concentration

60.0 (mg/L Pt-Co)

Turbidity (TNU)
50.0
COD (mg/L)
40.0
TSS (mg/L)
30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Distance downstream (km)
Figure 19(b)
R. Chingastosa R. Chiscolapa R. Luna R. Chingastosa Q. Honda Q. San Pio
12.0

11.0

10.0

9.0
Nitrate
Concentration (mg/L)

8.0
TKN
7.0
Iron
6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Distance downstream (km)

Figure 19. Concentrations of color, turbidity, COD, TSS, nitrate, TKN, and iron in the
Rio Fonseca remain low until the confluence of the Rio Luna 9.76 km downstream from
the headwaters.
 48

Figure 20

R. Chingastosa R. Chiscolapa R. Luna R. Chingastosa Q. Honda Q. San Pio

0.9

0.8

0.7
Fluoride
Concentration (mg/L)

0.6 Ammonium

0.5 SRP

Nitrite
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Distance downstream (km)

Figure 20. Concentrations of SRP, nitrite, and ammonium do not increase until the
confluence with the Rio Chingastosa in the city of Boaco, about 11.4 km downstream
from the headwaters.

4.3 Contamination

4.3.1 Sources and Distribution of Contamination

The spatial distribution of contaminants depends on the local geology, land use

patterns, type of soil, amount of precipitation, and urban activities. Analysis of surface

water indicates groups of parameters that vary collectively in response to contaminant

inputs and the influx of tributaries with distance downstream. The primary sources of

anthropogenic contamination are agriculture and urban waste.

Nitrogen species (including nitrate, nitrite and ammonium) in the Rio Fonseca are

sourced through anthropogenic activities such as sewage effluent, cropland using

nitrogen based fertilizers, grazing land, and urban runoff. Nitrogen concentrations in the

Rio Fonseca remain consistently low until 9.76 km downstream from the headwaters
 49

where the influx of the Rio Luna causes nitrate concentrations to increase. Using the

discharge values that were calculated in the field, the mass flow of nitrogen species were

plotted with distance downstream (Figure 21). This data suggests that the amount of

nitrate passing each sampling point in the Rio Fonseca increases as a result of agricultural

activities in the Rio Luna microbasin. As the Rio Chingastosa in Boaco enters the Rio

Fonseca, the mass flow of nitrite and ammonium jump, likely as a result of raw sewage in

the Rio Chingastosa. In addition, fecal contamination (as indicated by E. coli

concentrations) increases by a factor of one thousand as the Rio Fonseca passes through

the city of Boaco. Concentrations of nitrogen species are diluted somewhat downstream

of the city of Boaco but peak again as the San Pio tributary discharges into the Rio

Fonseca 17.21 km downstream. Assuming these mass flow calculations are correct, the

Rio Fonseca exits the study area contaminated with nitrogen species and may pose a

threat to those who depend on the river further downstream.

9.0 180.0
Nitrite Load (mg/s)

8.0 160.0
Ammonium and

Nitrate Load (mg/s)

7.0 140.0
6.0 120.0
Nitrite
5.0 100.0
Ammonium
4.0 80.0
Nitrate
3.0 60.0
2.0 40.0
1.0 20.0
0.0 0.0
1.5 3.1 7.6 10.1 11.5 15.6 17.4
Distance downstream (km)
Figure 21. Mass flow of nitrogen species in the Rio Fonseca. The nitrate load increases
due to agricultural impacts on the Rio Luna. Nitrite and ammonium loads increase due to
urban impacts on the Rio Chingastosa in Boaco.

The mass flow rate of TDS and conductivity with distance downstream in the Rio

Fonseca are plotted in Figure 22. Similar to the nitrogen species, conductivity and TDS
 50

increase drastically at the confluence of the Rio Fonseca and the Rio Luna, suggesting

that agriculture in the Rio Luna microbasin is a large source of surface water

contamination. Contaminant concentrations are diluted downstream of this confluence

but increase again due to the influx of the Quebrada San Pio before exiting the study area.

Increases in turbidity, true color, nitrate, COD, total solids, and iron in the Rio Fonseca

can also be attributed to agricultural impacts on the quality of the Rio Luna.

5000
4500
4000
3500
Load (mg/s)

3000
Conductivity
2500
TDS
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Distance Downstream (km)
Figure 22. Mass flow of TDS and conductivity with distance downstream in the Rio
Fonseca. Increased values at 9.76 km downstream can be attributed to agricultural
contamination of the Rio Luna.

Heavy metals are present in trace amounts in surface water and groundwater

within the study area and, with the exception of iron, are not sufficiently high to be of

concern to human health or the environment. Although arsenic was included in this study

as a suspected contaminant, the only detections were located within the city of Boaco and

reached a maximum concentration of 6.2 µg/L, which is below the drinking water

standard of 10 µg/L. Contrary to arsenic and the other metals analyzed in this study, iron

poses a threat to the quality of the Rio Fonseca as concentrations begin to climb 9.76 km

downstream of the headwaters. A plot of iron versus turbidity (Figure 23) in surface

water shows a direct correlation between these parameters. This correlation may indicate
 51

that iron is either colloidal in nature or adsorbed to organic particulates or suspended

sediment in surface water and is derived through agricultural runoff over iron rich soils.

This hypothesis is supported by the distribution of iron enriched Utisol and Alfisol soils

(Figure 3) within the Rio Chiscolapa, Rio Luna, and Fonseca-Santa Lucia microbasins

(Figure 6).
y
River Samples Regression Line
300
y = 20.412x + 8.0442
2
250 R = 0.9226
Turbidity (TNU)

200

150

100

50

0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
Fe (mg/L)
Figure 23. The strong correlation between iron and turbidity in surface water samples
indicates that iron is either colloidal in nature or adsorbed onto suspended organic matter
or sediment in the water column. The source of iron is likely agricultural runoff over iron
rich soils.

Groundwater and surface water sources each have influential effects on the

quality of the other. The extraction of groundwater for potable use in Boaco and Santa

Lucia and its subsequent return to the river elevates major ion concentrations in the Rio

Fonseca and its tributaries that receive urban runoff and sewage. This reality is supported

by the peaks in concentration that are apparent in Figure 18 and occur downstream of the

cities of Boaco and Santa Lucia. In addition to this anthropogenic connection that allows

groundwater chemistry to affect surface water, fracture flow paths and poor well design

facilitate the migration of surficial contaminants into groundwater. Wells N11 (San
 52

Nicolas) and N13 (Well 6) tested positive for E. coli, which is a type of fecal coliform

bacteria found in humans and other warm blooded animals. All of the wells, except for

N5 (Los Garcia), tested positive for coliform (total). Sampling locations N5, N11, and

N13 repeatedly tested positive for nitrate with the highest concentrations reported in N11,

which reached about 14 mg/L. Nitrite was also identified in N13, but remained below the

drinking water standard of 1 mg/L.

The extent and type of groundwater contamination depends on the location within

the study area and proximity to surface water sources. In the northern half of the study

area the extent of contamination is minimal and is primarily a result of reactions of

groundwater with the local environment. The first round of sampling showed that the

perforated well in Santa Lucia (N1) contained concentrations of sulfate, iron, and boron

that exceeded drinking water guidelines. The source of this contamination is non-

anthropogenic and due to the chemical weathering reactions discussed previously. The

only contaminant that may be attributed to anthropogenic sources is the number of

coliforms, which ranges from 60-200 bacteria per 100 mL of water and may be due to

agricultural runoff and infiltration. Southeast of Santa Lucia lies the small community of

Los Garcia. The community well sampled in this study (N5) is covered and contains a

rope pump, which fourteen families utilize to collect water in buckets for domestic

consumption. As is the case for the well in Santa Lucia, boron concentrations in this well

exceed drinking water guidelines. The well log indicates that groundwater is drawn from

fractured basalt 12-43 m bgs. The only significant surficial contaminant is nitrate, which

is likely to have infiltrated into groundwater along these fracture flow paths. The closest

house is fewer than 10 m east of the well, and along with the surrounding agricultural
 53

land may provide a source of nitrate to this well. Unlike the other wells in this study, the

well in Los Garcia contained no coliform during both rounds of sampling.

In the central portion of the study area, near the city of Boaco, groundwater

samples from wells N11, N13, and N14 show a greater tendency toward anthropogenic

contamination than those near Santa Lucia, perhaps due to a greater connectivity between

them and the land surface. As mentioned previously, the primary contaminants in these

wells are nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, and coliform. The speciation of nitrogen into nitrate,

nitrite, and ammonium depends on the pH, temperature, and availability of oxygen. Well

6, which lies in the bed of the Rio Fonseca, is the most susceptible to contamination

because its design and location provide little protection against infiltrating surface water.

Although the well log indicates that a sanitary seal covers the well, the well casing is

below the surface of the river bed and the first interval of perforation begins only 3 m

bgs. Contamination by surface water is suggested by high concentrations of E. coli and

other coliform in the well, which are also present (but at higher concentrations) in the

river. The presence of nitrite in this well is unique in comparison to the other wells in the

study area and may indicate that some of the nitrate in the Rio Fonseca is reduced to

nitrite as it travels below the ground surface or that sewage is migrating directly into the

well. The presence of fecal coliform in wells N11 and N14 also indicates contamination

by surface sources. For well N14, which lies in the middle of a field used for grazing

cattle, these effects are pronounced when the field is flooded and standing water

surrounds the well. This effect was captured by an increase in total coliform from non-

detectable at the start of the rainy season to 8 coliform per 100 mL of water in July when

standing water was encountered above the well.

 54

A sampling point (N15-D1) was added along the ENACAL distribution system

during the second round of sampling so that the efficiency of the system in delivering

clean water to its customers could be assessed. Microbiological contamination was

detected at 300 coliform (total) per 100 mL of water (MPN/100 mL) and 80 E. coli

MPN/100 mL in this tap water. Although the treated river water meets drinking water

standards when it enters the distribution system, it degrades enroute due to mixing with

the untreated water from Well 6, and contamination that enters defective portions of the

system. As mentioned previously, this contamination may be due to cross-connections

between drinking water distribution lines and sewer lines under low water pressure.

Although only one domestic water sample from lower Boaco was collected, similar

contamination is likely for the other users of this distribution system and the extent of

contamination is likely to vary depending on the quality of the potable water distribution

pipes and their proximity to urban sources of contamination.

4.3.2 Effects of Contamination

This study demonstrates that the quality of water in the Rio Fonseca is degraded

due to human impact. Discussing stream health is a way of characterizing a stream’s

physical, chemical, and biological integrity over time. Although some controversy exists

as to the proper way to define and measure a river’s health, it is appropriate in this study

to adopt Meyer’s (1997) definition of a healthy stream, which incorporates the human

dimension in addition to factors of ecological integrity. She defines a healthy stream as

‘an ecosystem that is sustainable and resilient, maintaining its ecological structure and

function over time while continuing to meet societal needs and expectations’ (Meyer,
 55

1997). Although the ecological structure and function of the Rio Fonseca are important,

this study focuses on water quality based on its impact on society and vice-versa.

In order to understand the health of the Rio Fonseca, it is necessary to explore a

variety of stream components and their effects on different beneficiaries. Based on time

spent in the study area the author has ranked societal needs and expectations of the water

resources based on their suitability for human consumption, livestock consumption,

irrigation, recreation, and the aquatic environment in that order. Physical, chemical and

bacteriological parameters provide a measurement for the water’s suitability for each use.

The guidelines are different for each of these beneficiaries and this study places human

health as a top priority.

Human Consumption

The physicochemical and microbiological water quality results from CIRA were

compared to guideline values set forth by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2004)

and CAPRE (Gutierrez, 1994), which are designed for use in developing countries, and

were developed to ensure that human health is not depreciated by the consumption of

contaminated water. Table 5 lists these guidelines and highlights parameters that

exceeded the maximum recommended values.

 56

Table 5: Drinking Water Guidelines

Recommended Maximum
Parameter Value Value Units Reference
pH 6.5 - 8.5 8.5 pH Units CAPRE
Temperature 12 25 C CAPRE
Conductivity 400 uS/cm CAPRE
Dissolved Oxygen 8 mg/L CAPRE
E. Coli 0 0 #Bact/100mL WHO/CAPRE
Total Coliform 0 0.04 #Bact/100mL WHO/CAPRE
Turbidity 1 5 TNU WHO/CAPRE
True Color 1 15 mg/L Pt-Co WHO/CAPRE
Calcium 100 mg/L CAPRE
Magnesium 30 50 mg/L CAPRE
Sodium 25 175 mg/L CAPRE
Potassium 10 mg/L CAPRE
Chloride 25 250 mg/L WHO/CAPRE
Nitrate 10 mg/L
Sulfate 25 250 mg/L WHO/CAPRE
Total Hardness 80--100 400 mg/L CAPRE
Nitrite 1 mg/L
Total Iron 0.05 0.2 mg/L CAPRE
Fluoride 1.5 mg/L WHO
Boron 0.3 mg/L WHO
TDS 1000 mg/L WHO/CAPRE
Ammonium 0.05 0.5 mg/L CAPRE
Arsenic 10 ug/L WHO
No Samples Exceeded Max Contaminant Level
1-3 Samples Exceeded Max Contaminant Level
4-6 Samples Exceeded Max Contaminant Level
7-9 Samples Exceeded Max Contaminant Level
> 9 Samples Exceeded Max Contaminant Level

The presence of total coliform in surface water is expected and is the sum of fecal

and non-fecal coliform (that may be naturally present in the environment). The use of E.

coli as a biological parameter in surface water provides a more difinitive indication of

fecal contamination from human and animal sources. Although fecal bacteria alone may

not cause sickness, their presence indicates the possible presence of other pathogenic

bacteria, viruses, and parasites capable of causing disease and illnesses. Evidence of

diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery indicate pathogenic contamination in the

study area.
 57

In addition to biological contamination, physicochemical parameters can also

have adverse effects on drinking water quality. Concentrations of nitrate above 10 mg/L

can be toxic to infants and contribute to an illness known as methemoglobinemia. The

excavated well in lower Boaco had the highest nitrate concentration, reaching 46.8 mg/L.

Wells N11 and N5 and the Rio Fonseca (at N24) also had nitrate concentrations above 10

mg/L. Other species of nitrogen that surpass drinking water standards include nitrite and

ammonium, which are concentrated in the oxygen deficient Rio Chingastosa near Boaco.

If consumed, these excess levels can lead to serious illness or even death. As the heavily

contaminated Rio Chingastosa flows into the Rio Fonseca the concentration of nitrogen

species increases and threatens the quality of water downstream.

High values of hardness and alkalinity affect the aesthetical value of potable

water. Hardness values greater than 200 mg/L are considered poor but can be tolerated,

while those over 500 mg/L are unacceptable [British Columbia Ministry of the

Environment, 1998]. Hardness in excess of 400 mg/L was detected in the only perforated

ENACAL well in Santa Lucia (N1) and the Rio Chingastosa (N3) tributary south of Santa

Lucia. The hardness of this tributary is likely a direct result of urban discharge since most

of the city is serviced by this perforated well (N1).

The presence of particles in suspension affects the turbidity (or opaqueness) of

that water, which can affect drinking water quality and treatment. Sources of turbidity

include rainfall runoff, catchment erosion, river bed disturbances, waste discharge, storm

runoff, riparian vegetation, soil types, and other disturbances within the drainage basin.

The suspended solids may contain bacteria, parasites, and other forms of contamination

(like metals) that can pose a health hazard in drinking water. In addition, turbidity can
 58

interfere with disinfection and treatment of drinking water and (like color) is aesthetically

unpleasant. Turbidity in the Rio Fonseca is greatest from its confluence with the Rio

Luna to the southern edge of the city of Boaco, and is likely due to agricultural runoff,

accelerated erosion due to deforestation, and urban waste discharge.

High concentrations of boron can be toxic to humans. The presence of boron is

likely attributed to hydrothermal activities at depth. Ingestion of large amounts of boron

can affect the central nervous system and may result in a clinical syndrome called borism

(APHA et al., 1992). Boron concentrations in groundwater are generally higher than

those in surface water. Four of the five wells sampled in this study contained boron

concentrations in excess of the drinking water standard of 0.3 mg/L. Boron in surface

water is concentrated in the northern part of the study area beginning near Santa Lucia

and extending past the community of Los Garcia. Iron was also detected in significant

quantities in the study area, and aside from imparting a metallic taste, is not considered a

hazard to human health.

Other physicochemical parameters that were not included in this study can also

have adverse effects on water quality, on human health, and the environment. Among

these are pesticides, which are widely used by farmers in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage

basin. Pesticide poisoning is an epidemic that affects hundreds of Nicaraguans each year

(McConnell & Hruska, 1993). Other physicochemical parameters that were not addressed

in this study but can pose a risk to human health include inorganic non-metallic

constituents, organic constituents and compounds, radioactive elements, and other

biological contaminants and pathogenic organisms.

 59

Livestock Consumption

The crucial components that determine the suitability of water for consumption by

livestock include pH, salinity, chlorine levels, and turbidity. The acidity (pH) of water in

the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin is near neutral and considered apt for all uses,

including livestock. Salinity, which is a measure of all mineral salts present in the water,

can adversely affect livestock in different ways depending on the species, breed, and age

of the animals consuming the water. Conductivity values less than 1600 µS/cm indicate

that the salinity of these waters are relatively low and should not present any serious

burden to livestock [New South Wales Department of Primary Industry, 2004]. Similarly,

chloride levels are within the range suitable for consumption by all livestock. High values

of turbidity may affect the use of water for livestock if the suspended matter is algae,

bacteria, parasites, or chemical pollutants. Like turbidity, most of the parameters that

threaten human health can, at high concentrations, affect livestock.

Irrigation

Key factors affecting the suitability of water for irrigation purposes include pH,

alkalinity, hardness, salinity, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and TDS. Although pH

values are near neutral and suitable for most plants, more extreme values of alkalinity and

hardness can make water unsuitable for irrigation. Alkalinity values exceeding 335 mg/L

and hardness values greater than 300 mg/L have a high risk of causing soil problems and

reducing plant growth (New South Wales Department of Primary Industry, 2004). As

mentioned previously, these concentration levels are exceeded in many of the

groundwater samples (N1, N11, N5, N14, and N19) and in the Rio Chingastosa (N3)

tributary in Santa Lucia. The effect of salinity on irrigation depends on the type of crop
 60

and the internal drainage characteristics of the soil. The salinity, as expressed by the

electrical conductivity, of water in the study area is less than 1200 µS/cm, which affects

only the most saline sensitive plants (like white clover), and indicates that salinity is not a

limiting factor for irrigation purposes. TDS also remains below the guideline value of

1,000 mg/L and has insignificant effects on irrigation. The relationship between sodium

and total cations is quantitatively defined as the SAR, which indicates a threat to soil and

crops when it exceeds 3, which occurs in Well 6 (N13) and the excavated well (N19) in

lower Boaco. Using this water for irrigation could have minor effects on clayey soils.

Recreation

Since many inhabitants of the study area rely on the river for domestic uses, it is

important to understand how physical contact with contaminated water will affect their

health. Infections and illness due to contact with recreational water are generally mild and

difficult to detect. Microbiologically contaminated water poses a greater threat than

chemically contaminated water. Epidemiological studies by WHO indicate that a number

of adverse health conditions (including gastrointestinal, respiratory, and possibly ear

infections) are associated with fecally contaminated waters (WHO, 2006). The effects

depend on the source of contamination, the number and type of pathogenic organisms in

the water, and the immune capacity of the host. Epidemiologic studies specific to the

study area are needed in order to quantify the health risks attributed to exposure and

establish guideline values. In general, the recreational risk in the Rio Fonseca increases

with distance downstream and is expected to peak south of the confluence with the Rio

Chingastosa, which contains most of Boaco’s untreated sewage. Chemical contamination

does not seem to pose a serious health threat to recreational users because there are few
 61

(if any) sources of industrial pollution in the area. Some parameters, including turbidity,

odor, and color, do not pose a health threat in and of themselves but can cause the water

to be aesthetically objectionable. When recreational users experience full-body contact

(while swimming or bathing) with contaminated water, accidental ingestion may occur

and drinking-water guidelines provide an estimate to the effects of contamination.

Aquatic Environment

The health of aquatic species depends on physicochemical characteristics of their

surrounding environment. Crucial factors that regulate the abundance and type of species

in the aquatic setting include pH, temperature, the availability of oxygen and nutrients,

hardness, alkalinity, TDS, and conductivity. Due to the high temperature, low dissolved

oxygen (DO) concentrations, and high turbidity, the Rio Fonseca seems unfit to harbor

most aquatic species. The low availability of oxygen may be a result of high water

temperatures and indirectly affected by the turbidity (which limits or prevents

photosynthesis), and the conductivity (which limits the dissolution of oxygen in water).

Further investigation of aquatic invertebrates is necessary to confirm the presence of

these species and the effect of water quality on their health.

4.4 Isotopic Data

4.4.1 Introduction

Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but

different numbers of neutrons. The difference in the number of neutrons in atoms of the

same atomic number results in slight differences in the atomic mass of that atom. The

ratio of heavy to light oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in a water sample is affected by

processes such as temperature, evaporation, precipitation amount, elevation, and the

 62

distance from the ocean. Light isotopes are preferentially evaporated relative to heavy

isotopes. Similarly, molecules that evaporate from the ocean and move inland experience

a preferential rain-out of heavy isotopes, allowing the clouds and precipitation furthest

inland to contain the isotopically lightest ratios of oxygen and hydrogen. This process is

referred to as the Rayleigh process and is one of the reasons why oxygen and hydrogen

isotopic variations in meteoric waters have received so much attention.

In natural waters, hydrogen and oxygen isotopes are considered to be good

tracers, since they are the inherent constituents of water molecules (H2O) and the isotopic

ratios are generally constant with time. There are three stable isotopes of oxygen (16O,
17
O, and 18O) and two of hydrogen [1H and 2H (also referred to as H and D, deuterium)].

The isotopic composition of hydrogen and oxygen in an aquifer is expected to vary

depending on the meteoric conditions that were present at the time water was added to

the aquifer through recharge. Analysis of these isotopes in natural waters thus provides

insight into the source of the water and the recharge conditions.

4.4.2 Defining the Local Meteoric Water Line

Global records of precipitation record a near linear relation between the δD and

δ18O values in meteoric waters. The δ (delta) notation refers to the ratio of the heavy to

light isotope (for example 18O/16O or D/H) in the sample relative to a standard, is

measured in units of per mil, and is given by

δ = ((Rx – Rstd)/Rstd)*1000

where R is the ratio of the abundance of the heavy to light isotope, x denotes the sample,

and std is an abbreviation for standard (Sharp, 2006). The linear correlation that defines

the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) is:

 63

δD = 8δ18O + 10

Locally the slope and intercept of this line will vary depending on the climate and

topography of the region. Although variations exist, the GMWL represents a weighted

average of Local Meteoric Water Lines (LMWLs) whose slopes are uniformly lower than

8 and whose intercepts vary widely from values as negative as about -2 per mil to values

as positive as about +15 per mil (Sharp, 2006).

The stable oxygen and hydrogen data provided in Appendix A were used to

define the LMWL for the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. Data for water collected

during the dry season were plotted with water and precipitation samples collected during

the wet season and the results show that the LMWL intersects the GMWL at a δ18O value

of -4.9 with a slope of 7.2 and an intercept of 6.1 (Figure 24). Three of the precipitation

samples fall below this line, presumably as a result of evaporation, this enriches them in

heavy isotopes. Evaporation could have occurred either as the rain was falling through

the atmosphere or after it accumulated on the earth’s surface, since two of these samples

were collected from buckets after a local storm event had concluded.
 64

Wet Season River Samples Dry Season River Samples

Precipitation Wet Season Groundwater Samples
Dry Season Groundwater Samples
0.0
18
GMWL: δD =8δ O + 10
-5.0 18
LMWL: δD =7.2δ O + 6.1
-10.0

-15.0
δD (per mil)

-20.0 These samples

show an
-25.0 evaporative
-30.0
trend.

-35.0

-40.0

-45.0

-50.0
-8.0 -7.0 -6.0 -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0
18
δ O (per mil)
Figure 24. The Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) intersects the Global Meteoric
Water Line (GMWL) at a value of -4.9 per mil and has a slope of 7.2 and an intercept of
6.1. The precipitation that falls below this line is enriched in heavy isotopes, presumably
due to evaporation.

4.4.3 Seasonal Variability

Comparison of wet and dry season stable isotope values suggests that a seasonal

effect is present. The wet season has lighter isotopic ratios, as indicated by the more

negative δ values. The difference in delta values between seasons is likely explained by

the amount effect, which indicates that there is a negative correlation between mean delta

values and the amount of monthly precipitation in tropical regions like Nicaragua (Sharp,

2006). Other factors capable of contributing to seasonal variability are changes in the

source and/or flow path of precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity. The near

equatorial positioning of Nicaragua, however, results in relatively constant temperatures

between the wet and dry season and temperature is thought to have a small effect on

isotopic fractionation between the seasons. The seasonal effect is more pronounced in
 65

surface water than groundwater, indicating that the isotopic composition of surface water

is controlled by recent precipitation and surface run-off. The δ values of groundwater

vary to a lesser degree since the residence time in groundwater is longer and the

composition reflects an average value of local precipitation events over a longer time

interval.

According to the hydrologic balance, groundwater is only recharged during the

wet season when there is a hydrologic excess, leading to drainage of soil water. At first

glance this concept is supported by the observation that most of the groundwater samples

in Figure 24 plot near the surface water samples for the wet season. However, closer

inspection of the three perforated wells that were sampled during both the wet and dry

season indicates a seasonal shift in the isotopic composition of groundwater toward

heavier δ values in the dry season (Figure 25). Contrary to what would be expected, this

data suggests that some of the heavy meteoric water is infiltrating into groundwater

during the dry season. This infiltration may be occurring along the Rio Fonseca and its

tributaries or from sources that are farther away.

 66

Wet Season Groundwater Samples Dry Season Groundwater Samples

Wet Season River Sample Dry Season River Sample
-20

-25 N12
δD (per mil)

-30

N13 N5
-35

-40

N1

-45
-7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -4.5 -4.0
δ18O (per mil)
Figure 25. A seasonal shift towards more negative δ values during the wet season is
apparent in the study area. This effect is more pronounced in surface water than
groundwater, indicating that surface water is directly influenced by local precipitation
events whereas groundwater reflects a longer term average in these values.

Comparison of data in Figure 25 illustrates that the seasonal effect varies with

source type and location in the study area. As mentioned previously, the effect is more

pronounced in surface water than in groundwater. This is evident by the large difference,

of 1.5 per mil for oxygen and 10.9 per mil for hydrogen, in δ values for the Rio Fonseca

in Boaco (N12). The variation in isotopic composition of groundwater is generally less

extreme and different for each well. The perforated well in Santa Lucia (N1) recorded a

δ18O shift of 0.5 per mil and a δD shift of about 7 per mil and the well in Los Garcia (N5)

experienced a δ18O shift of 0.4 per mil and a δD shift of about 4.8 per mil. In contrast,

Well 6 in Boaco (N13) demonstrated only a slight shift in δ18O values and virtually no

shift in δD values between the seasons. This data could indicate that groundwater is more
 67

intimately connected to surface water (and thus precipitation) in the northern part of the

study area (near Santa Lucia) than near the city of Boaco.

4.4.4 Identifying Water Sources

The fact that all of the water samples plot on the LMWL indicates that these

waters are meteoric in origin. Surface water is a direct recipient of local precipitation

events and the isotopic composition therefore varies directly with meteoric inputs. In

contrast, the isotopic composition of groundwater generally represents the average

isotopic composition of precipitation that fell relatively recently in local recharge areas

(Sharp, 2006). This is true in the study area where the seasonal effect is present in

groundwater, but to a lesser degree than in surface water. In addition, all of the δ values

were relatively similar and recharge is thought to occur within the upper Rio Fonseca

drainage basin itself and not from distal locations. This observation is consistent with the

hydrologic setting of the drainage basin, which sits just west of the boundary between

two major drainage basins, and is thought to be the highest elevation in the larger Rio San

Juan drainage basin.

Although thermal waters, such as in Well 6 (N13), could have arisen due to

metamorphic dewatering reactions or another foreign source at depth, the stable isotope

analyses indicate that they are purely meteoric in origin. In general, most of the

groundwater that infiltrates into the local volcanic aquifers is not isotopically altered in

route from the recharge to discharge area. The thermal water in Well 6 (among other

wells not included in the sampling plan) is a slight exception to this concept and is worth

discussing in more detail.

 68

The stable isotope and water quality results from Well 6 (N13) indicate that some

meteoric water that recharges at the surface percolates through the faulted and fractured

volcanic rocks to depth, where it is heated and begins to react with the surrounding rocks.

Fluid-rock interactions in these geothermal systems can result in isotopic and chemical

exchange between these substances. Water that interacts with rock at high temperatures

will become enriched in δ18O because some of the heavy oxygen isotopes, abundant in

the rock, are being transferred to the liquid. Because there is little hydrogen in igneous

rocks the δD values remain constant, maintaining the signature of their meteoric source.

This phenomenon explains why the water samples from Well 6, maintain the same δD

value during the wet and dry season but experience a slight shift in δ18O values, which is

probably due to a change in the extent of water-rock interactions at depth. In contrast to

the other wells, which experienced a shift in both δ18O and δD values, the meteoric

source of water for Well 6 appears to remain constant (at a δD value of -32 per mil) and

does not change with the seasons. This may indicate that either the groundwater in Well 6

is not recharged during the dry season and maintains the wet season isotopic signature or

that the residence time (and probably flow paths) are longer and the average isotopic

signature reflects a longer term average of regional groundwater that may have infiltrated

under different conditions or in different localities than non-geothermal waters in the

study area.

4.4.4 Remaining Questions

The isotopic data provided in this study was collected in the wet and dry seasons

of 2005 and reflects only ‘snapshots’ in time. These data should not be used to

extrapolate mean annual or seasonal trends in isotopic conditions. Data limitations in this
 69

investigation leave a number of questions that would be best answered by further isotopic

investigations.

One of the reasons for collecting samples of precipitation was to use these values

to determine the correlation between elevation and delta values, which could then be used

to estimate the recharge elevation of groundwater samples. Unfortunately, the seven

precipitation samples collected in this study showed a weak correlation at best and are not

sufficient to be used in recharge calculations. The failure of this data to accurately

describe the altitude effect may be due to the fact that the samples were collected by

different techniques, taken during different storm events (and not simultaneously), and

that a greater number of samples should be employed in determining such a trend. The

correlation between elevation and delta values would be better defined if precipitation

samples were collected at numerous elevations throughout the study area simultaneously

so that the altitude effect for individual precipitation events could be defined. With the

addition of data, the correlation between elevation and δ18O could be pinpointed and used

to estimate the recharge elevation of groundwater within the study area.

Many questions remain about the source and orientation of the geothermal field(s)

near the city of Boaco. Well 6, and other wells that were not sampled in this study,

contain meteoric water that has infiltrated to depths and interacted with rock at high

temperatures. The meteoric source of the water in Well 6 remained constant between the

seasons and it is unclear where this water recharged and what subterranean path it

followed before and after entering the geothermal field. Determining the age of

groundwater would be useful in understanding these flow paths but requires analysis of

radioactive isotopes and is beyond the scope of this study.

 70

5. PROPOSED WATER RESOURCE MONITORING PLAN

5.1 Importance of Monitoring Water Resources

The results of this assessment provide a basis from which to characterize the

quantity and quality of water in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. Using the water

quality results and interpretations from this study, a water resource monitoring network

needs to be established that will allow for a more complete assessment of the upper Rio

Fonseca drainage basin. By implementing a water resource monitoring plan designed to

establish short-term and long-term trends in water quality and quantity, the hydrologic

data set and characterization of the region’s water will continue to evolve. With this

additional knowledge, the regulatory authorities will be better prepared to address their

water crisis and identify sustainable solutions for coping with water contamination and

shortage.

5.2 Objectives of the Monitoring Plan

The purpose of the plan is to both verify whether the observed water quality is

suitable for its intended uses (human consumption, livestock consumption, irrigation,

recreation, and aquatic ecosystems) and to permit a hydrologic assessment of the region.

The primary questions that this monitoring plan is designed to answer include: 1) How

do the quantity and quality of water change with time? 2) Are the quantity and water

quality suitable for current and future uses? Question 1 deals with the need to identify

short-term and long-term trends in water resources with time. In particular, the seasonal

effects on both water quality and quantity in the Rio Fonseca are known to increase the

water crisis during the dry season, but these effects have yet to be quantified. Annual

variations will be useful in determining long-term hydrologic trends, improving the

 71

overall hydrologic characterization of the region, identifying new sources of

contamination, and monitoring existing sources of contamination. Temporal data

variances will also be useful in ascertaining the cause-and-effect relationship of water

quality degradation attributed to anthropogenic activities throughout the drainage basin.

The second question aims to address the water crisis in the city of Boaco. By

inventorying changes in water quantity and quality in the city’s potable water sources,

officials will be better able to determine what needs to be done to protect human health

and the environment. The data yielded by this water resource monitoring program will be

of utmost importance for management decision-making regarding these precious

resources.

The ultimate goal of this monitoring program is to ensure that safe water is

distributed to the people in the region. This goal can only be accomplished through a

combination of monitoring activities, which will determine trends in water quality, and

the implementation of water quality standards through water quality management

intervention. Once the water quality management intervention is actualized, continued

monitoring will be able to evaluate the effectiveness of these efforts.

The objectives of this study can be discussed based on the time frame in which

they will begin to be accomplished. Initiation of the water quality monitoring plan will

produce immediate results. Within one year, seasonal (short-term) variations in water

quality will become apparent. However, continual monitoring is required in order to

establish long-term trends in data and identify data anomalies. The monitoring network

has been designed such that seasonal and annual variances in discharge and water quality
 72

will be made apparent in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin at large. These specific

objectives include:

1. Identifying trends in surface water and groundwater quality with time.

2. Identifying trends in the quantity of water flowing in the Rio Fonseca.

Once the database is established, it will be easier for regulatory authorities, such

as ENACAL, to decide on the appropriate methods of water quality management

intervention. This assessment indicates that the quality of water in the upper Rio Fonseca

drainage basin has degraded due to anthropogenic activities. Additional monitoring data

is likely to support this argument and provide additional information about the trends in

contamination with time. Since contamination by agriculture and urban waste has already

been identified, it is necessary that those with regulatory authority intervene and propose

methods for dealing with the pollutant sources and remediation of contaminated water.

Much of the water in the study area has deteriorated so that it is no longer suitable for its

intended use. In particular, nitrate and fecal contamination from agricultural and urban

activities has rendered many of the region’s potable water supplies unfit for human

consumption. In contrast to the first two objectives, which provide a continual

characterization of regional water, the following objectives aim to minimize the impacts

of contamination and ensure that water is of sufficient quality to meet the user demands.

These specific objectives are to:

3. Design specific pollution minimization and remediation programs.

4. Monitor to determine whether these program goals (such as compliance with

drinking water standards) are being met.

The pollution minimization and remediation programs may include the expansion

and improvement of the drinking water treatment plant in the city of Boaco, construction
 73

of a wastewater treatment plant in Boaco, and placement of limits on the use of

agrochemicals and fertilizers in the Rio Luna microbasin. Although this assessment

recommends that these actions be taken in order to alleviate the water crisis, it will

ultimately be up to the monitoring team to decide how best to meet Objectives 3 and 4. It

is suggested that these objectives be addressed within the first year of initiating the

activities associated with Objectives 1 and 2.

5.3 Suggested Monitoring Locations

The monitoring locations have been selected to take into account considerations

such as the actual and potential water uses, the actual and potential sources of pollution,

and the physicochemical conditions of water in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin.

The monitoring locations were chosen to both meet the objectives of this monitoring

program while remaining physically and economically feasible given the socio-economic

status of the region.

The proposed water quality monitoring stations, which are designed to determine

the trends in quality with time (Objective 1), are shown in Figure 26. These locations

were selected in order to identify changes in water quality within the basin as a whole,

and to capture inputs by geographical areas containing different water chemistry. Some

sites were selected to address areas of known anthropogenic contamination. For example,

the Rio Luna microbasin showed a greater degree of agricultural contamination than the

Rio Fonseca and a sampling location was thus selected in the Rio Luna microbasin and in

the Rio Fonseca downstream of the confluence with the Rio Luna. Similarly, the effects

of urban contamination on water quality are monitored by noting changes in the

chemistry of Rio Fonseca upstream and downstream of the city of Boaco. Emphasis has
 74

been placed on surface water sampling locations because they are better suited in

characterizing the hydrology in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin than groundwater.

Surface water is also heavily relied upon for many uses (including potable use) in the

region. However, monitoring water quality in wells used for potable water supply is

important, and the data will be especially valuable in addressing Objectives 4 and 5. For

this reason, the primary municipal water supply well in Boaco and Santa Lucia are

included in this monitoring program. One sampling location on the potable water

distribution system in Boaco was selected so that the extent of en-route contamination,

which occurs due to the deteriorated condition of the distribution system, can be

quantified. The rationale for choosing each monitoring location is provided in Table 6.
 75

5
4

9
Legend

±
Study Area
Monitoring Locations
Source Type
Perforated Well
River 10 1 0.5 0 1
Tap Water
Kilometers
Figure 26. Proposed water quality monitoring locations in the upper Rio Fonseca
drainage basin, Boaco, Nicaragua.
 Table 1: Justification for Proposed Water Quality Monitoring Locations
Sample Source Name of Elevation
Type Easting Northing Justification
ID Description Microbasin (m)
ENACAL Municipal water supply well for Santa Lucia. Indicates
Perforated Fonseca-
1 Well/ Santa 640260 1386140 550 groundwater chemistry. Determines suitability of this source for
Well Santa Lucia
Lucia human consumption.
Headwaters of the Rio Fonseca. This site is located upstream of
Fonseca-
2 River Rio Fonseca 641190 1385460 530 any major sources of contamination and therefore provides
Santa Lucia
information about the 'natural' chemistry in the river.
Rio Fonseca downstream of confluence with Rio Chingastosa
Fonseca-
3 River Rio Fonseca 641690 1384370 495 (Santa Lucia). This site will document changes in water chemistry
Santa Lucia
due to urban activities in Santa Lucia.
Rio Fonseca downstream of confluence with Rio Chiscolapa.
Fonseca-
4 River Rio Fonseca 644020 1381870 390 Indicates the quality of the Rio Fonseca, prior to inputs by the Rio
Santa Lucia
Luna.
Rio Luna before confluence with Rio Fonseca. Can be used to
5 River Rio Luna Rio Luna 646440 1382110 400
assess agricultural contamination in the Rio Luna microbasin.
Rio Fonseca by Well 6. This site is south of the confluence with
the Rio Luna and will contain a chemical signature intermediate
Fonseca-
6 River Rio Fonseca 645100 1380190 340 between sampling locations 4 and 5. This site is also upstream of
Boaco
the city of Boaco and the confluence with the Rio Chingastosa
(Boaco.)
Primary municipal water supply well for Boaco. Indicates
Perforated ENACAL Fonseca-
7 645030 1379330 320 groundwater chemistry. Determines suitability of this source for
Well Well 6 Boaco
human consumption.
ENACAL Domestic water supply designed to test the efficiency of the
Fonseca-
8 Tap Water Distribution 645830 1378600 350 ENACAL distribution system in delivering clean water to its
Boaco
System customers.
Rio Fonseca downstream of confluence with Quebrada Honda and
Fonseca-
9 River Rio Fonseca 644410 1377610 300 Boaco. This site shows the effects of urban activities on the quality
Boaco
of the river.
Rio Fonseca as it drains the study area (outlet). Downstream of
Fonseca- confluence with Quebrada San Pio. Marks the quality of water as it
10 River Rio Fonseca 641530 1375840 230
Boaco leaves the study area. Useful in determining the risk to those
downstream.

76
 77

In addition to monitoring water quality, it is important to develop an

understanding of the discharge regime of the Rio Fonseca so the quantity (and thus

potable water supply) can be assessed and allow for a more in-depth interpretation of

water quality measurements. The addition of a single discharge gauging location on the

Rio Fonseca, northwest of the city of Boaco, would be a huge step in providing

information about the hydrology of the Rio Fonseca. For this reason, this monitoring

program strongly advocates that a discharge monitoring location be implemented in the

Rio Fonseca upstream of the concrete diversion dams in the city of Boaco, which will

coincide with sampling location 6 in Figure 27. Since sixty-five percent of the city’s

water supply is supplied from the Rio Fonseca, via the diversion dams, the proposed

discharge gauging station will allow for the quantification of the surficial water supply

throughout the year. With this information ENACAL will be much better prepared to

assess their capability in meeting the potable water demand in the city.

In addition to quantifying the discharge of the Rio Fonseca, implementation of

rain gauges throughout the drainage basin, would be useful in determining annual

variances in precipitation that is needed for the hydrologic balance. Another benefit is

that these trends will determine the capacity of precipitation in meeting some of the water

demand in the study area. Stable isotope analyses could also be performed on these

samples and, through academic investigations, the recharge elevations and flow paths of

groundwater could be better understood. Although the presence of rain gauges is more

important than their exact location, this plan suggests that at least one gauging station be

implemented in the cities of Boaco and Santa Lucia so that trends can be defined and an
 78

estimate can be made as to the annual or seasonal yield that harvested rain water could

provide for domestic use.

5.4 Monitoring Frequency

The frequency of sampling has been established in order to capture the variability

in water quantity and quality during the wet and dry seasons. Considering that the wet

season lasts from May through November, this project uses May 1 (rather than October

1) as the starting date for the water year in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin.

Quarterly sampling is suggested for the first two years of monitoring and is thought

appropriate in capturing the seasonal variability. The proposed monitoring dates are June

15, September 15, December 15, and March 15 and have been selected so that two

samples are collected during each season.

After the first two years of monitoring, the short-term trends should become

apparent and monitoring can then be continued on a biannual basis so that the scientific

database will continue to grow and long-term trends can be established. The proposed

dates for biannual monitoring are September 15 and March 15, which are consistent with

the later quarterly sampling dates in the wet season and dry season respectively. By

maintaining two of the same sampling dates the data will be better suited for direct

comparison and can be used to determine annual trends. This monitoring program will be

the most beneficial if biannual monitoring is continued indefinitely. A longer data record

will permit a more thorough hydrologic characterization of the region.

5.5 Suggested Monitoring Parameters

In order to meet the first objective, it is necessary to choose parameters that

indicate water quality in the drainage basin at large. Some of the basic variables include
 79

temperature, conductivity, pH, and DO. These measurements can be made in situ with

field meters. Additionally, it is strongly suggested that laboratory analysis of the major

ions, including calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate be made.

These measurements can then be used to calculate the hardness, alkalinity, and SAR of

the water sample. Analysis of these physicochemical parameters will provide information

about natural variances in water quality with time and be useful in determining the

suitability of water for its intended use. These parameters are important because they

govern the general chemistry of the water, affect its suitability for domestic, agricultural

and industrial use, and also affect the chemical behavior of trace contaminants including

both organics and inorganics.

In addition to parameters that provide a general assessment of the overall quality

of water in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin, parameters that indicate agricultural

and urban contamination should be included so that the contaminant sources can be

monitored and trends in contaminant inputs established. Agriculture and irrigation in the

upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin, and in the Rio Luna microbasin in particular, was

shown to contribute to the values of color, turbidity, TDS, TSS, COD, nitrate, iron, and

other parameters such as pesticides that were not included in this water quality

assessment. Of these parameters, this plan proposes that nitrate be monitored because of

its known impact on human health. It is also suggested that turbidity be monitored since

the presence of suspended solids is strongly influenced by agricultural land use. In

addition, the direct correlation between iron and turbidity will allow for an estimate of

iron concentrations in surface water once the turbidity concentration is known.

 80

Some of the contaminants contained in municipal effluent include nitrate, nitrite,

ammonium, phosphate, and fecal coliform. The discharge of raw sewage into rivers also

influences the biochemical and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD) and total

organic carbon (TOC) concentrations in these surface water resources. Since economics

may prohibit the monitoring of all of these parameters, it is suggested an indicator

organism with a known health impact be used to determine the extent of microbiological

contamination. The use of E. coli as an indicator organism is suggested because it is a

sure indicator of fecal contamination and its presence often indicates the presence of

other disease causing organisms. Table 7 provides a summary of the proposed sampling

parameters and the justification for their selection.

Table 7: Justification for Proposed Monitoring Parameters

Parameter Justification
Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen Provide basic water quality information. Can be easily measured using field
pH meters.
Conductivity
Calcium
Magnesium Major ions in natural waters. Can be used to calculate the hardness,
Sodium alkalinity, and SAR, of the sample. Analysis of these parameters will
Chloride provide information about natural variances in water quality with time and
be useful in determining the suitability of water for its intended use.
Sulfate
Bicarbonate
Contaminant sourced through agricultural and urban activities. Has a known
Nitrate health impact and was detected in concentrations above the recommended
limit of 10 mg/L in the Rio Fonseca and wells.
Can help monitor agricultural sources of contamination. Is directly
Turbidity correlated with iron and can be used to estimate the amount of iron in
surface water.
Organism that is a sure indicator of fecal contamination and its presence
often indicates the presence of other pathogenic organisms. Indicator of
E. coli
microbiological contamination, which is crucial in determining the
suitability of water for human consumption.

As finances permit, it would be useful to include analysis of organics [volatile

organic compounds (VOCs) and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs)] and

 81

pesticides/herbicides in the monitoring program. Analysis of VOCs and SVOCs would be

helpful in determining the health of the Rio Fonseca and its ability to support aquatic life.

Integration of pesticide/herbicide analysis into the proposed monitoring plan would be

greatly beneficial in determining the extent of agricultural contamination and in assessing

the risk of pesticide poisoning to humans. It would also be useful to sample for trace

metals and petroleum hydrocarbons at sampling location Number 9, downstream of urban

Boaco. These analyses would characterize the effects of a rumored gasoline spill at the

Texaco station in Boaco and urban activities on chemical contamination of the Rio

Fonseca. Biannual analysis of these substances would provide information about seasonal

trends in surface water concentrations. If any of these parameters are considered

problematic after the first two years of monitoring, then monitoring should be continued

at least once a year during the period where the effects of contamination are greatest. It is

understood that monitoring these parameters is costly and may not be immediately

incorporated into the proposed monitoring plan.

Much of the water included in this assessment contained contaminant

concentrations that exceeded the maximum limits designated by the WHO and CAPRE.

This indicates that people are drinking water that can induce illnesses. Monitoring these

potable water sources and implementing a management plan aimed to meet these

standards is an important step in ensuring that people in the study area have access to safe

clean drinking water. Monitoring of E. coli in the vicinity of Boaco can be used both to

determine the effects of municipal waste on the quality of the Rio Fonseca and in

determining the efficiency of wastewater treatment facilities and potable water

 82

distribution systems once the water quality management intervention program (Objective

3) is initiated.

5.6 Possible Candidates for Managing the Monitoring Program

This project is expected to be the most successful if it involves a team of experts

from the regulatory authorities of INAA, ENACAL, MAGFOR, MINSA, MARENA,

FISE, and INETER, who have different responsibilities on a national level (described in

Section 2.4 of this assessment). The regulatory authorities have different roles in

accordance with their interests and responsibilities in meeting each of the four objectives.

MARENA and MAGFOR would be best suited to implement Objectives 1 & 2, in the

Rio Fonseca drainage basin at large, since they are responsible for water quality and

irrigation waters respectively. ENACAL is a national organization regulated by MINSA

and INAA who is responsible for supplying water and sanitation services to urban

citizens throughout Nicaragua. ENACAL should therefore be particularly concerned with

trends in the quantity and quality of their potable water sources and in determining

pollution minimization and remediation programs that are designed to ensure the

efficiency of their potable water distribution system in delivering clean water to its

customers. FISE would be a good source of funding for the project and INETER would

be well suited in assisting with the collection and management/distribution of hydrologic

data. INETER should be particularly interested in establishing rain gauging stations and

discharge stations in the Rio Fonseca.

Although collaboration among these regulatory authorities is thought to be the

most effective way of addressing the water crisis in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage

basin, this kind of unity may not be immediately realistic in the socio-economic setting of
 83

Nicaragua. Given the circumstances, the project could be accomplished locally by

collaborations between ENACAL, the community, and national or private sources of

funding. Collaboration between these entities and a nationally recognized laboratory

facility, such as CIRA, will facilitate the timely, accurate, and precise measurements of

water quality.

5.7 Quality Assurance/Quality Control Plan

Once the staff has been identified for this water resource monitoring plan, they

will need to specify a quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) plan to be used in

conjunction with the methodology that they (or the analytical laboratory) establish. The

purpose of the QA/QC plan is to ensure that data collected is consistent and reliable. By

adhering to strict protocols of QC, imprecision and bias in the data will be minimized.

Mechanisms such as poor equipment calibration, unrepresentative sampling, analyte

instability, interference, and contamination can cause imprecision and bias in the water

quality data (British Columbia Ministry of the Environment, 1998). Basic precautions

exist to deal with each of these mechanisms and include regular calibration of field

meters, proper sample collection techniques, appropriate filtration and preservation

techniques, and thorough documentation of site conditions. Care must be taken to

minimize contamination of the sample from the moment it is collected to the moment the

analytical results are produced.

It is equally important that QA/QC procedures are adhered to by the field staff

(during sample collection) and the laboratory staff (during sample analysis.) Most

laboratories that process water quality data have their own QA/QC plan that they adhere

to, regardless of their client. The use of QC samples is a way of determining if

 84

contamination was introduced to the sample and ensuring that the analytical instrument

produces precise and accurate measurements throughout the entire procedure. Typical

QC samples include blanks, replicate samples, spiked samples, and reference samples.

The choice of an analytical lab will likely determine the QA/QC procedures that

should be followed by field staff. To the extent possible, it is best to use the same lab

throughout the project and avoid changes. The lab will likely provide all of the materials

necessary for field work in accordance with these standards. For example, the lab will

provide sampling containers that have been washed and prepared according to the

designated analytical method. They will also provide the preservation and filtration

devices and instructions that should be followed for each sample. Since most analytical

laboratories follow the methods described in the Standard Methods for the Examination

of Water and Wastewater, (APHA et al., 1992) this book provides a good basis for both

field and laboratory QA/QC procedures that can be followed in order to maintain the

integrity of the samples and produce meaningful data.

In addition to following QA/QC procedures to ensure that the data obtained in

this study is accurate, it is crucial that the field and laboratory data be kept in a database

for easy access and analysis. Spreadsheets, contained in programs such as Microsoft

Excel, are a useful way of storing and manipulating hydrologic data. INETER is a good

candidate for formatting and managing this data. Once the data has been compiled

electronically it should be continuously updated as the project progresses. All of the

organizations involved in this project should have access to the most current database in

their main offices. If INETER is not involved in the project, then a copy of the electronic

data should also be provided to them for their records. Through the maintenance and
 85

distribution of electronic data, it will be much easier for researchers, policy-makers, and

funding agencies to encounter and utilize this data for their purposes. The water quality

data contained in electronic spreadsheets can be easily manipulated by a variety of

computer software programs to determine trends in the data and create graphics that

display spatial and temporal variations in data.

 86

6. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

It is evident that the quality of water in the study area has been impacted by

human activities. Analysis of water in the Rio Fonseca indicates groups of parameters

that vary collectively in response to the influx of tributaries with different biological and

physicochemical compositions with distance downstream. The composition of these

tributaries depends on the geology, soil type, and land use in each microbasin. Two

anthropogenic sources of contamination are agriculture and urban waste. The quality of

surface water is also impacted by the urban withdrawal of groundwater and its

subsequent return to the river. This interpretation is evident from the fact that there is a

dramatic increase in major ion concentrations in the Rio Fonseca downstream of the

cities of Santa Lucia and Boaco.

Groundwater quality varies throughout the drainage basin as a result of changes in

the natural environment and susceptibility to surficial contaminants. The susceptibility of

groundwater resources depends on their proximity to a contaminant source, the

permeability of the aquifer, and the physical state/design of the well from which the

sample is drawn. Contamination will be greatest where the migration of contaminants in

surface water is facilitated by fracture flow paths and poor well design and maintenance.

Well 6, in the bed of the Rio Fonseca in Boaco, is an unfortunate example of a highly

susceptible well. Not only is it perforated in fractured rock, but it also sits directly in the

bed of the Rio Fonseca. The well casing is completely below the bed of the river and the

well design does little to protect it against infiltrating surface water. As a result, this

potable water source is anthropogenically contaminated by nitrogen species and coliform

organisms.
 87

Among the water quality parameters included in this study, the microbial analyses

are perhaps the most appropriate in determining the suitability of water for human

consumption. High concentrations of E. coli and total coliform were detected in virtually

all of the samples collected in this study, indicating a high risk of human exposure to

pathogenic organisms. Concentrations are higher in surface water then groundwater and

increase dramatically near the city of Boaco. On the basis of bacteriological

contamination, water from the Rio Fonseca and its tributaries and wells N11, N13, and

N14 should not be used as drinking water unless it is thoroughly treated or disinfected

prior to human consumption.

Areas containing bacteriological contamination often experience contamination

by nitrogen species since both originate from untreated human and animal waste. Indeed

the highest values of nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium correspond to the highest incidence

of fecal contamination, which occurs in the Rio Chingastosa in Boaco. High

concentrations of nitrogen species confirm that water from the Rio Chingastosa (in

Boaco) and directly downstream of its confluence with the Rio Fonseca should not be

consumed by humans due to the serious health risk associated with contamination. In

addition, high concentrations of nitrate (46.8 mg/L) were encountered in the excavated

well in lower Boaco, indicating that this water (and likely water from other excavated

wells in lower Boaco) should not be consumed without treatment.

The Rio Luna is the largest tributary to the Rio Fonseca in the study area and

contains heightened concentrations of nitrogen species, iron, turbidity, true color, COD,

and TSS. These values can be attributed to agricultural activities such as deforestation,

irrigation runoff, and the application of nitrogen based fertilizers in the Rio Luna
 88

microbasin. Other agrochemicals, such as pesticides, are widely used in the study area

and can have adverse affects on human health if ingested. Although this project’s limited

budget precluded including these chemicals in the water quality analysis, it is understood

that these inorganic chemicals and organic compounds contribute to water quality

degradation in the study area and that the impact on water quality by agriculture is widely

underestimated in excluding these parameters from this assessment.

The stable isotope analysis indicated that surface water and groundwater are

meteoric in origin. A seasonal shift towards lighter δ values during the wet season was

observed and may be due to the amount effect, a change in the source or flow path of

precipitation, temperature, or relative humidity. The seasonal effect is more definite in

surface water than groundwater indicating that surface water is more intimately

connected to precipitation than groundwater. Groundwater is thought to represent an

average δ value of precipitation that fell in the local recharge areas relatively recently,

depending on the residence time. The extent of shifting in groundwater, towards more

negative δ values during the wet season, varies geographically throughout the basin. The

extent of shifting is expected to be greater where the connection between groundwater

and surface water is greatest. Geothermal waters were detected in Well 6 and experienced

a minute seasonal shift in the δ18O values (due to reactions between the fluid and host

rock at high temperatures), but the meteoric water source is thought to be constant year

round. This observation suggests that the residence time (and thus flow path) of

geothermal groundwater is longer than that of neighboring cold water. Data limitations

leave many questions that could be answered with further isotopic investigations.
 89

It is important to remember that the water quality results presented in this study

indicate the condition of the water at the time of sampling and are expected to vary from

day to day, season to season, and year to year. Two rounds of sampling in June and July

may be sufficient in assessing the quality of water over the wet season of 2005, but more

data would be necessary to place the results in a context of annual and seasonal

fluctuations in quality. Nevertheless, the data set produced in this investigation provides

the most detailed water quality coverage in existence for the upper Rio Fonseca drainage

basin and provides a superior basis for assessing water contamination and risk.

Although this water quality assessment has provided a general characterization of

the water resources in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin, there is still a lot of work

that needs to be done in order to both improve this characterization and resolve the water

crisis. By implementing the proposed water resource monitoring plan, trends in the

quality and quantity of water in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin can be identified.

The expansion of the hydrologic dataset will prove invaluable in future scientific

investigations. In addition, regular sampling of water quality will be useful in identifying

new sources and monitoring existing sources of contamination. With this enhanced

knowledge, the regulatory authorities (such as ENACAL), will be better prepared to

address their water crisis and design a plan for pollution reduction and water quality

remediation. This plan will improve water quality and ensure that it is fit for its intended

use. Once these water quality management interventions are implemented, continued

monitoring will assess the effectiveness of this program in meeting its objectives.

Although the characterization of surface water and precipitation will be greatly

improved by the implementation of the stream gauging station and rain gauges (that were
 90

mentioned in the proposed monitoring plan), a quantitative hydrogeologic study is

necessary for further scientific characterization of groundwater resources. The depiction

of volcanic aquifers in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin could be enhanced by

performing pump tests on numerous wells in order to determine the transmissivities,

hydraulic conductivities, and storage coefficients of these aquifers. Comparison of the

effects of pumping on the other wells in the study area would be useful in determining the

degree of connectivity between wells and thus in determining barriers (such as faults) to

groundwater flow. Geophysical methods could also be implemented in determining the

orientation and location of faults in the study area. Although fracture flow is thought to

be the dominant mechanism of groundwater transport throughout the study area, further

investigation will tell if there are units with a high primary porosity and permeability that

store and transmit significant quantities of water. Quantification of the physical

characteristics of these aquifers would prove valuable in understanding contaminant

pathways. The construction of a contaminant transport model could be useful in

predicting the effects of contamination on potable water sources and what actions could

be taken to minimize these effects.

Financial limitations minimized the number of parameters that could be included

for analysis in this assessment. A study designed to fill in these data gaps would be a

great complement to this assessment. Study of biological indicators, such as

macroinvertebrates, provides a measure of stream health over time. The presence,

diversity, and abundance of aquatic organisms are extremely sensitive to changes in

water quality. Biological surveys in the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin could thus be
 91

performed to determine the diversity of these species, the effects of contamination on

these communities, and to further classify stream health and identify water quality trends.

As mentioned previously, the effect of agriculture on water quality degradation is

likely to be underestimated in this study due to the absence of pesticides and other

agrochemicals in the water quality analysis. Integration of agrochemical analyses into the

proposed monitoring plan (or through other academic research endeavors), would be

greatly beneficial in determining the extent of contamination and in assessing the risk of

pesticide poisoning to humans. Many types of chemicals are sold for agricultural use in

the department of Boaco and include herbicides, fungicides, fumigants, and

organophosphates. Many of the chemicals that are sold in Nicaragua (and most of the

developing world) have been banned in developed countries because of their known

toxicity.

Although the characterization of water quality and quantity could (and should) be

improved upon, it is also important to pose and initiate solutions to the region’s water

crisis. Solutions to problems of water and wastewater treatment and distribution in the

city of Boaco will require a funded project with engineering expertise. Boaco’s urban

waste, which contains the raw sewage of its 20,000 inhabitants, is the largest source of

pollution in the drainage basin. In addition, a domestic sample along the ENACAL

distribution system was shown to be extremely contaminated with fecal coliform and

indicates that the distribution system is in dire need of an upgrade. An engineering

project that designs and implements a wastewater treatment plant, a higher capacity

drinking water treatment plant, and upgrades both the potable water and wastewater
 92

distribution lines would do wonders for the quality of water, and thus the quality of life,

for urban Boaqueños.

Recently, a project of this caliber was proposed between the UTE Latinoamérica,

Euroestudios Ingenieros de Consulta, and Grupo Eptisa (2003). The project involves

damming the Rio Fonseca north of Boaco, building a new drinking water treatment plant,

rehabilitating the potable water distribution system, upgrading and expanding the sanitary

sewer coverage, and constructing a wastewater treatment plant that is capable of treating

7,100 m3/day of wastewater (UTE et al., 2003). Implementation of this large scale

project, combined with the monitoring plan suggested in this assessment, would resolve

most of the water resource issues facing the city of Boaco. In effect, the quality of the Rio

Fonseca downstream of the city should improve, due to the proposed wastewater

treatment facilities, and pose less of a threat to downstream users.

It is apparent that there are multiple solutions for dealing with the fate of water in

the upper Rio Fonseca drainage basin. The solution implemented will depend on the

ambition of those that are able to acquire funding to meet their goals. Whatever the

chosen solution is, this assessment strongly encourages that detailed electronic

documentation of these efforts is stored and made available in various localities so that

scientific characterization of this area will continue to evolve.

 93

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX A. WATER QUALITY RESULTS .......................................................... 94

APPENDIX B. CORRELATION MATRIX ................................................................. 98
 94

APPENDIX A. WATER QUALITY RESULTS

 Table A1. Water Quality Results

Date and Time Water

of Table Measured Calculated
Sampling Elevation Distance Date and Time Microbiological Elevation Depth Width Velocity Velocity
ID Source Type Source Description Municipality Department Easting Northing (m) Downstream of Sample Sample (ft bgs) (ft) (ft) (ft/s) (ft/s)
N1 Perforated Well ENACAL Well/ Santa Lucia Santa Lucia Boaco 640260 1286140 550 6/22/2005 10:50 6/22/2005 10:50 176.7
N1 Perforated Well ENACAL Well/ Santa Lucia Santa Lucia Boaco 640260 1286140 550 7/26/2005 7:45 158.3
N3 River Rio Chingastosa Santa Lucia Boaco 640840 1384830 520 1.85 6/22/2005 11:30 6/22/2005 12:00 0.6 7.9 0.7 0.6
N3 River Rio Chingastosa Santa Lucia Boaco 640840 1384830 520 1.85 7/26/2005 8:40
N4 River Rio Fonseca Santa Lucia Boaco 641190 1385460 530 1.54 6/22/2005 12:00 6/22/2005 11:30 1.2 13.0 0.2 0.2
N4 River Rio Fonseca Santa Lucia Boaco 641190 1385460 530 1.54 7/26/2005 8:20
N5 Perforated Well FISE Well/ Los Garcia Santa Lucia Boaco 641750 1384470 500 6/22/2005 12:30 6/22/2005 12:30
N5 Perforated Well FISE Well/ Los Garcia Santa Lucia Boaco 641750 1384470 500 7/26/2005 9:00
N6 River Rio Fonseca Santa Lucia Boaco 641690 1384370 495 3.11 6/22/2005 13:00 6/22/2005 13:00 0.4 9.6 1.1 1.0
N6 River Rio Fonseca Santa Lucia Boaco 641690 1384370 495 3.11 7/26/2005 9:15 1.0 10.0 3.2 2.7
N7 River Rio Chiscolapa Santa Lucia Boaco 643620 1383270 440 5.96 6/23/2005 15:50 6/30/2005 14:20 2.0 14.6 1.3 1.1
N7 River Rio Chiscolapa Santa Lucia Boaco 643620 1383270 440 5.96 7/26/2005 10:20
N8 River Rio Fonseca Santa Lucia Boaco 644020 1381870 390 7.6 6/30/2005 14:20 6/22/2005 14:15 1.2 14.0 1.1 0.9
N8 River Rio Fonseca Santa Lucia Boaco 644020 1381870 390 7.6 7/26/2005 11:00 2.0 25.0 2.6 2.3
N9 River Rio Luna Boaco Boaco 646440 1382110 400 9.67 6/23/2005 10:40 6/24/2005 7:15 0.3 31.0 1.4 1.2
N9 River Rio Luna Boaco Boaco 646440 1382110 400 9.67 7/26/2005 13:20 1.0 28.0 2.4 2.0
N10 Spring Covered Spring Boaco Boaco 646500 1382070 440 6/23/2005 11:00 6/24/2005 7:35
N10 Spring Covered Spring Boaco Boaco 646500 1382070 440 7/26/2005 13:27
N11 Perforated Well FISE Well/ San Nicolas (#2) Boaco Boaco 646700 1381470 420 6/24/2005 7:15 6/24/2005 7:15
N11 Perforated Well FISE Well/ San Nicolas (#2) Boaco Boaco 646700 1381470 420 7/28/2005 8:23
N12 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 645100 1380190 340 10.09 6/23/2005 7:50 6/24/2005 6:55 2.2 41.0 1.0 0.8
N12 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 645100 1380190 340 10.09 7/25/2005 13:10 1.3 48.0 1.7 1.5
N13 Perforated Well ENACAL "Pozo 6" Boaco Boaco 645030 1379330 320 6/23/2005 10:20 6/24/2005 6:45
N13 Perforated Well ENACAL "Pozo 6" Boaco Boaco 645030 1379330 320 7/28/2005 8:50
N14 Perforated Well ENACAL "Qnta Aurita" Boaco Boaco 647900 1380440 395 6/23/2005 13:43 6/24/2005 10:15
N14 Perforated Well ENACAL "Qnta Aurita" Boaco Boaco 647900 1380440 395 7/28/2005 7:45 20.7
N15 Planta Planta de Tratamiento - ENACAL Boaco Boaco 645300 1379130 360 6/23/2005 16:15 6/30/2005 11:30
N15 Planta Planta de Tratamiento - ENACAL Boaco Boaco 645300 1379130 360 7/28/2005 11:00
N15-D1 Tap Water ENACAL Distribution System Boaco Boaco 645830 1378600 350 7/28/2005 13:00
N16 River Rio Chingastosa Boaco Boaco 646230 1379130 360 6/24/2005 10:15 6/24/2005 7:55 0.3 7.5 0.7 0.6
N16 River Rio Chingastosa Boaco Boaco 646230 1379130 360 7/27/2005 11:50
N17 River Rio Chingastosa Boaco Boaco 645190 1379300 330 6/22/2005 14:15 6/24/2005 6:40 23.4
N17 River Rio Chingastosa Boaco Boaco 645190 1379300 330 7/27/2005 12:35
N18 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 644980 1378950 310 11.44 6/30/2005 11:30 6/24/2005 8:10 0.9 10.0 4.2 3.6
N18 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 644980 1378950 310 11.44 7/27/2005 12:50
N19 Excavated Well Excavated Well in Lower Boaco Boaco Boaco 645190 1378850 360 6/30/2005 8:25 6/30/2005 10:00 1.5
N19 Excavated Well Excavated Well in Lower Boaco Boaco Boaco 645190 1378850 360 7/27/2005 12:10
N20 River Quebrada Honda Boaco Boaco 645330 1377910 330 3.31 6/30/2005 9:20 6/30/2005 9:45 0.6 14.0 1.5 1.3
N20 River Quebrada Honda Boaco Boaco 645330 1377910 330 3.31 7/25/2005 12:20
N21 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 644410 1377610 300 13.22 6/30/2005 9:45 6/30/2005 9:20 2.5 79.0 0.8 0.7

95
N21 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 644410 1377610 300 13.22 7/25/2005 12:00 1.0 72.5 0.7 0.6
N22 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 642950 1376600 250 15.52 6/30/2005 10:00 6/30/2005 8:25 1.0 30.0 1.3 1.1
N23 River Quebrada San Pio Boaco Boaco 642040 1375680 235 4.32 6/23/2005 15:00 6/24/2005 10:30 0.5 13.6 1.8 1.5
N23 River Quebrada San Pio Boaco Boaco 642040 1375680 235 4.32 7/25/2005 11:40
N24 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 641530 1375840 230 17.4 6/23/2005 14:40 6/24/2005 10:45 2.2 24.0 1.1 0.9
N24 River Rio Fonseca Boaco Boaco 641530 1375840 230 17.4 7/25/2005 11:05 1.1 46.7 1.3 1.1
 Table A1. Water Quality Results

Total Calculated True

Measured Dissolved E. Coli Coliform pH Conductivit Color
Discharge Temperature Conductivity Oxygen (MPN/100 (MPN/100 @ 25 y @ 25 C (mg/L Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Chloride Nitrate Sulfate Carbonate
(ft3/s) (◦C) pH (uS/cm) EH mV (mg/L) mL) mL) Turbidity C (uS/cm) Pt-Co) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
27.7 6.88 1140 4.15 < 2.0 2.00E+02 0.43 7.15 1195.00 < 5.0 159.36 40.59 65.80 1.86 25.88 < 0.05 349.11 < 2.00
26.5 7.35 968 53.0 3.25 < 2.0 6.00E+01 1.2 7.09 1064.0 < 5.0 114.11 18.50 52.40 1.54 8.36 < 0.05 81.56 < 2.00
3.0 25 5.94 347 3.5 5.00E+03 1.80 7.66 984.00 25.0 124.30 29.47 53.00 7.76 72.49 2.28 97.37 < 2.00
23.2 7.71 428 241.7 50.9 4.69
2.3 24.7 7.76 369 ? 1.70E+02 3.40 7.80 363.00 20.0 41.04 9.66 22.00 3.22 16.69 0.82 13.43 < 2.00
22.9 7.66 227 238.0 46.3 4.01
26.1 6.88 697 1.46 < 2.0 < 2.0 0.80 7.22 702.00 < 5.0 65.34 30.19 46.50 1.86 24.18 1.31 16.49 < 2.00
25.2 7.11 788 249.6 56.4 1.50 0.6 7.09 868.0 < 5.0 91.29 26.72 43.90 1.68 44.95 12.68 23.32 < 2.00
3.5 25.6 7.42 472 3.11 1.10E+03 1.80 7.67 478.00 25.0 54.98 12.80 26.40 4.38 24.55 0.70 22.46 < 2.00
27.4 23.2 7.70 261 235.5 43.8 5.55 157.3 7.78 286.0 < 5.0 31.40 8.11 15.70 3.37 10.91 2.28 5.83 < 2.00
32.9 24.8 7.42 118.3 4.76 2.20E+02 28.60 7.30 115.30 60.0 7.94 2.29 11.70 1.51 9.60 3.43 3.58 < 2.00
23.9 7.50 102.4 241.6 49.0 4.61
15.9 25.8 8.38 288 5.08 1.40E+02 5.30 8.15 286.00 35.0 28.30 7.97 19.80 3.22 17.40 1.14 8.63 < 2.00
112.5 24.1 7.80 153.6 227.8 36.2 5.12 302.0 7.64 167.0 125.0 15.70 5.24 11.90 2.43 8.32 2.26 3.24 < 2.00
12.6 23.6 7.61 143.8 3.92 8.00E+01 16.80 7.63 131.40 50.0 11.09 4.68 11.30 2.25 8.66 1.05 1.42 < 2.00
56.5 25.0 7.57 95.6 223.0 30.3 4.59 128.6 7.52 155.0 200.0 8.24 4.53 8.40 1.49 5.55 1.32 1.86 < 2.00
25 6.68 384 1.76 1.33E+02 0.80 6.69 369.00 < 5.0 36.23 13.44 28.90 0.71 16.90 9.91 3.83 < 2.00
25.0 7.23 521 238.7 80.2 2.35
27.5 7.04 771 1.64 2.02E+00 0.50 7.26 803.00 < 5.0 34.65 7.80 140.00 1.28 41.16 11.16 2.22 < 2.00
28.2 7.38 732 90.7 -97.6 1.33 0.6 7.05 795.0 < 5.0 41.13 7.58 140.00 1.14 39.77 14.18 3.03 < 2.00
72.8 25 7.69 238 4.7 2.30E+04 64.80 7.69 227.00 80.0 20.00 5.64 19.30 3.41 15.24 5.49 5.79 < 2.00
91.8 25.1 7.81 152.1 155.4 -37.5 4.94 86.4 7.66 167.2 150.0 14.91 4.77 11.60 1.98 8.35 1.13 3.05 < 2.00
37 6.93 657 3.07 2.20E+01 5.00E+02 0.90 7.40 635.00 < 5.0 45.54 12.72 77.30 1.87 42.86 1.71 13.24 < 2.00
35.6 7.66 614 93.3 -99.5 3.12 3.00E+05 2.00E+01 0.9 7.17 634.0 5.0 52.01 11.49 79.30 1.78 39.65 3.10 14.76 < 2.00
26.8 5.96 669 2.57 2.00E+02 < 2.0 0.60 7.10 675.00 < 5.0 44.35 30.25 61.60 0.71 26.38 0.65 1.91 < 2.00
24.8 7.31 638 105.4 -86.0 3.54 < 2.0 8.00E+00 0.3 6.95 692.0 < 5.0 60.88 24.44 63.30 0.65 25.20 0.36 2.28 < 2.00
25.5 7.00 197 4.61 < 2.0 < 2.0 8.40 6.72 186.20 < 5.0 13.89 3.97 15.00 2.05 14.13 3.44 29.42 < 2.00
25.3 6.57 171.3 152.7 -40.6 4.34 <2.0 2.00E+00 4.8 6.09 194.8 < 5.0 15.32 4.64 12.30 1.83 11.36 2.16 39.93 < 2.00
7.19 316 203.1 12.3 3.89 8.00E+01 3.00E+02 2.9 6.84 328.0 < 5.0 26.21 8.31 35.00 1.83 18.41 2.37 39.06 < 2.00
1.0 25.2 7.58 378 3.52 7.00E+04 52.00 7.65 358.00 140.0 35.24 8.40 31.80 4.67 25.48 4.58 8.18 < 2.00
25.3 7.51 140.4 100.5 -99.4 6.11
28.6 7.27 730 2 9.00E+05 48.00 7.30 726.00 50.0 49.90 16.33 72.40 12.09 81.75 6.69 32.64 < 2.00
25.6 7.61 165 70.5 120.1 5.94
32.6 27.4 7.58 318 3.4 2.20E+05 93.00 7.52 313.00 80.0 25.74 7.92 26.50 4.96 22.32 6.61 10.16 < 2.00
24.9 7.66 151.6 62.1 -130.1 5.54
0.0 25.6 7.05 1100 1.17 4.00E+02 0.70 7.35 1097.00 < 5.0 90.87 6.01 149.00 1.27 93.79 46.82 52.36 < 2.00
25.5 7.37 960 53.1 -137.7 7.87
10.4 24.4 7.51 323 3.77 1.70E+03 40.60 7.59 314.00 60.0 30.36 6.38 28.80 3.86 25.66 4.09 5.51 < 2.00
26.0 7.84 420 -19.0 3.51
138.0 23.7 6.99 404 2.23 7.00E+04 30.30 7.53 217.00 60.0 17.86 5.53 19.90 2.74 16.26 3.87 5.93 < 2.00

96
44.1 25.4 7.58 228 145.8 -37.6 2.80 104.5 7.12 246.0 100.0 20.80 5.72 18.00 3.27 16.06 1.41 5.70 < 2.00
32.4 24 6.31 231 4.13 1.40E+03 36.40 7.58 217.00 50.0 18.25 4.81 19.40 2.74 15.65 4.36 5.83 < 2.00
10.3 28.2 7.64 265 3.4 1.40E+03 38.30 7.82 257.00 140.0 22.57 3.84 25.90 4.86 14.53 5.33 5.17 < 2.00
27.2 8.18 393 190.0 21.0 4.95
49.9 27.5 7.81 315 3.8 1.10E+05 84.00 7.79 311.00 100.0 26.14 6.00 27.60 5.44 25.11 11.50 10.35 < 2.00
57.9 25.0 7.81 254 204.2 11.0 5.00 96.3 7.61 250.0 100.0 22.37 6.92 19.10 3.12 16.02 2.94 4.31 < 2.00
 Table A1. Water Quality Results

Dissolved Chemical Total Total

Total Total Fenolft Dissolved Total Ionic Reactive Oxygen Total Dissolved Suspended Sediment Volatile Total δ180
Bicarbonate Hardness Alkalinity Alkalinity Silica Nitrite Iron Fluoride Boron Balance Phosphate Demand Solids Solids Solids Solids Solids Ammonium Nitrogen Arsenic (per δD
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (%) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (ug/L) mil) (per mil)
376.74 564.59 308.74 < 1.67 48.21 < 0.003 0.03 1.39 0.56 0.10 0.009 < 10.00 954.00 904.00 4.00 < 0.1 294.00 0.028 0.167 < 2.02 -6.81 -45.0
456.21 360.80 373.85 < 1.67 46.03 < 0.003 0.24 0.47 0.65 547.28 0.200 -6.72 -44.4
411.34 431.40 337.09 < 1.67 38.22 0.006 0.09 0.24 0.57 1.28 0.237 15.18 679.00 618.00 10.00 < 0.1 219.00 0.066 0.791 < 2.02 -6.40 -39.9
-5.65 -32.7
185.81 142.14 152.27 < 1.67 51.36 < 0.003 0.18 0.17 0.36 0.95 0.189 14.97 271.00 253.00 7.00 < 0.1 102.00 0.106 0.787 < 2.02 -5.81 -33.9
-5.35 -32.2
429.28 287.27 351.79 < 1.67 55.74 < 0.003 0.02 0.15 0.41 1.68 0.042 < 10.00 474.00 446.00 4.00 < 0.1 170.00 0.015 0.349 < 2.02 -5.02 -31.0
456.21 337.80 373.85 < 1.67 53.43 < 0.003 < 0.02 0.25 4.00 522.53 0.060 -5.37 -34.2
233.22 189.85 191.12 < 1.67 46.16 < 0.003 0.09 0.17 0.36 0.62 0.192 13.02 285.00 231.00 15.00 < 0.1 158.00 0.047 0.663 < 2.02 -5.75 -36.0
151.21 111.65 123.90 < 1.67 46.20 0.033 6.27 0.07 0.97 198.21 0.220 -4.96 -31.0
43.57 29.20 35.70 < 1.67 38.86 0.020 1.44 0.03 0.06 0.76 0.119 14.40 160.00 132.00 28.00 < 0.1 67.00 0.080 1.310 < 2.02 -5.96 -35.6
-5.30 -30.8
134.55 103.38 110.25 < 1.67 50.27 < 0.003 0.38 0.07 0.22 1.98 0.212 19.52 241.00 217.00 19.00 < 0.1 127.00 0.089 0.582 < 2.02 -5.82 -35.2
87.14 60.70 71.40 < 1.67 47.46 0.046 14.01 < 0.03 0.80 139.39 0.240 -5.47 -31.2
67.91 46.90 55.65 < 1.67 42.48 0.016 0.82 0.08 0.04 2.90 0.099 12.41 149.00 116.32 0.70 < 0.1 112.00 0.055 0.624 < 2.02 -6.27 -37.1
56.38 39.28 46.20 < 1.67 47.02 0.062 5.58 < 0.03 1.97 106.13 0.180 -5.37 -32.4
212.07 145.70 173.80 < 1.67 75.53 < 0.003 0.03 0.19 0.11 0.05 0.094 < 10.00 316.00 289.73 4.50 < 0.1 124.00 0.050 2.359 < 2.02 -6.29 -35.6
-6.40 -39.5
456.19 118.55 373.85 < 1.67 56.63 < 0.003 0.02 0.20 0.21 2.13 0.009 57.06 513.00 491.00 0.30 < 0.1 88.00 0.036 2.689 < 2.02 -6.00 -38.8
457.47 133.80 374.90 < 1.67 62.42 < 0.003 < 0.02 0.18 0.66 534.37 0.100 -5.89 -35.7
103.79 73.10 85.05 < 1.67 46.25 0.049 2.78 0.15 0.14 1.04 0.192 43.20 246.00 227.00 42.25 2.0 57.00 0.082 2.067 < 2.02 -5.88 -36.6
85.86 56.80 70.35 < 1.67 45.78 0.033 3.92 0.03 0.96 133.81 0.140 -5.80 -34.7
328.05 165.95 268.85 < 1.67 59.69 0.007 0.03 0.27 0.32 1.18 0.039 33.10 416.74 411.00 0.50 1.0 155.00 0.019 0.591 6.23
328.04 177.06 268.85 < 1.67 55.46 0.043 0.03 0.19 1.32 419.05 0.260 -5.26 -32.2
428.00 235.00 350.75 < 1.67 71.20 < 0.003 0.02 0.24 0.37 2.69 0.037 19.20 441.00 367.00 10.00 1.0 86.00 0.028 0.697 < 2.02 -5.02 -31.2
431.84 252.51 353.90 < 1.67 74.46 < 0.003 < 0.02 0.18 0.14 464.09 0.340 -5.08 -32.1
33.32 51.00 27.30 < 1.67 40.71 < 0.003 0.30 0.09 0.06 3.30 0.017 < 10.00 194.00 161.00 1.00 < 0.1 103.50 0.024 1.100 < 2.02 -6.28 -39.8
34.60 57.34 28.35 < 1.67 37.78 < 0.003 0.13 0.07 0.72 142.40 0.060 -5.36 -31.5
120.45 99.59 98.70 < 1.67 41.52 < 0.003 0.10 0.12 3.16 232.05 0.060 -5.26 -30.8
176.83 122.45 144.90 < 1.67 37.80 0.122 0.03 0.19 0.35 1.15 0.322 24.83 311.00 307.00 15.40 1.0 147.00 0.169 2.498 < 2.02

253.72 191.70 207.95 < 1.67 40.92 2.818 1.46 0.12 0.24 0.27 1.042 212.24 889.00 546.00 86.50 3.0 218.00 4.490 6.184 2.48

128.14 96.80 105.00 < 1.67 47.31 0.325 3.21 0.19 0.16 2.67 0.24 14.40 293.00 246.00 47.00 < 0.1 111.00 0.859 3.618 < 2.02 -6.10 -38.2

453.62 251.45 371.75 < 1.67 70.27 0.020 0.02 0.22 0.33 1.63 0.117 20.69 700.00 695.00 25.00 < 0.1 533.50 0.056 11.094 2.74 -5.47 -32.1

143.52 102.00 117.60 < 1.67 50.84 0.079 2.86 0.03 0.14 2.03 0.219 20.69 297.00 288.00 9.00 < 0.1 140.00 0.150 2.099 < 2.02 -5.97 -37.5
-4.92 -26.7
94.82 67.30 77.70 < 1.67 44.02 0.076 1.17 0.03 0.16 1.88 0.199 16.55 213.00 200.00 13.00 1.0 132.00 0.440 2.472 < 2.02 -6.16 -37.4

97
106.36 75.45 87.15 < 1.67 47.29 0.154 6.79 0.18 0.34 170.72 1.550 -5.32 -31.0
92.26 65.35 75.60 < 1.67 43.22 0.095 2.75 0.03 0.22 1.76 0.190 12.41 221.00 165.00 56.00 1.0 116.50 0.230 2.374 < 2.02 -6.19 -38.2
121.73 72.10 99.75 < 1.67 47.14 0.059 1.20 0.17 0.23 1.78 0.330 33.60 293.00 237.00 56.00 < 0.1 130.00 0.034 2.525 < 2.02 -6.70 -42.4
-6.27 -36.6
119.17 89.90 97.65 < 1.67 41.59 0.390 2.46 0.18 0.28 1.24 0.298 28.96 300.00 254.00 46.00 < 0.1 147.00 0.550 4.292 < 2.02 -6.38 -41.5
123.02 84.25 100.80 < 1.67 44.09 0.282 3.81 0.20 0.17 179.55 0.170
 98

APPENDIX B. CORRELATION MATRIX

 Table B1: Correlation Coefficients for Nicaraguan Water Samples
Na+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Cl- pH TempeTDS K
+
SO42- HCO3- Fe
3+
F- NH4+ NO32- NO2- B As P SIO2
Na+ 1.00 0.46 0.27 0.73 -0.26 0.45 0.75 -0.12 0.18 0.80 -0.39 0.26 0.06 0.64 0.12 0.13 0.97 -0.41 0.55
Ca2+ 1.00 0.81 0.51 -0.37 0.17 0.90 0.05 0.76 0.76 -0.36 0.76 -0.04 0.38 0.02 -0.20 -0.92 -0.49 0.21
Mg2+ 1.00 0.31 -0.50 0.14 0.73 0.00 0.61 0.71 -0.34 0.66 0.01 -0.10 0.17 -0.13 -0.62 -0.64 0.32
Cl- 1.00 -0.33 0.33 0.70 0.40 0.17 0.60 -0.32 0.10 0.39 0.64 0.44 -0.05 0.52 -0.49 0.26
pH 1.00 -0.03 -0.37 0.09 -0.27 -0.39 0.38 -0.17 0.08 -0.08 0.02 -0.26 -0.86 -0.65 -0.21
Temperature 1.00 0.34 0.03 0.09 0.34 -0.30 0.22 0.12 0.02 0.13 0.11 -0.34 -0.45 0.22
TDS 1.00 0.06 0.66 0.86 -0.42 0.70 0.11 0.56 0.23 -0.08 0.82 -0.55 0.38
K+ 1.00 0.02 -0.15 0.03 -0.11 0.73 -0.09 0.80 -0.16 0.00 0.04 -0.49
SO42- 1.00 0.30 -0.23 0.93 -0.04 0.27 0.07 -0.11 -0.56 0.16 -0.10
HCO3- 1.00 -0.43 0.42 -0.05 0.39 0.01 -0.02 0.69 -0.46 0.60
Fe3+ 1.00 -0.23 0.13 -0.15 -0.05 -0.19 -1.00 0.35 -0.17
F- 1.00 -0.08 0.28 -0.08 -0.09 0.83 -0.48 0.10
NH4+ 1.00 0.00 0.95 -0.24 -0.95 0.00 -0.18
NO32- 1.00 0.00 -0.15 0.95 -0.30 0.37
NO2- 1.00 -0.03 0.00 -0.07 -0.22
B 1.00 0.47 0.51 -0.05
As 1.00 0.00 -0.40
P 1.00 -0.24
SIO2 1.00

Correlation Coefficients
>0.79
0.7-0.79
0.6-0.69
0.5-0.59
<0.5

99
 100

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