Therefore, stones having higher specific gravity values should be used for the construction

of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbours.

The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
XII) STRUCTURE
The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones should
be easily dressed and suitable for super-structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult
to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
XIII) TEXTURE
Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used
for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
XIV) APPEARANCE
A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable if grains are compact. Marble and
granite get a very good appearance, when polished. Hence, they are used for face works in
buildings.
In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary requirement, its
colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.
Light colour stones are more preferred than dark colour stones as the colour are likely to
fade out with time.

XV) EASE IN DRESSING

Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing.
The cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. The dressing is easy
in stones with lesser strength.
Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather than high strength while selecting
stones for building works.
XVI) COST
Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. The proximity of the
quarry to the building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones
comes down.

2. WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS

(Introduction to wood macrostructure, sap wood and heart wood, defects and decay of
timber, seasoning and preservation of timber, fire resisting treatment, introduction to wood
products- veneers, plywoods, fibre board, particle board, block board, batten boards)
2.1 WOOD MICROSTRUCTURE:

 Wood possesses a cellular, three-dimensional microstructure and is described as a

natural composite material with orthotropic elastic properties.
 The orientation of micro fibrils has a direct influence on elastic properties of the wood
cell wall and varies as a function of position in the tree and within annual rings.

2.2 SAPWOOD AND HEARTWOOD

Heartwood and sapwood are parts of every tree. These two play very special roles in the
formation of a tree.
Heartwood is a term used to describe the wood that is at the center of a tree. There are two
primary categories used to depict the naturally occurring wood of a tree: heartwood and
sapwood. For all intents and purposes, heartwood is considered to be the deadened core of the
tree that is the result of a chemical transformation which occurs to strengthen the center of a
tree as it grows in girth. The outer layers of wood that are still in the process of expanding are
referred to as sapwood. The creation of heartwood is a naturally occurring process that
transforms the properties of the wood at the core of the tree in order to aid in its resistance to
decay.
Some projects are constructed entirely out of heartwood because of its extreme density and
strength. Sapwood requires a drying period even after it has been cut into boards. Heartwood
does not contain nearly as much moisture and is therefore less likely to warp. Though
heartwood can be purchased exclusively, it is more expensive. Heartwood is also highly
sought-after for its unique color qualities. Because heartwood is chemically different from a
tree’s sapwood, the color quality will also be noticeably different.

Heartwood, also called duramen, dead, central wood of trees. Its cells usually contain tannins
or other substances that make it dark in colour and sometimes aromatic. Heartwood is
mechanically strong, resistant to decay, and less easily penetrated by wood-preservative
chemicals than other types of wood.

HEARTWOOD SAPWOOD
Heartwood occurs in the central portion Sapwood occurs in the peripheral (outer)
Cells are comparatively older Cells are comparatively younger
Also called as ‘Duramen’ Also called as ‘Alburnum’
Heartwood is dark colured Sapwood is light coloured

Sapwood:

 The soft outer layers of recently formed wood between the heartwood and the bark,
containing the functioning vascular tissue.
 When a tree is young certain cell with in the wood are alive and capable of conducting
sap or storing nutrients, and the wood is referred to as sapwood.
 The sapwood also termed as Alebernum.

Heartwood:

 Heartwood also called as duramen, dead central wood of trees.

 As new sapwood is formed under the bark, the inner sapwood changes to heartwood.
 In the wood undergoing this change the living cells die.
2.3 DEFECTS AND DECAY OF TIMBER:

 Timber is a natural product and every natural product has some imperfections.

 Most of the defects in timber cause weakness or others sorts of difficulties. However, some
defects can be beneficial for a specific type of work.

The followings are the five main types of defects in timber:

1. Defects due to Natural Forces

2. Defects due to Attack by Insects
3. Defects due to Fungi
4. Defects due to Defective Seasoning
5. Defects due to Defective Conversion

1) Defects in timber due to Natural Forces

Following defects are caused by natural forces:

 Burls
 Callus
 Chemical stain
 Coarse Grain
 Deadwood
 Druxiness
 Foxiness
 Knots
 Rind galls
 Shakes

 Burls:
These formed when a tree has received shock or injury, the growth of the tree is completely
upset and irregular projections appear on the body of timber.

 Callus:
It indicates soft tissue or skin which covers the wound of a tree.

 Chemical strain:
The wood is sometimes discolored by the chemical action caused by some external agency.
This is known as the chemical strain.

 Coarse grain:
If a tree grows rapidly, the annual rings are widened. It is known as coarse-grained timber and
such timber possesses less strength.
  Deadwood:
The timber which is obtained from dead standing trees contains dead wood. It is indicated by
lightweight and reddish color.

 Druxiness:
This defect is indicated by white decayed spots that are concealed by healthy wood. They are
probably formed for the access of fungi.

 Foxiness:
This defect is indicated by red or yellow tinge (a colour) in wood or reddish-brown strain or
spots round the pith of tree discoloring the timber. It is caused either due to poor ventilation
during storage or by the commencement of decay due to over-maturity or due to the growth
of the tree in marshy soil.

 Knots

These are the bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off from the tree. The portion
from which the branch is removed receives nourishment from the stem for a pretty long time
and it ultimately results in the formation of dark hard rings which are known as the knots. As
continuity of wood fibers is broken by knots, they form a source of weakness.

 Rind galls:
The rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal growth. It is an irregular growth cause the
fibers on wound fell after the branches have been cut off in an irregular manner.

 Shakes:
These are cracks that partly or completely separate the fibers of the wood. The following are
the different varieties of shakes.
Cup shakes
Heart shake
Ring shake
Star shake
Radial shake

2) Defects of timber due to insects:

Following are the insects which cause the decay of timber:
 Termites.
 Beetles.
 Marine Borers
Termites:
These are popularly known as the white ants and they are found in abundance in tropical and
sub-tropical countries. These insects live in a colony and they are very fast in eating away the
wood from the core of the cross-section.
They make tunnels inside the timber in different directions and usually do not disturb the
outer shell or cover.
Beetles:
These are small insects and they cause rapid decay of timber. They form pin-holes of size
about 2mm diameter in wood. They attack the sapwood of all species of hardwoods.
Marine borers:
These are generally found in salty water. Most of the varieties of marine borers do not feed
on wood. But they make holes or bore tunnels in wood for taking shelter.

3) Defects of timber due to Fungi:

The fungi are minute microscopic plane organisms.

Following defects of timber are caused in the timber by the fungi:
 Dry rot
 Wet Rot
 Brown rot
 White rot
 Heart Rot
 Sap strain
 Blue stain
Dry rot:
The term rot is used to indicate the decay or disease of timber. The fungi of certain types feed
on Wood and during feeding, they attack on wood and convert it into dry powder form. This is
known as dry rot.
The dry rot occurs at places where there is no free circulation of air. The fungus rapidly dies
on exposure to air or sunlight. The unseasoned softwoods and sapwood are easily attacked by
dry rot.
When part of the timber is seriously affected by dry rot, the damaged portion may be
completely Removed and the remaining unaffected portion should be painted with a solution
of copper sulphate.
Wet rot:
When timber is subjected to alternate wet and dry conditions, decomposition of its tissue Takes
place and the timber is said to have been attacked by wet rot. The attacked part of timber gets
Reduced to a grayish brown powder Standing tree or timber exposed to rain is subjected to
attack
Wet rot can be avoided by the use of well-seasoned timber treated with preservatives.
Brown rot:
The fungi of certain types remove cellulose compounds from wood and hence the wood comes
brown in color. This is known as brown rot.
White rot:
The fungi of certain types of attack wood and the wood become a white mass consisting of
cellulose compounds.
Heart rot:
This is formed when the heartwood is exposed to the attack of atmospheric agents. Due to this,
the tree becomes weak and it gives out a hollow sound when struck with a hammer.
Sap stain:
The fungi of certain types do not bring about the complete decay of timber. But they feed on
cell contents of sapwood and the sapwood loses its color. This is known as the sap stain and it
generally occurs when moisture content goes beyond 25 percent or so.
Blue stain:
The sap of wood is stained to bluish color by the action of certain types of fungi.

4) Defects of timber due to seasoning:

Seasoning of Timber is a hydrothermal treatment of Timber, involving evaporation of
moisture content in required proportion i.e. controlled reduction of moisture from the wood.
Timber Seasoning increases the strength of timber, eliminates wood rot, prevents changes in
the dimensions and shape of the articles made of timber, and ultimately improves the quality
of finishing of timber.
This is necessary for reducing the unnecessary weight of timber, for effecting an increase in its
strength, to improve its workability, to reduce the possibility of development of shrinkage
defects and to ensure durability or long life of timber. The moisture content of standing trees
may be as high as 40-60 percent or even more.
After careful seasoning, it could be brought down to 4-6 percent by (kiln seasoning) or 14-16
percent by (air seasoning).

Methods of Seasoning of Timber

There are two methods of Seasoning of timber which are explained below

1. Natural seasoning (Air/water seasoning)

2. Artificial seasoning (Kiln seasoning)

Both methods require the timber be stacked and separated to allow the full circulation flow of
air, etc. around the stack.

Natural Seasoning of Timber

Natural seasoning is the process in which timber is seasoned by subjecting it to the natural
elements such as air or water. Natural seasoning may be water seasoning or air seasoning.
Water Seasoning

Water seasoning is the process in which timber is immersed in water flow which helps to
remove the sap present in the timber. It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that the timber
is allowed to dry. Well-seasoned timber is ready to use. Sometimes logs are placed in running
water before subjecting to air seasoning. This helps in replacement of “sap” from wood cells
by water. The water-saturated wood dried quicker as compared to sap-rich wood. The process
of placing timber logs in water is sometimes referred to water-seasoning.
As already said trees contain a lot of moisture in the standing condition. The mode of
occurrence of water in wood issue is rather complex and must be understood thoroughly.
It is because a number of important properties of wood and timber depend on its moisture
content and the way in which it is present in the wood.
The wood tissue stores water in cell walls and the cell cavities.
(a) The water present in the cell walls is called the bound water, the hygroscopic water or the
imbibed water. It is this water, loss or gain of which will affect the dimensional stability of the
timber. It makes 25-30 percent of the dry weight of the wood tissue when all the cell walls are
fully saturated with water. This situation, in which all the cell walls of wood are fully saturated
with water (and the cavities are empty) is termed as fiber saturation point.
(b) The water present in the cell cavities of the wood tissue is called the free water. Its presence
effects the mechanical properties of the timber.
If the total moisture content in a species of timber is 75 percent, and its fiber saturation point
is 30 percent, then, the free water is 45 percent. Whenever a freshly cut wood log is laid for
drying, it is the free water (from the cell cavities) that is lost first. Once cell cavities are empty,
and drying is continued, then the water from the cell walls will start moving out due to drying
effect. And it is only the loss of water from the cell walls that will cause shrinkage in the wood.
Similarly, if a dry piece of wood is left out in a humid atmosphere, wood will start absorbing
moisture. (Because, as already said, wood is a hygroscopic material). Supposing the original
moisture content of the dry wood is only 6 percent and the humidity of the atmosphere is 40
percent, then the wood will go on absorbing moisture till its moisture content is the same as
that of the atmosphere in which it is exposed. This is called the “equilibrium moisture content”
of the wood.
When water is absorbed by the wood, it is the cell walls that must be saturated before the cell
cavities are allowed to get any water.

This is the reason doors and windows made of wood show swelling effect during rainy seasons
immediately after a few days of rains, especially when they are located where rain water can
fall directly on them.

Air Seasoning

In the process of air seasoning timber logs are arranged in layers in a shed. The arrangement is
done by maintaining some gap with the ground. So, platform is built on ground at 300mm
height from ground. In air seasoning, timber in properly cut forms is stacked in a proper
manner in the open air for losing moisture by process of evaporation.
The Stacks are so constructed to allow free circulation of air around each part as far as possible.
The stacks are properly sheltered from direct sun and winds and rain. It may take 6 months to
4 years for bringing down the original moisture content to allowable limits of 14-16 percent by
this method.

Artificial Seasoning of Timber

Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is
developed nowadays. By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned with in 4-5 days. Here also
different methods of artificial seasoning are there and they are as follows.

 Seasoning by Boiling
 Seasoning by boiling wood logs in hot water is called seasoning by boiling. Drying is
done after proper boiling. For a large amount of wood, it is done in an enclosed place
where hot steam is passed.

 Chemical seasoning

In case of chemical seasoning, timber is stored in suitable salt solution for some time.
The salt solution used has the tendency to absorb water from the timber. So, the
moisture content is removed and then timber is allowed to drying. It affects the strength
of the timber.

Disadvantages:

Chemical seasoning agents can reduce the strength of wood and sometimes cause
problems in gluing and finishing or corrosion during use. Although large quantities
of wood treated with such chemicals have been used suc- cessfully for a variety of
purposes, some consideration should be given to these disadvantages

 Kiln seasoning
In kiln seasoning, timber is dried for specific periods and under very controlled
conditions of temperature and humidity in specially designed kilns. Tunnel type kilns
can also be used for this purpose. Among the other methods of seasoning of timber and
wood, the chemical seasoning and electric seasoning are of some importance. Timber
can also be made fire proof to some extent by giving external coats and treatment of
fire retarding chemicals like sodium silicate, sodium arsenate or borax.

 Electrical seasoning

The resistance of timber against electricity is measured at every interval of time. When
the required resistance is reached seasoning, process is stopped because resistance of
timber increases by reducing moisture content in it. It is also called as rapid
seasoning and it is uneconomical.
Objectives of Seasoning of Timber:

We may Summarize the objectives of seasoning of timber in five sentences:

1. Reduces much of the useless weight of timber;

2. Increases its strength considerably;
3. Improves the workability of the timber;
4.Decreases the chances of development of shrinkage defects, and,
5. Increases the life of timber, i.e. makes it more durable.

Following defects occur in the seasoning process of wood:

 Cup
 Case-hardening
 Check
 Collapse
 Honey-combing
  Radial slakes
 Split
 Twist
 Warp

Cup:
This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction of timber.
Case-hardening:
The exposed surface of timber dries very rapidly. It therefore shrinks. The interior surface
which has not completely dried is under tension case-hardening and it usually occurs in timbers
which are placed at the bottom during seasoning.
Check:
A check is a crack that separates fibers of the wood. It does not extend from one end to the
Checks Surface checks: Shallow cracks extending along the grain on the face or cage.
Collapse:
Due to uneven shrinkage, the wood sometimes flatters during drying. This is known as the
collapse
Honey-combing:
Due to stresses developed during drying, the various radial and circular cracks developed in
the interior portion of timber. The timber thus assumes the honey-comb texture and the defect
so developed is known as the honey-combing.
Radial shakes:
These are radial cracks.
Split:
When a check extends from one end to the other, it is known as a split.
Twist:
When a piece of timber has spirally distorted along its length, it is known as a twist.
Warp:
When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to be warped

Defect in Timber due to Defective Seasoning

During seasoning of timber, exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior
surface. So, stress is developed due to the difference in shrinkage.

a. Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.
b. Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.
c. Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend from one
end to another.
d. Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.
e. Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying process or
seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of honeycomb texture.

5) Defects due to Defective Conversion:

During the process of converting timber to the commercial form, the following defects may
occur:

(i) Chip mark

(ii) Diagonal grain
(iii) Torn grain
(iv) Wane

(i) Chip Mark:

This defect is indicated by the marks or signs placed by chips on the finished surface of timber.
They may also be formed by the parts of a planning machine.
(ii) Diagonal Grain:
This defect is formed due to improper sawing of timber. It is indicated by diagonal mark on
straight grained surface of timber.
(iii) Torn Grain:
This defect is caused when a small depression is formed on the finished surface of timber by
falling of a tool or so.
(iv) Wane:
This defect is denoted by the presence of original rounded surface on the manufactured piece
of timber.

Defects of Timber due to Defective Conversion

a. Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that the pith
or the centre heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its length.
b. Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.
c. Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.
d. Miscut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of experience
in sawing and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous cutting.
e. Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.

2.4 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

Preservation of timber is carried out to increase the life of timber. Preservation is done using
different types of preservatives. Methods and different materials used for preservation of
timber is discussed. Increasing life makes timber more durable and it can be used for longer
periods. Preservation also helps the timber to get rid of insects and fungi etc. If preservation is
not done, then wood will be diseased and damaged badly.

Properties of Good Preservative for Timber

The preservative used to protect the timber should contain following requirements or
properties.

 It should be effortlessly and cheaply available.

 It should not contain any harmful substances, gases etc.
 It should cover larger area with small quantity. Hence, it should be economical.
 Decorative treatment or any surface treatment should be allowed on timber after the
application of preservative.
  Strength of timber should not be affected by the preservative.
 It should not contain any unpleasant smell.
 It should not get affected by light, heat, water etc.
 It should not get affected by fungi, insects etc. and should also efficient to kill them.
 It should not generate flame when contacts with fire.
 It should not corrode metals when it makes a contact with them.
 The depth of penetration of preservative in wood fibers should be minimum 6mm to
25mm

Different Types of Preservatives for Timber

 Coal tar
 ASCU
 Chemical slats
 Oil paints
 Solignum paints
 Creosote oil
Coal Tar for Preservation of Timber

Coal tar is heated and obtained liquid hot tar is applied on timber surface using brush. Coal tar
contains unpleasant smell and does not allow paint on it. So, it is used for door frames, window
frames etc. It is very cheap and has good fire resistance.
ASCU Preservative for Timber

ASCU is a special preservative which is available in powder form. It is dissolved in water to

get preservative solution. It should be added 6 parts by weight of ASCU in 100 parts by weight
of water. The final solution is applied on timber by spraying. This solution does not contain
any odor. It is useful mainly to get rid of from white ants. ASCU contains hydrated arsenic
pent oxide, copper sulphate or blue vitriol and sodium dichromate or potassium dichromate in
it. After applying ASCU, the timber can be coated with paint, varnished etc.

Chemical Slats for Preservation of Timber

Chemical salts like copper sulphate, mercury chloride and zinc chloride are used as
preservative which can be dissolved in water to get liquid solution. They are odorless and do
not generate flames when contact with fire.
Oil Paints Preservatives for Timber

Oil paints are suitable for well-seasoned wood. They are generally applied in 2 or 3 coats. Oil
paints prevents timber from moisture. If timber is not seasoned, then oil paints may lead to
decay of timber by confining sap.
Solignum Paints for Preservation of Timber

Solignum paints are applied in hot condition using brush. They are well suitable for preserving
timber from white ants. Solignum paints can be used by adding color pigments so, the timber
has good appearance.
Creosote Oil for Preservation of Timber

Creosote oil is prepared by the distillation of tar. It is black or brown in color. It contains
unpleasant smell. It is applied in a special manner. Firstly, the timber is well seasoned and
dried. Then, it is placed in airtight chamber and inside air is pumped out. Finally creosote oil
is pumped into the chamber with high pressure about 0.7 to 1 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50oC.
After allowing it for 2 hours, the timber absorbs creosote oil sufficiently and taken out from
the chamber. Creosote oil is flammable so, it is not used for timber works in fireplaces. It is
generally used for wood piles, poles, railway sleepers etc.

Methods of Timber Preservation

 Brushing
 Spraying
 Injecting under pressure
 Dipping and stepping
 Charring
 Hot and cold open tank treatment
Brushing of Timber Preservatives

Brushings the simplest method of applying preservatives. For well-seasoned timber, oil type
preservatives are applied with good quality brushes. For better results, the applied preservative
should in hot condition. Multiple coats should be applied and certain time interval should be
maintained between successive coats.
Spraying of Timber Preservatives

Spraying is an effective technique than brushing. In this case, preservative solution is sprayed
on to the surface using spray gun. It is time saving and quite effective.
Preservative Injecting Under Pressure

The preservative is injected into the timber under high pressure conditions. Generally, creosote
oil is applied in this manner which is already discussed above. It is costly treatment process
and required special treatment plant.
Dipping and Stepping Method of Timber Preservation

Dipping is another type of preserving in which, timber is dipped directly in the preservative
solution. Hence, the solution penetrates the timber better than the case of brushing or spraying.
In Some case, the stepping or wetting of timber with preservative solution is allowed for few
days or weeks which is also quite effective process.
Charring Method of Timber Preservation

Charring is nothing but burning of timber surface, which is quite an old method of preservation
of timber. In this method, the timber surface is wetted for 30 minutes and burnt up to a depth
of 15mm from top surface. The burnt surface protects the inner timber from white ants, fungi,
etc. This method is not suitable for exterior wood works so, it is applied for wood fencing poles,
telephone pole bottoms etc.
Hot and Cold Open Tank Treatment of Timber

In this method, the timber is placed in an open tank which contains preservative solution. This
solution is then heated for few hours at 85 to 95 degree Celsius. Then, the solution is allowed
to cool and timber gets submerged with this gradual cooling. This type of treatment is generally
done for sap wood.

2.5 FIRE RESISTING TREATMENT OF WOOD

Flame retardant treatment used to coat a wood surface or penetrate it into the wood to achieve
specific properties mainly include dipping, coating, spray, cover, hot pressing, ultrasonic wave
assistance and a high energy injection method.

As a general rule, the structural elements made of timber ignite and get rapidly destroyed in
case of a fire. Further, they add to the intensity of a fire. But the timber used in heavy sections
may attain high degree of fire-resistance because the timber is a very bad conductor of heat.
This is the reason why time is required to build up sufficient heat so as to cause a flame in the
timber.

With respect to the fire-resistance, the timber is classified as

1. Refractory Timber
2. Non-refractory Timber
Refractory Timber
The refractory timber is non-resinous and it does not catch fire easily. The examples of
refractory timbers are sal, teak, etc.
Non-refractory Timber
The non-refractory timber is resinous and it catches fire easily. The examples of non-
refractory timbers are chir, deodar, fir, etc.
To make timber more fire-resistant, the following methods are adopted:
A. Application of Special Chemicals:
The timber surface is coated with the solution of certain chemicals. The fire resistance
of timber can be enhanced by phosphates of ammonia, a mixture of ammonium
phosphates and ammonium sulphate, borax and boric acid, sodium arsenate etc. It is
 found that two coats of solution of borax or sodium arsenate with strength of 2 per cent
are quite effective in rendering the timber fire-resistant.
These special chemicals are known as the fire protection compounds or antipyrines and
they are more reliable. When the temperature rises, they either melt or give off gases
which hinder or forbid combustion. When the wood is treated with antipyrine, it does
not inflame even at high temperature, but it merely smoulders i.e. burns slowly without
flame. The antipyrines containing salts of ammonium or boric and phosphoric acids are
considered to be the best in making the timber fire-resistant.

B. Sir Abel’s Process:

In this process, the timber surface is cleaned and it is coated with a dilute solution of
sodium silicate. A cream-like paste of slaked fat lime is then applied and finally, a
concentrated solution of silicate of soda is applied on the timber surface. This process
is quite satisfactory in making the timber fire-resistant.

2.6 WOOD PRODUCTS:

1. VENEERS:
Timber veneer is a decorative building material comprising thin slices of timber
glued onto wooden board, particle board or fibreboard. It has been favoured by
builders and designers since ancient times as the finest and most efficient use of the
valuable timbers. Veneer is produced as a thin layer of timber that is uniform in
thickness. The veneer is normally between 0.5 and 0.85mm thick. Timber veneer is
from a natural and renewable resource competing with non-renewable commodities like
steel, aluminium and plastics. The surface coverage of veneer is approximately forty
times more than 25mm timber, which makes it the most economical way of utilising
precious wood. One cubic metre of log produces around 1,000 square metres of real
timber in veneer form. No other form of wood working material results in such an
efficient use with minimal wastage.

Veneer is produced by slicing or peeling logs. It is sliced at approximately 0.6mm or

can be peeled at various thicknesses. Several cut methods are used to create various
wood grain patterns. The most commonly produced grains are: Crown, Quarter, and
Rotary. However, other cuts exist and highlight specific features such as Birdseye,
Quiltes, Pommele or Burl/Burr.

Different ways of slicing wood to get veneers are

I. Rotary cut:
The log is cantered on a lathe and turned against a broad cutting knife set into
the log at a slight distance.
 II. Quarter slicing:
The slicing is made perpendicular to the annual growth rings of the tree. This
creates a straight grain appearance.

III. Lengthwise slicing:

This is done from a board of flat sawn lumber rather than from a log. A
variegated figure is created with this slice.

IV. Plain slicing:

By slicing parallel to the centre of the log, a raised “cathedral effect” is formed
by the innermost growth rings.

V. Half round slicing:

Sliced on an arc parallel to the centre of the log, this cut achieves a flat-cut
veneer appearance.

VI. Rift cut:

This straight grain cut is derived by slicing red and white oak at a slight angle
to minimize the irregularities in the wood.
2. PLYWOODS:
Plywood is an engineered wood sheet material made up of fine layers or flimsy
strands of wood veneers attached together placing wood grains 90 degrees to one
another. It is one type of manufactured board which can be described as a mixture
of Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) and Chip Board (Particle Board). It is a complex
material and attaches resin and fibre sheets of wood.

Plywood has become popular through this decade because it’s relatively low moisture
content which makes various tasks easy to perform with this. Mostly for outdoor uses
plywood has become very important to use.

Following are the different types of Plywood.

 Softwood Plywood
 Hardwood Plywood
 Tropical Plywood
 Aircraft Plywood
 Decorative Plywood
 Flexible Plywood
 Marine Plywood

Softwood Plywood

Softwood Plywood which is also known as spruce-pine-fir or SPF because it’s from
spruce, pines, and fir. Though it can be made from cedar, douglas fir. If made from
spruce the prominent grains are coated by a system so that this kind of plywood
becomes more effective as hard as concrete and used for shuttering strands and
construction.
Hardwood Plywood
Hardwood Plywood is made from angiosperms. This type of plywood is identified by
its firmness, hardness on surface, inflexibility, resistance quality. This can be used to
bear heavy weight.

Tropical Plywood
Different types of timbers of tropical area are mixed to make this type of plywood.
Though previously it was only collected from the Asian region, now also from Africa
and America it is collected. Tropical plywood popular for some special qualities like

 Strength
 Density
 Evenness
 Inflexibility
 Resistance quality
 Thickness
Aircraft Plywood

Woods from Mahogany, Spruce, Birch are used to make Aircraft Plywood. The African
mahogany gives usable structural aircraft plywood. Among birch trees European birch
is good. This type is famous for strength. This type is also made from Mahogany,
Spruce, Birch but the special quality is that this is resistant to heat.

Decorative Plywood

Decorative plywood is also called overlaid plywood. Usually made from woods of ash,
oak, Red oak, birch, Maple, mahogany, Philippine mahogany also called seraya,
rosewood.
 Flexible Plywood

As the name goes Flexible Plywood is used for making flexible furniture or structures.
The furniture of eighteen century was mostly of curved structures. These are made
from Baltic Birch.

Marine Plywood
The type of plywood which can be used in moisture, humid, wet environment is called
marine plywood. Even it can be used in moisture for long period. The layers of marine
plywood bear too small core gap to feel that doesn’t permit the wood to fix water inside
the gaps. It is also fungal resistant.

3. FIBRE BOARDS:
Fibreboard is an engineered wood wallboard made of wood chips, plant fibres,
softwood flakes, sawdust and other recycled materials such as cardboard or paper, all
 bonded with a synthetic resin under high pressure and heat and then compacted into
rigid sheets.
After the raw materials have been collected and chopped into small pieces, all the
metallic impurities are removed with the use of a magnet. Next, fibres are blended with
wax and synthetic resin and then compressed into a defibrator machine under heat, in
order to become usable. Finally, they are pressed into rigid sheets to produce fibreboard.
It was first manufactured in the U.S.A during the beginning of 1960s and it is mainly
used in the construction industry and for making furniture and cabinets.

4. PARTICLE BOARDS:

There are many kinds of engineered wooden products used to make furniture and
other wooden items for interior and external usage. Particle board is also one of the
many engineered wooden products. It is also known as low-density fibreboard or
chipboard. It is a waste wood product made by binding wood chips, sawdust or saw-
mill shavings with a synthetic resin or some other binder. Urea Formaldehyde is
commonly used as glue for binding the wooden chips. Particle board can be used as a
substitute for plywood for making furniture, interior lining of walls and ceilings,
substrate for countertops, floor decking, roof sheathing, underlayment, interior
decorative panelling, etc.

There are the various types of particle board available in the market:

i. Single layer particle board:

Single layer particle board consists of wood particles of same sizes which are
pressed together. It is a flat and dense board which can be veneered or plastic
laminated but not painted. This is a water-resistant type of particle board but is
not waterproof. Single layer particle boards are suitable for interior applications.
ii. Three-layer particle board:
Three-layer particle board consists of a layer of large wood particles sandwiched
between two layers made of very small and highly dense wood particles. The
amount of resin in the outer layer is more than in the inner layer. The smooth
surface of a three-layer particle board is ideal for painting.

iii. Graded-Density particle board:

Graded-Density particle board consists of a layer of coarse wood particles which

is sandwiched between two layers made of fine wood particles. This type of
particle board is used to make cabinets and wooden furniture.
iv. Melamine particle board:
Melamine particle board is made by fixing a decor paper infused with melamine
on the surface of the particle board under high heat and pressure. The wood
particles in a melamine particle board are bonded using melamine-urea
formaldehyde resin and wax emulsion. This makes it water resistant. Melamine
particle board resists scratches. It comes in a plethora of colours and textures.
Applications of melamine particle board include wall panelling, furniture,
wall cladding, wardrobes and modular kitchen.

v. Cement-bonded particle board:

Cement-bonded particle board has magnesium-based cement or Portland

cement as the bonding agent. Cement content is 60% while the wooden particles
such as wooden shavings, sawdust and wooden chips make up 20% of the
composition. Remaining 20% is water. Due to presence of cement, this type of
particle board is resistant against moisture, fire, and termites and rotting. High
moisture resistance makes them suitable for constructing false ceilings, walls
and permanent coverings for concrete floors and walls for buildings located in
areas with high humidity. They are also used for making fire-resistant furniture
products.

vi. Veneered particle board:

Veneered particle board means that it has a thin slice of wood called veneer
attached to its surface. Veneered particle board appears like a natural wooden
 board. Furthermore, a veneered particle board is also more resistant against
warping as compared to a conventional particle board.

vii. Laminated particle board:

When a thin laminate sheet is attached to the surface of a plain particle board, it
becomes a laminated particle board. Laminate sheet not only improves the
aesthetics of the particle board but also increases its durability.

5. BLOCK BOARD:

Block board is a type of plywood that is engineered in a special way. It is pressured in

such a way that the softwood strips are found between two layers of the wood veneers
in the core of the sheet. This contributes to the dimensional stability of the board. The
presence of softwood strips ensures that the board is able to hold nails
and screws better than the other engineered boards. Though it is lighter than plywood,
it does not split or splinter while cutting because of the presence of softwood in its
core.
Types of Block Boards
The block boards can be classified into different types. The types of block boards include:

Types based on quality and where they can be used

 Interior grade block board– This is meant for use only in the They are referred to as
MR Block boards. MR denotes moisture resistant.
 Exterior block board– This type of block board is of special quality and is meant for
use in the exteriors as well. They are referred to as BWP grade block boards or BWR
grade block boards. Where BWP denotes boiling waterproof and BWR denotes boiling
water resistant block boards.
Types of block board based on the raw wood that is used in the core

 Softwood block board– In this type of block board, the veneers of hardwood are
pressed together with strips or battens of softwood in between them. This type of block
board is usually meant for use in the interiors and the MR grade block boards are those
that usually have softwood core.

 Hardwood block board– In this type of block board hard, dense and expensive
hardwood strips are glued and pressed together under high pressure. The glue used is
also one that is meant for use in the exteriors. The BWR and BWP block boards have
hardwood sheets in their core.

6. BATTEN BOARDS:

A compound wood board consisting of boards of softwood placed side by side and sandwiched
between veneer panels, often of hardwood, considered to be of lower quality than block board.
Board and batten is a siding and panelling style that uses narrow strips of wood placed over the
joints of wide boards for a geometric, layered effect.
 3. STEEL:
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2% carbon and 1% manganese and
small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen. Steel is the world's most important
engineering and construction material. It is used in every aspect of our lives; in cars and
construction products, refrigerators and washing machines, cargo ships and surgical scalpels.
It can be recycled over and over again without loss of property.
Properties of steel
Steel has a number of properties, including: hardness, toughness, tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation, fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity, malleability and creep.
HARDNESS is the material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It is worth noting that,
while it may mean the same as strength and toughness in colloquial language, this is very
different from strength and toughness in the context of metal properties.
TOUGHNESS is difficult to define but generally is the ability to absorb energy without
fracturing or rupturing. It is also defined as a material’s resistance to fracture when stressed. It
is usually measured in foot lbs. per sq. in or Joules per sq. centimetre. It is important to
distinguish this from hardness as a material that severely deforms without breaking, could be
considered extremely tough, but not hard.
YEILD strength is a measurement of the force required to start the deformation of the material
(i.e. bending or warping).
TENSILE strength is a measurement of the force required to break the material.
ELONGATION (or Ductility) is the “Degree” to which the material can be stretched or
compressed before it breaks. It is expressed as a percent of the length being tested and is
between the tensile strength and yield strength (i.e. what percent does the material bend before
breaking).
FATIGUE strength is the highest stress that a material can withstand for a given number of
cycles without breaking.
CORROSION is the irreversible deterioration and destruction of the steel material and its vital
properties due to the electrochemical or chemical reaction of its surface to environmental
factors such as acids, moisture and oxygen.