https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.

23136
Creative Commons Attribution b |999
Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering, 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024

Laboratory Investigation and Field Performance Evaluation of

Chemically Stabilized Cement Treated Subbase

Sheikh Hazim1, Tanuj Chopra1, Rajesh Pathak1, Abhinay Kumar1*

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab 147004, India
*
Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Received: 05 August 2023, Accepted: 19 March 2024, Published online: 27 May 2024

Abstract
There is a growing concern over the depletion of naturally occurring construction materials for lower unbound pavement layers.
Stabilization of locally available materials has attracted considerable research interest. Nanotechnological additives have a good
potential in stabilizing materials that are incompatible for pavement construction. The main aim of this research is to evaluate the use
of nano-chemical additives on the laboratory and field characteristics of cement treated subbase (CTSB) mixes prepared with locally
available soil. Locally available soil, cement, and nano-chemicals were utilized to assess their effect on California bearing ratio (CBR)
and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of chemically treated subbase mixes. The UCS of the soil-aggregate mix treated with
cement improved by 103.4% on the addition of nano-chemical additives. The soaked CBR of the mix treated with the optimum dosage
of cement and nano-chemical was increased by 219%. The laboratory-based evaluation was followed by construction of field sections
utilizing the control subbase (soil-aggregate only), cement-treated subbase, and cement+nano-chemical treated subbase mixes.
Deflectometric investigations were performed on the field sections using a light weight deflectometer. X-ray diffraction and scanning
electron microscopy tests were carried out to study the microstructure of subbase mixes. Stabilisation using nano chemicals resulted
in additional phases of ettringite that caused densification of matrix compared to pristine soil-aggregate mix. Pavement analysis and
economic analysis of the different subbase mixes were also performed. The subbase prepared with 3% cement and 1.2 kg/m3 dosage
of nano-chemical additive was found to be the optimum considering laboratory and field performance.
Keywords
cement treated subbase, light weight deflectometer, field evaluation, chemically treated subbase, microstructural analysis

1 Introduction
Unbound pavement layers (subgrade, subbase, and base and enhance a material's engineering properties, including
layers) contribute significantly to the overall pavement per- strength, compressibility, durability, and permeability.
formance. Materials with poor quality, if used in unbound Naturally occurring materials are depleting at a rapid
pavement layers, may lead to failure of the pavement infra- pace, which results in a high procurement and process-
structure resulting in pavement distresses like rutting and ing cost of these materials. Stabilization techniques, espe-
fatigue cracking. Rutting distress can be due to the fail- cially with additives/admixtures, have gained widespread
ure of lower unbound pavement layers, which could be due interest in recent decades within the pavement engineering
to the use of incompatible/weak materials. Soil-aggregate domain. Stabilizing admixtures could be used with locally
mixes or granular materials are mostly used in pavement available materials to improve the properties since total
subbase. Several soil types present in India pose chal- replacement of the inferior material could be economically
lenges in regard to their use in road construction; for exam- exorbitant [3]. Earlier studies have shown that the use of
ple, black cotton soil has significant swelling and shrink- cement and fibres has been a usual practice to improve the
ing characteristics [1, 2]. Fine-grained soils like clay and mechanical and engineering properties of weak soils [4, 5].
silt can swell and lose strength. To mitigate the problem, Cement treated subbase (CTSB) is being widely used
proper soil stabilization becomes necessary. In civil engi- as a subbase in the construction of flexible pavements in
neering, stabilization refers to the techniques used to refine India. CTSB generally utilizes locally available soil, which

Cite this article as: Hazim, S., Chopra, T., Pathak, R., Kumar, A. "Laboratory Investigation and Field Performance Evaluation of Chemically Stabilized
Cement Treated Subbase", Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering, 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPci.23136
1000|Hazim et al.
Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng., 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024

reduces the cost of construction [6, 7]. Although cement layer modulus in the field [15]. Investigations revealed
adds to the strength, it is quite important to prevent the that LWD played an essential role in determining the layer
intrusion of water in the lower pavement layers. In regions modulus and performing the design of overlay (in case of
where problems of groundwater intrusion exist, water low-volume roads) [16].
ingress can cause damage to the lower pavement layers. The main aim of this research is to evaluate the effect
Water infiltration into soil sublayers through surface cracks, of using nano-chemical additives on the laboratory and
shoulder incursion, and capillary rise are key processes that field characteristics of CTSB mixes prepared with locally
impact how long pavements last. The resilient modulus of available soil. The local soil was mixed with aggregates,
the lower pavement layers is significantly reduced due to nano-chemicals and cement. The need of the study stems
such water intrusion, which results in pavement damage from the demand to reduce the proportion of aggregates
during wet seasons. Further, in cold climate water seeps into used in the subbase layer while maintaining the layer's
the ground and freezes. Ice formation can result in frost- strength. This study investigates the optimum proportion of
heave, and ice thawing can result in spring-thaw. The soil locally available soil, aggregate, cement, and nano-chem-
layers can experience severe damage from repeated freez- ical. The study also examines the chemically stabilised
ing and thawing cycles. It is thus crucial to keep the lower subbase layer using various criteria, including UCS, CBR,
layers of pavement moisture-free to prolong the pavement's microstructural analysis, post-construction field evaluation,
life. Adding certain chemicals to cement-treated soil can be and economic analysis. Post-construction assessment was
a suitable measure to achieve not only increased strength performed on the field sections using the LWD to check
but also sufficient resistance against moisture penetration, compaction during construction and to examine deflections
making the layers more stable and durable. thereafter, from which the modulus was determined. Thus,
Over the past decade, the field of nanotechnology has this research work illustrates the performance of stabilized
gained significant momentum in civil engineering applica- mix treated with cement and nano-chemical which can be
tions. Many studies have reported the use of nanomaterials used as a sustainable cement treated subbase layer. Fig. 1
(or nanomaterial derived additives) in stabilization of lower presents the research plan for this study.
pavement layers. Nanoparticles of SiO2 were reported to
exhibit high pozzolanic activity due to a high amount of 2 Characterization of materials
pure amorphous SiO2 [8, 9]. Laboratory and field studies 2.1 Soil and aggregates
were conducted on the stabilization of expansive clayey In this study, soil from Ludhiana, India, was analyzed
soils and artificial gravel using vinyl acetate homopolymer using [17] protocols to determine its physical properties.
(VAH) and sodium silicate-based admixture (SSBA) with Table 1 summarizes the soil's physical and chemical charac-
lime additives [10]. Other materials like Terra-zyme and teristics, while from the XRD pattern the material depicted
fly ash have also been used to improve the subbase prop- peaks for calcium carbonate and quartz. The soil was iden-
erties [11]. Kushwaha et al. [12] reported an increase in the tified as poorly graded sand with silt (SP-SM). Additionally,
California bearing ratio (CBR) and unconfined compres- three stockpiles of aggregates (40 mm, 20 mm, and 10 mm)
sive strength (UCS) values after stabilization with Zycocil. were obtained from a local quarry and evaluated for bulk
Field evaluation of stabilized granular materials is cru- specific gravity, water absorption, and impact value. Table 2
cial as it allows evaluation of the performance of stabilized provides the properties of these aggregates.
materials subjected to real-life traffic. In this direction,
non-destructive testing (NDT) allows for a highly con-
venient and quick structural state assessment of flexible
pavements [13]. A small and affordable equipment called
the light weight deflectometer (LWD) has gained popular-
ity for measuring in-situ reactions, including deflections
and surface moduli of thin bound/unbound granular lay-
ers and thin asphalt pavements [14]. An LWD is a minia-
ture version of a conventional falling weight deflectome-
ter (FWD) and works on the same principle as the FWD.
Previous studies have demonstrated the applicability of
LWD as an evaluation device for determining pavement Fig. 1 Research plan for this study
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Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng., 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024

Table 1 Properties of soil Table 4 Physical and chemical properties of nano-chemicals

Physical property Value Property TerraSil Zycobond
Natural water content (%) 3.0 Physical state Liquid Liquid
Maximum dry density (g/cm3) 1.87 Soil modifier Bonding at nano level
Potential usage (Promotes (80–90 nm flexible
Optimum water content (%) 9.30
Hydrophobicity) acrylic co-polymer)
Specific gravity 2.48
Colour White Translucent Black Translucent
Soil classification SP-SM
Odour Faint odour Faint odour
Chemical property Value (%)
Boiling point Approx. 100 °C Approx. 100 °C
Silica (SiO2) 70.2
Flash point >70 °C >70 °C
Alumina (Al2O3) 16.1
Density 0.97–1.02 g/ml 1.00–1.02 g/ml
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 5.0
Solubility Partly soluble Partly soluble
Potash (K 2O) 1.4
Viscosity 20–200 cP @ 30 °C 20–200 cP @ 30 °C
Magnesia (MgO) 0.15
Oxidizing property Not fire propagating Not fire propagating
Loss on ignition (%) 1.0

Table 2 Properties of coarse aggregates

Water absorption Bulk specific
Aggregate size AIV (%)
(%) gravity
40 mm 0.39 2.76 13.5
20 mm 0.48 2.70 15.3
10 mm 0.61 2.62 22.8
Note: AIV: Aggregate Impact Value

2.2 Cement
An ordinary Portland cement of grade 43 (OPC-43) was
used meeting the requirements of [18] and was obtained
Fig. 2 Nano-chemicals used in the study: (a) Zycobond, and (b) TerraSil
from a cement manufacturing industry in Patiala (India).
The properties of the cement are given in Table 3. for higher particle interlocking. The additive helps to
develop a water-resistant nano-coating on the soils and
2.3 Nano-chemicals aggregates. Earlier studies have described the mechanism
The nano-chemicals were obtained from Zydex Industries of formation of 4–6 nm thick alkyl siloxane surface that
Pvt. Ltd., Gujarat, India. Two different types of chemicals acts as water repellent nano layer on the aggregate/soil
(ZycoBond and TerraSil) were used in the study. Table 4 surface [19, 20]. In addition, it works with cement, bitu-
presents the properties of the two nano-chemicals. These men emulsions, lime, and other common stabilizers that
additives are shown in Fig. 2 and are described further. are used to enhance the properties of soil.
TerraSil: It is an organo-silane molecule that com- ZycoBond: ZycoBond is an acrylic co-polymer emul-
bines with soil particles to change their characteristics sion and nanotechnological additive [21]. It is used for
from hydrophilic to hydrophobic. As a nano-chemical, soil stability, topical irrigation, and surface layer sealing
TerraSil maintains the pores' openness to let vapor escape as a rolling and dust treatment. It contains nano-polymer
while preventing water from entering in [3]. This makes having particles less than 90 nm in size. It disperses in
the soil less water-sensitive and allows it to be compacted the soil, bonding the soil particles and providing erosion
resistance, dust control, and fatigue resistance. As rec-
Table 3 Properties of cement (OPC-43 grade)
ommended by the manufacturer, TerraSil combined with
Physical property Value
ZycoBond (in 1:1 ratio) was used in this study.
Specific gravity (g/cm )3
3.12
Fineness (%) 3.0
3 Methodology
Water absorption (%) 0.41
Different proportions of soil and aggregates (10 mm,
Initial setting time (minute) 32
20 mm, and 40 mm) were blended together to check if
Loss on ignition (%) 1.9
the resulting overall gradation was in accordance with
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the MoRTH (2013) specifications for CTSB. Seven grada-

tions were initially chosen and designated as follows: SA 20
(20% aggregates and 80% soil) to SA80 (80% aggregates
and 20% soil) with an increment of 10% in the aggre-
gates. Out of the seven gradations, SA 20 did not meet the
MoRTH [22] requirements for CTSB.
The maximum dry density (MDD) and the optimum
moisture content (OMC) were determined for remain-
ing six gradations from heavy Proctor compaction tests.
Samples were prepared by blending dry soil with differ-
ent proportions to determine the optimum mix with the
highest UCS value meeting the IRC 37 [23] requirements.
Fig. 4 Nomenclature of subbase mixes with cement and nano-chemicals
The samples were tested for UCS, out of which SA40 mix
was found to have the highest UCS value. The gradation 0.2 kg/m3 each of TerraSil and ZycoBond were blended to
of the mix (SA40) used in this study is shown in Fig. 3. achieve a nano-chemical dosage of 0.4 kg/m3). The chemi-
In Fig. 3, the upper and lower gradation limits are spec- cal additives were first blended with water (at the required
ified by [22] specifications for CTSB. The proportions of OMC) and then added to the soil-aggregate-cement mix-
soil and coarse aggregates (different sizes) resulting in the ture. The following experiments were carried out in the
selected gradation are shown in Table 5. laboratory: particle size distribution, Proctor compaction
The optimized soil-aggregate mix (SA40) was then tests, UCS tests, CBR tests, and microstructural analy-
treated with varying cement contents (2%, 3% and 4%) and sis by XRD and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
nano-chemical additives [0.4, 0.8, 1.2, and 1.6 kg/m3 by The laboratory tests are described as follows.
weight of mix]. The specimen nomenclature correspond- The Proctor compaction test, conducted following [24]
ing to the contents of aggregates, cement, and nano-chemi- standards, involved a modified approach to determine
cals is illustrated in Fig. 4. For example, the mix SA40C4N1.2 the optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum
represents soil aggregate mix (40% aggregates and 60% dry density (MDD) of different soil-aggregate (S-A) and
soil) with 4% cement and 1.2 kg/m3 dosage of nano-chem- soil-aggregate-cement (S-A-C) mixes. Subsequently,
ical additive. The two nano-chemical additives were com- the UCS was determined using an automatic compres-
bined in the ratio of 1:1 for a given content (for example, sion testing machine (ACTM) as per IS 516 [25] guide-
lines. Additionally, the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
test, a widely-used penetration test to assess the strength
of unbound pavement materials, was conducted follow-
ing [26] regulations. The CBR test was carried out on the
soil-aggregate-cement mixes after determining their MDD
and OMC, and all tests had a soaking period of 96 hours
(4 days). Finally, SEM and XRD analyses were performed
using a Zeiss Gemini-1 Sigma 500 Emission Scanning
Electron Microscope and Rigaku XRD-D1, respectively,
on treated and untreated soil-aggregate-cement specimens
to gain insights into the underlying mechanisms of cement
and nano-chemical effects on various subbase samples.

4 Construction and testing of field sections

In this phase of the study, several field sections were
Fig. 3 Soil-aggregate mix (SA40) gradation
laid with selected dosages of cement and nano-chem-
Table 5 Proportion of coarse aggregates and soil
icals and were subsequently evaluated using LWD for
Aggregates 10 [mm] 20 [mm] 40 [mm] Soil
deflections and moduli. The field sections were located
Percentage [%] 15 5 20 60 in Ludhiana, India (30°42′N 76°13′E). Six field sections
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each of length 10 m were identified over a road length of After proper mixing, samples were taken from each
60 m. One section was the control (Section 1: SA40) with- field section for UCS testing, and the molds were filled
out cement and nano-chemicals, three sections contained using a heavyweight and a dry lean concrete (DLC) ham-
cement (Section 2: SA40C2, Section 3: SA40C3, Section 4: mer. The road was ready for compaction after mixing.
SA40C4), and the final two sections contained both cement A three-wheel/drum static road roller was employed for
and nano-chemicals (Section 5: SA40C2N1.2, Section 6: compaction of subbase. To ensure correct compaction at
SA40C3N1.2). The optimum dosage of nano-chemical was each spot, an LWD was utilized to check the in-situ com-
determined as 1.2 kg/m3 from the laboratory tests (results paction of soil. After the compaction was completed, the
presented in Section 5), and thus this dosage was used sections were marked for the LWD testing. Four points
during the construction of field sections. The required were chosen in each section, and the LWD test was per-
quantity of cement was spread in the different sections, formed as shown in Fig. 7.
followed by spraying the quantity of water corresponding IRC 37 (2018) [22] recommends that the average lab-
to the OMC. A rotavator was used to mix/blend the soil, oratory strength values should be 1.5 times the field val-
aggregate, cement, and water together. To ensure a consis- ues. The LWD test was performed in the field to check
tent manual distribution of cement, length and width for the deflection to ensure proper compaction at the time of
spreading the cement bags were marked as shown in Fig. 5. laying. LWD is a handy equipment that allows much faster
The moisture content of the soil in the field was measured data acquisition and records more properties compared
with a moisture meter and was found to be 2.8%. The quan- to the conventional sand replacement method, which can
tity of water to be added was corrected for the field mois- only provide field density. After laying the field sections,
ture content. After spreading of cement, the nano-chemical samples were extracted from the site and brought to the
was poured inside the water tanker as shown in Fig. 6 (a). laboratory for UCS testing.

Fig. 5 Spreading of cement on the field sections

(a) (b)
Fig. 6 (a) Adding nano-chemicals, (b) Spraying of water containing nano-chemicals
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Table 7 Average LWD testing results after 28 days

Average Average Average Average
Section Radius
Load Stress Deflection E-Mod
description (mm)
(kN) (kPa) (µm) (MPa)
SA40 150 12.02 169.96 356 128
SA40C2 150 11.48 162.56 274 172
Fig. 7 Plan of road and points for LWD testing SA40C3 150 12.01 162.93 238 194
SA40C4 150 12.15 172.04 236 195
4.1 LWD testing on field sections
SA40C2N1.2 150 11.9 172.6 160 283
LWD test was performed at different points on the six field
SA40C3N1.2 150 11.31 172.7 93 488
sections immediately after laying the subbase and after
28 days to compare the modulus and deflection values.
The LWD testing locations are shown in Fig. 8. The LWD
was used at the time of laying to check the degree of com-
paction using deflection values. The ratio of the in-situ
density to the highest laboratory dry density is used to
define the degree of compaction. Testing on each point
involved six drops of the base-weight (20 kg). Out of the
six drops, the first three were considered as seating loads,
and the final drop was used for the evaluation of material
properties. Tables 6 and 7 show the average values of dif-
ferent parameters used in LWD testing.

5 Results and discussion

5.1 Compaction curves of S-A and S-A-C mixes
The MDD and OMC values of soil-aggregate (S-A) and Fig. 9 Compaction curves of SA mixes
soil-aggregate-cement (S-A-C) mixes were determined
from heavy Proctor compaction tests. Figs. 9 and 10 show

Fig. 8 Marking of points and conducting the LWD testing

Table 6 Average LWD testing results at the time of laying Fig. 10 Compaction curves of S-A mixes at different cement contents
Average Average Average Average
Section Radius
description (mm)
Load Stress Deflection E-Mod the compaction curves of S-A and S-A-C mixes, respec-
(kN) (kPa) (µm) (MPa)
tively. From Fig. 9, it is seen that as the percentage of
SA40 150 12.02 169.96 508.86 87.4
aggregates increased in an S-A mix, there was an increase
SA40C2 150 11.48 162.56 412 118.45
in the MDD and decrease in the OMC. Fig. 10 shows
SA40C3 150 12.01 162.93 356.21 129.95
that both MDD and OMC increased with the addition of
SA40C4 150 12.15 172.04 251 139.15
cement. With an increase in cement content, there is an
SA40C2N1.2 150 11.52 162.95 369 123.05
increase in the heat of hydration released, thus increasing
SA40C3N1.2 150 11.31 159.8 361.22 136.85
the amount of water needed for mixing [27, 28]. The rise in
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Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng., 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024

MDD values at higher cement contents are also consistent

with the trends reported in past studies [29, 30].

5.2 UCS results

The S-A and S-A-C mixtures with and without nano-chem-
ical additives were tested for UCS, and the results are
presented in Figs. 11 to 13. Considering the UCS of S-A
mixes (Fig. 11), the maximum UCS was obtained for SA40
(soil-aggregate mix with 60% soil and 40% aggregates) at
1.76 MPa. For this reason, the SA40 mix was selected for fur-
ther evaluation with cement and nano-chemical additives.
Fig. 12 shows the UCS values of S-A-C mixes after
7 and 28-days curing. An increase in cement content
resulted in a higher UCS value, as also reported in past
Fig. 13 Variation of 7 and 28 days UCS of S-A40 mix with different
studies [31, 32]. IRC 37 (2018) specifications require nano-chemical and cement contents

that CTSB should possess 1.5 to 3.0 MPa strength (after

7 days), and therefore there is no need to exceed the
cement percentage beyond 3% as it may be uneconomi-
cal. The addition of cement from 2% to 4% increased the
7-days UCS from 2.03 MPa to 2.6 MPa which is 28%
increase. Comparing 7-days and 28-days UCS, the per-
centage increase in the strength for mix with 2%, 3% and
4% cement contents was 110%, 112%, and 118%, respec-
tively. An increase in cement content causes greater pro-
duction of C-S-H gel forming cementitious compounds
and thus imparts greater strength to the mixes [33].
Fig. 13 presents the UCS values of CTSB mixes with dif-
ferent nano-chemical dosages after 7-days and 28-days cur-
ing. The Fig. 13 shows an improvement in the 7-days and
Fig. 11 Average 7-days UCS of SA x mixes
28-days UCS values with an increase in the nano-chemical
dosage. The 7-days strength development beyond 1.2 kg/m3
dosage of nano-chemical was minimal, hence the optimum
dosage of nano-chemical was determined as 1.2 kg/m3.
Additionally, sufficient 7-days strength (3.58 MPa to
6.7 MPa) was attained satisfying the IRC 37 (2018) require-
ments (i.e. 1.5 to 3 MPa after 7 days) using 1.2 kg/m3 dos-
age. Hence, there was no need to increase the nano-chem-
ical additive concentration beyond 1.2 kg/m3 as it would
become uneconomical. The minimal improvement in the
strength as the dosage of the nano-chemical increased
beyond 1.2 kg/m3 could be due to the agglomeration of
nano-chemical particles in the SAx matrix, which may
reduce the rate of strength development. The 7-days UCS
values for SA40C2N1.2, SA40C3N1.2 and SA40C4N1.2 were
found to be 57.6%, 60.5% and 146.2% higher than SA40C2,
Fig. 12 Variation of average 7 and 28 days UCS of SA40 mix with SA40C3 and SA40C4, respectively. This shows that the effect
cement content of nano-chemical is enhanced at higher cement contents.
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5.3 CBR results

Soaked CBR tests (after 96 h soaking) were performed on
SA40, SA40C2, SA40C3, SA40C4, SA40C2N1.2, and SA40C3N1.2
mixes. Fig. 14 presents the CBR results. The results
show that introducing the nano-chemical additive greatly
improved the CBR values. It is further observed that
with an increase in cement percentage, the CBR value
increased and continued to increase with further addition
of nano-chemical. The CBR value for the SA40 mix that
contained soil and aggregate (60:40) was 18.4%, but with
the addition of cement the value increased to 37.2% for
SA40C4 which is about 102.2% increase in strength. This
increase in the strength could be attributed to the increase
in the hydration reaction which reduces the porosity by fill-
ing the voids as the cement content increases. After treat-
ing the mixes with nano-chemical the value of the CBR Fig. 15 Field UCS values of S-A mixes
continued to increase and reached 58.8% for SA40C3N1.2.
The addition of nano-chemical densifies the matrix by The UCS value increased and continued to improve with
forming a very dense C-S-H gel within the soil-aggregate the addition of cement and nano-chemical as shown by the
matrix. The findings concur with those from earlier stud- 7-days and 28-days UCS. The 7-day UCS for the SA40 mix
ies [34, 35]. Comparing the CBR of control mix (SA40) without nano-chemical and cement was 1.6 MPa and it con-
with the optimal mix (SA40C3N1.2), the addition of cement tinued to rise to 3.52 MPa for SA40C3N1.2, which is 120%
and chemical increased the CBR value by 219%. increase in strength. The higher strength is attributed to
the availability of nano-chemical for interaction within the
5.4 UCS results for field sections soil matrix as compared to the control soil-aggregate mix
After laying the field sections, 150 mm cubical samples (SA40). The production of C-S-H gel, which tends to fill the
were collected and then tested for UCS after 7-days and gaps and make the soil aggregate matrix denser may also
28-days curing. Fig. 15 presents the UCS results of the sam- be responsible for the higher strength.
ples collected from field sections. The addition of cement
from 2% to 4% increased the 7-days UCS from 1.9 MPa 5.5 LWD testing results for field sections
to 2.4 MPa, which is 26.3% improvement in strength. LWD allows a quick assessment of the compaction quality
of soils and unbound pavement layers. The dynamic LWD
modulus is empirically associated with the soil's degree of
compaction. The LWD modulus values (just after laying and
after 28 days) for different field sections are shown in Fig. 16,
while Fig. 17 shows the LWD deflection values. The modu-
lus and the deflection are inversely correlated to one another.
Figs. 16 and 17 depict that the use of nano-chemical addi-
tive enhanced the LWD modulus values and reduced the cor-
responding deflection. The modulus just after laying of the
subbase increased from 87.4 MPa to 139.15 MPa for SA40
and SA40C4 respectively, which is a 56.6% improvement.
The modulus of SA40C3N1.2 was found to be 136.85 MPa, a lit-
tle less than that for SA40C4. This could be attributed to a lower
content of cement and moreover the effect of nano-chemi-
cal might not have been mobilized yet. The 28-days mod-
ulus results showed a clear trend with the modulus values
Fig. 14 CBR for different S-A mixes rising from 128 MPa to 488 MPa for SA40 and SA40C3N1.2,
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5.6 Microstructural analysis

The XRD pattern of samples SA40, SA40C3, SA40C3N1.2
are shown in Fig. 18. All samples exhibited SiO2 as the
major phase along with CaCO3. Apart from these crys-
talline phases, CaSiAl2O6·H2O phase was also pres-
ent in SA40C3. With the addition of nano-chemicals in
SA40C3 sample, SiO2 (Q-quartz), CaCO3 (C-calcium
carbonate), CaAl2Si2O8·4(H2O) (G-gismondine) and
Ca6Al2(SO4)3OH12·26H2O (E-ettringites) phases are
observed. Earlier researches have also shown the develop-
ment of crystalline phases of calcium hydrates, which results
in durability and strength [9, 36]. The addition of nanopar-
ticles further enhances the volume fraction of quartz (SiO2)
phase thereby adding more strength to the mix.
Fig. 16 LWD moduli of field sections at the time of laying and The samples were treated with cement (2%, 3% and
after 28 days
4%) and nano-chemicals (1.2 kg/m3) and SEM analysis
was performed after 28 days of curing to understand the
morphology of the samples. The SEM images of SA40,
SA40C3 and SA40C3N1.2 were taken on the solid samples
and are shown in Fig. 19. The Fig. 19 (a) shows that SA40
mix contained a large number of pores in the matrix and
larger particles of SiO2 while smaller particles may cor-
respond to CaCO3. It can be observed from Fig. 19 (b)
that the addition of cement reduced the samples' poros-
ity and enhanced the binding among the various constit-
uents. The porosity of the soil-aggregate mixture is fur-
ther decreased by the inclusion of higher concentration
of cement and nano-chemical in the matrix as shown in
Fig. 19 (c). This might be because of larger concentration
of nano-silica available. The cementing action and the for-
Fig. 17 LWD deflection values of field sections at the time of laying mation of C-S-H gel is seen clearly as the cement percent-
and after 28 days age increased. The development of the cementitious com-
pounds that make up dicalcium and tricalcium silicates
respectively. The increase in the 28-days modulus value was may be related to the improvement in the soil-aggregate
about 280%. This is because voids in the untreated soil-ag-
gregate mix are filled by cement and the remaining voids are
filled by the nano-chemical making the mix denser and ulti-
mately raising the modulus, which is also confirmed by the
microstructural analysis (discussed in Section 5.6).
Although the deflection values were measured shortly
after laying in order to check the degree of compaction,
the highest deflection was observed for SA40 field section,
which also has the least modulus and the minimum deflec-
tion was observed for SA40C4 having the highest modu-
lus. The LWD test was again performed after 28 days.
On comparing the modulus and deflection values after
28 days, the mix with the least deflection and highest mod-
ulus was found to be SA40C3N1.2, which is considered as
the optimum mix in the study. Fig. 18 XRD results for SA40, SA40C3, and SA40C3N1.2
1008|Hazim et al.
Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng., 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024

along with cement accelerates the hydration reaction, com-

pressing the pores and producing a denser mixture. These
results are in a strong agreement with the UCS, CBR and
XRD tests presented and discussed earlier.
The SEM images show that with an increase in the cement
percentage, the densification of the matrix increased, and this
is because porosity reduced to a greater extent with the addi-
tion of cement. Fig. 20 shows the cement action in presence
of nano-chemical. The mix with 4% cement and 1.2 kg/m3

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 19 SEM images of (a) SA40, (b) SA40C3, and (c) SA40C3N1.2

matrix [37]. With the addition of nano-chemicals in

SA40C3 a rod type morphology was also observed. It could
be related to Ca6Al2(SO4)3OH12·26H2O (ettringites) crys-
talline phase. The presence of the nanoparticles tends to
fill the pores lowering the matrix's porosity. The highly
reactive silica found in nano-chemicals combines with
the calcium to create a denser soil matrix through the
interlocking of pores which was also seen in the earlier (c)
researches [38, 39]. Moreover, adding nano-chemicals Fig. 20 SEM images of (a) SA40C2N1.2, (b) SA40C3N1.2, and (c) SA40C4N1.2
 Hazim et al.
Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng., 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024 |1009

nano-chemical (SA40C4N1.2) has a dense composition because economical for ensuing their financial viability for field
of the formation of compounds like SiO2 and CaCO3 on the applications. Inputs used to estimate the cost of a roadway
surface, which is also reflected from the higher compressive construction project are the road's length, the road's width,
strength (about 126.6% higher than that of SA40C2N1.2). the layer's thickness, and the cost of 1 m3 of the material.
The addition of cement in SA40 increased the mechani- The total thickness for the conventional design came
cal strength of the sample approximately 1.5 times because out to be 480 mm and that of the most optimal section
of the matrix's reduction in porosity, which is clear from was 390 mm, which is a 23% reduction in the thickness.
the SEM images. Intriguingly, the addition of nano-chemi- The cost of conventional section was 140.99 lac INR
cal in SA40C3 sample enhanced the mechanical strength by (1 lac INR = 0.1 million INR) and that of the most optimum
three times than the SA40 sample because of the formation of section (SA40C3N1.2) was 105.9 lac INR which is a reduc-
ettringites that resulted in the densification of the matrix [40]. tion of 33% in the cost. Fig. 23 shows the cost compari-
sons between the conventional design and the most optimal
6 Pavement design and economic analysis design (SA40C3N1.2). It is evident that the traditional design
The modulus values obtained from the LWD test were used is quite expensive and the use of cement treated chemically
to analyse the pavement sections using IITPAVE software. stabilized subbases can lower the cost by 33%.
IITPAVE is the software used for analysis and design of
flexible pavements in India based on mechanistic-empiri- 7 Conclusions
cal philosophy. A design traffic of 5 million standard axles This study assessed subbase materials made with soil-ag-
was used to perform the pavement design and analysis. gregate and soil-aggregate-cement, both with and without
Table 8 shows the allowable and actual strains for different nano-chemical additives. Laboratory tests were conducted
sections obtained from the software. Rutting and fatigue for compaction characteristics, UCS, and CBR. Field
are the two primary distress mechanisms considered in subbase sections were then constructed using the con-
the design of flexible pavements in India. The allowable trol, cement-treated, and cement+nano-chemical treated
strains for rutting and fatigue were calculated using the mixes, and evaluated with LWD. Pavement design and
transfer functions proposed in IRC 37 [23]. Results indi- economic analysis were also conducted. The study's con-
cate that actual rutting and fatigue strains reduced because clusions are presented as follows.
the stabilized subbase layer has a higher modulus. UCS values increased with higher cement and
Fig. 21 displays the various layer thicknesses for the nano-chemical percentages. Optimum dosage was found
conventional design and the designs with stabilized sub- at 3% cement and 1.2 kg/m3 nano-chemical. 7-days lab
bases. The conventional section has the highest total pave- UCS of treated CTSB mix was about 103.4% higher than
ment crust thickness value compared to other sections. control. 28-days UCS was approximately 80% higher.
The most optimal section (SA40C3N1.2) has the lowest total 28-days field UCS improved by around 166.7% with 3%
thickness and strain values resulting in higher strength. cement and 1.2 kg/m3 nano-chemical in SA40 mix.
Fig. 22 compares the thickness of the conventional section With the addition of cement and nano-chemical, the
and the most optimal chemically-stabilized section. CBR value increased from 18.4% for SA40 (60% soil and
Economic analysis of the pavement sections was also 40% aggregates) mix to 58.8% for SA40C3N1.2 (60% soil
performed in this study. It is desirable that the innova- and 40% aggregates + 3% cement + 1.2 kg/m3 chemical).
tive technologies proposed in the study are relatively The increase in the percentage of CBR value was 219%.

Table 8 Allowable strains and actual strains for different field sections
E-Mod Allowable subgrade Allowable fatigue Actual subgrade rutting Actual fatigue cracking
Section description
(MPa) rutting strain (×106) cracking strain (×106) strain (×106) strain (×106)
Conventional section 186.76 548 318.6
SA40 128 612.3 207
SA40C2 172 611.6 204.4
SA40C3 194 784.3 465 611.1 203.7
SA40C4 195 610.5 203.6
SA40C2N1.2 283 608.1 199.9
SA40C3N1.2 488 566 192.1
1010|Hazim et al.
Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng., 68(3), pp. 999–1012, 2024

Fig. 23 Cost comparison of conventional and nano-chemical stabilized

Fig. 21 Pavement design thicknesses for field sections sections (1 lac INR = 0.1 million INR)

formation's densifying effect was evident in micrographs of

soil-aggregate mix treated with cement and nano-particles.
Pavement analysis demonstrated that the optimal sub-
base mix SA40C3N1.2 required a 390 mm thickness to
support low volume traffic, while the conventional sec-
tion needed 480 mm. Economic analysis indicated that
SA40C3N1.2 was 33% more cost-effective than the conven-
Fig. 22 Thickness comparison of conventional pavement design and tional pavement for low volume roads.
design with nano-chemical treated subbase Future research efforts will focus on a detailed deflec-
tometric study of the field sections using a falling weight
LWD studies showed an increase in the modulus as the deflectometer to assess the material's capability for suit-
nano-chemical and cement dosage increased. The SA40C4 ability for use in heavily-trafficked pavements.
mix had the highest modulus at the time of laying. After
28 days, SA40C3N1.2 mix showed the highest modulus and Acknowledgments
the least deflection. Nano-chemicals used in this study were sponsored by
Microstructural analysis revealed rod-like structures Zydex Industries Pvt. Ltd. The authors gratefully acknowl-
(ettringites) forming due to the utilization of nano-chem- edge the industry for the nano-chemicals and their coopera-
icals, leading to matrix densification. The CSH gel tion and assistance during the construction of field sections.

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