OCR Psychology A-level

Paper 1: Research Methods

Self Reports
For the OCR specification there are four main techniques to learn for the collection and analysis of
data in a psychological study. These techniques are​ ​self-report​, ​experiment​, ​observation​ and
correlation​. ​This resource will cover the self-report method.

SELF-REPORT:
A method of gathering data where participants provide information about themselves, such as their
thoughts and behaviours, without interference from the experimenter.

Types of Self-Report:
● Questionnaires
● Interviews
● Diary entries
● Psychometric Tests

Self-reports can be used as part of a study as a way of ​measuring the dependent variable ​(DV).​ ​ It
can however be used where there is no independent variable (IV) to gain data on a particular
subject, eg. Interviewing criminals about their childhood. This means that the information gained is
often subjective and from an individual's’ own perspective.

An example of using a self report could be an experimenter wanting to find out whether the
temperature outside affects people’s mood. The temperature each day could be measured and
recorded, and each participant would fill out a questionnaire once a day that asks them to rate their
mood on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 being very unhappy, 10 being very happy).

When recording data in a study, it is categorised as being ​QUANTITATIVE​ or ​QUALITATIVE.

Quantitative:​ ​Numerical​ data that expresses a quantity, amount or range, usually associated with
units. This is very useful for comparing the data collected and directly applying statistical tests.

Qualitative:​ ​Non-numerical data​, usually with detailed descriptions that describe the data rather
than define it. This is very useful for providing extra details and explanations from participants, but
makes comparing and categorising data more difficult.

Questionnaires
A set of questions given in written form.
There are several different types of question format that can appear on a questionnaire:

Provide ​qualitative​ data as the participant can respond in their own words,
giving as much detail as they choose.
Eg. What is your favourite childhood memory?
 Provide ​quantitative​ data as the available responses that the participant
can give are limited. This means the response may lack detail, but can be
easily quantified.

There are different types of closed questions that you need to know: ​fixed choice​, ​checklist​,
ranking​, ​likert scale​ and ​semantic differential scale​. These are explained below.

Fixed Choice:​ The question is phrased so that the participant must choose a response from given
choices, usually “yes” or “no”. For example: “Are you a vegetarian? Yes/No”

Checklist:​ The participant is given a list of options to respond to the given question and are asked
to choose one/ as many that apply.
For example:
“Which of these subjects do you study for A-Levels? (Tick all that apply)”
● Mathematics
● Physics
● Biology
● Chemistry
● Music
● Psychology
● Art
● Economics

Ranking:​ ​Participants must put a list of options into order as instructed by the question. For
example: “Rank the following revision techniques according to how often you use them (1 = Most
often, 5 = Least often)
● Making posters
● Mind Maps
● Reading textbooks
● Watching videos
● Teaching a friend

Likert Scale:​ ​Participants indicate on a scale how much they agree with a statement given.
For example: “I enjoy going to sixth form/ college” Circle one answer:
Strongly agree/ Agree/ Unsure/ Disagree/ Strongly disagree.

Semantic Differential Scale:​The respondent must indicate which of two contrasting adjectives
they agree with in regards to a statement given.
For example: “How was your summer holiday this year? (Circle one) Exciting/ Boring.”
 Strengths of Questionnaires Weaknesses of Questionnaires

Questionnaires are ​easy to administer​ to There may be ​response bias​, such as a

participants as they can be posted or emailed. tendency to always choose a certain answer,
skipping questions or being distracted.

They can be used to gain data from a ​very Bias can still be present if the participant wants
large sample or population. to impress or help the experimenter gain the
results they want.

They are ​time and cost efficient​ (if sent over Participants may​ interpret questions
email this is free and can be done in the differently or misunderstand them​ which will
participants’ own time) give invalid and uncomparable results.

Quantitative data gained through closed Open questions and qualitative data will gain
questions is​ easy to compare and analyse data that is ​difficult to analyse and
and is ideal for use in ​statistical tests. categorise.

Open questions allow for experimenters to find The possible responses allocated for closed
out ​personal perspectives and reasons questions ​may not represent the
behind thoughts and decisions. participants true answer​; the participant has
to respond in some way despite their answer
not being a valid choice, giving unrealistic
results.

Demand characteristics and social

desirability bias are less likely​ as the
participant will write the responses in their own
time and may even be anonymous. This gives
more valid data.

Questionnaires are the ​only way of gaining

data​ for some topics such as opinions and
thoughts as these cannot be measured in any
other way.

Interviews
A series of verbal questions given face-to-face between an interviewer and an interviewee (the
participant).
There are three different types of interview that you must know:

1. Structured Interview

A structured interview has predetermined questions which are asked in exactly the same way and
in the same order to each interviewee with no deviations. They use closed-ended questions that
can be quantified.
 Strengths of a Structured Interview Weaknesses of a Structured Interview

The standardised procedure involved ensures The inflexibility of the interview questions
that the ​interviews are easily replicable. means that​ key details may be missed​ as new
questions cannot be raised during the
interview.

As they will not deviate from the set questions, Only closed questions are asked, meaning the
they are usually quite ​quick​ and can be data gained is ​quantitative and lacks detail.
completed in the same time for each
participant.

Structured interviews are useful for​ ensuring

methodological reliability​ due to
standardisation.

2. Semi-structured Interview

A semi-structured interview has guidelines on which questions to ask and topics to cover, but can
deviate and vary with each individual according to what other relevant topics may be raised. They
can contain open and closed questions and the timings and phrasing can vary with each interview.

Strengths of a Semi-Structured Interview Weaknesses of a Semi-Structured Interview

Semi-structured interviews enable the It is difficult to use qualitative data gained from
researcher to gain additional details. open or unique questions in statistical tests or
when looking for patterns.

The interviews will all cover the specified topics Researcher bias can occur as the lack of
so data can be used for comparison to an structure could allow for leading questions that
extent. alter the responses.

3. Unstructured

In an unstructured interview, only the topic of discussion such as childhood, jobs or experiences
are planned, with no particular questions being predetermined. All the questions are open and the
process itself is more like a ‘guided conversation’ than a formal interview.

Strengths of an Unstructured Interview Weaknesses of an Unstructured Interview

Increased concurrent validity as the interviewer The interviews must not create bias through
can offer clarification or reword questions when leading questions or leading body language.
needed, so the information gained is truly To avoid this, they must be trained which is not
accurate. cost effective.

The flexibility of the questions means that they It is also very time consuming to interview each
 can be altered and added to according to the participant if the sample is very large.
responses received, allowing extra detail to be
gained.

Qualitative data is gained, allowing for highly Analysing and categorising the data gained is
detailed information. difficult as it is qualitative. This makes it harder
to make conclusions or find significant results
that support/disprove the alternate hypothesis.

Diary Entries
You need to know what a diary entry is and how this is a form of self-report as it can appear in
Paper 1 or Paper 2 in section C (practical applications).

Participants may keep a diary for a determined amount of time, in which they write down thoughts,
events or particular responses to a given topic by the experimenter.

For example, during a drug trial participants may keep a diary entry that notes down any side
affects or thoughts they have on the medication and its usefulness throughout a given time period.

Diary entries are useful for gaining vast amounts of qualitative data from a large sample quite
quickly, with minimal researcher bias or social desirability effects as the participant may be
anonymous. However, the data cannot be easily compared or statistically analysed.

Psychometric Tests
A psychometric test is a series of standardised, closed questions that measure the mental
characteristics of the participant. This could include IQ, cognitive abilities or personality traits. For
the exam you will need to know that they are administered in the form of a questionnaire and are
used as a measurement tool.

Psychometric tests are designed to test and measure certain characteristics in order to use the
data gained to compare and analyse the results from each participant.

They are often used alongside job interviews to give a value that measures the individual's
cognitive abilities in relation to job tasks so that the applicants are compared in a more fair way.

Evaluating Self-Reports: Validity

Internal:​ Does a self-report actually measure what it is supposed to?

External:​ Do the results gained from using a self-report method apply to real life?
Lacking external validity means that the results cannot be generalised to real populations or
situations.

Population:​ ​Can the results gained from the sample be generalised to the target population?
If the target population is car drivers in the UK, giving a questionnaire only to women from Cornwall
aged 20-40 will cause the results to lack population validity as the sample does not represent the
target population on which the research is intended to apply to.

Low population validity means that the results cannot be generalised to a larger population.

Ecological:​ ​How well do the results gained from using the self report method apply to real life
situations and environments?

If a questionnaire asks people how they feel they would respond in an emergency situation, is this
a true indicator of how that person would behave in certain situations? Arguably it is not, because
the results gained may not reply to the real life scenario in question as many other situational and
personal factors would then be involved. This type of self-report therefore may lack ecological
validity.

The researchers may also have little control over results gained from self-report as extraneous
variables are difficult to control as, for example, if a questionnaire is filled out in the participants
home, variables such as distractions, tiredness, or time may all be contributing factors to the
responses made. This is another way in which this method can lack ecological validity.

To improve validity when using the self-report method:

● Removing any leading questions or opportunities for socially desirable responses (e.g make
questionnaires anonymous).
● Add open questions that collect qualitative data so that the data collected is relevant to the
issue being researched.
● Ensure the sample is representative and unbiased. This could be achieved using a random
sampling or using a large sample, for example.

Reliability:

Test retest:​ ​This is a efficient way of ensuring reliability when using the self-report method. The
same participant is tested with the same measures over a period of time to ensure the consistency
of the measure and the responses.

For example, the participants could fill out the same questionnaire over a period of time to see if
their responses change at all. If they do not change significantly across all participants, then the
measure (which in this case would be the questionnaire used) has external reliability.

Split-half:​ ​Tests the consistency of a measure by splitting a test in half. This is useful for
psychometric tests or questionnaires. It ensures that each part of the test contributes equally to the
results.
For example, this method could be used to assess the internal reliability of an IQ test. If on the first
50 questions of 100, a participant achieves an IQ score of 80, but on the second 50 questions
achieves an IQ score of 120 then this IQ test lacks split half reliability.

To improve reliability when using the self-report method:

● Use methods such as split half and test retest to check that the results have reliability.
● Ensure that procedures are standardised - train interviewers and write detailed instructions
for questionnaires to avoid ambiguity.