Ecosystem

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 09 Ecosystem

Sarcogyps Calvus
(Red-headed Vulture)
Critically Endangered Species in India

Learning Outcomes from the Chapter Analysis of the Chapter

• What are the functions of ecosystem? • This chapter explains about the mechanism involved in
• Productivity through the mechanisms involved in the ecosystem.
Ecosystem. • It explains the processes involved in various ecosystem.
• Physical function or energy flow involving trophic level • Food web and food chains have been clearly explained
information’s of the ecosystem. to bring out the difference between the two.
• Involvement of Biogeochemical functions in the • Various type of threats to the grassland ecosystem have
Ecosystem. been explained.
• Biotic and Abiotic functions of the ecosystem. • Processes involved in conservation various types of
• What are ecological pyramids? ecosystem.
• What are food webs?
• Various kinds of ecosystem.
• What are the threats to the forest ecosystem?
• How can forest ecosystems be conserved?

Issues to Ponder
• Ecosystem degradation • Resource utilisation - • Ecological succession - • Food chains - Flow
- Impact of degradation Effect of exploitation of Impact on biodiversity ............ of it disturbs
on resources • Forest ecosystem - ecosystem.
• Food webs - • Ecological pyramids - Inner mechanism of • Grassland ecosystem
• Land soil realms Importance of species Ecosystem. - Mechanism behind
• Evolution. • Inorganic aspects • Climatic regimes ........... ......
• Producers • Decomposers or • Macro consumers
detrivores

types of biomes, for example. They’re organized very generally,

Introduction based on the types of plants and animals that live in them.
Within each forest, each pond, each reef, or each section of
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature, tundra, there are many different ecosystems.
where living organisms interact among themselves and also with
the surrounding physical environment. Living or biotic factors Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a global
include plants, animals, and other organisms. Non-living or ecosystem, as a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth.
abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity. Since this system is too much big and complex to be studied
at one time, it is convenient to divide it into two basic
Every factor in an ecosystem depends on every other factor, categories, namely the terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest,
either directly or indirectly. Ecosystem varies greatly in size from grassland and desert are some examples of terrestrial
a small pond to a large forest or a sea. The whole surface of ecosystems; pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are some
Earth is a series of connected ecosystems. Ecosystems are often examples of aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium
connected in a larger biome. Biomes are large sections of land, may also be considered as man-made ecosystems.
sea, or atmosphere. Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all
 Ecosystems The Nitrogen Cycle
itrogen is a critical element for life. Without it,
cosystems include the populations of living things that make up a community and their interactions plants could not live, and thus animals could not
with the nonliving elements of the environment (the biotope). Although each ecosystem is N exist. Air is made up of 70% nitrogen, but plants
uniquely variable and complex, all ecosystems exhibit two conditions: (1) a unidirectional flow of cannot use it in its gaseous form. Plants can only take
in certain nitrogen compounds found in the soil.
E
energy that originates with the Sun and permits all the various organisms to live and develop and (2) a
1. Dead animals and the waste products of living Nitrogen is reserved
cyclic flow of various materials. These materials, such as nutrients, originate in the environment, pass in the atmosphere.
animals contain nitrogen that some bacteria
through organisms in the environment, and return once again to the environment.
and fungi can convert into ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium (NH4).
Food Webs and Energy Flows 2. Other kinds of bacteria convert these
True food webs are established in each ecosystem. compounds into nitrites (NO2 ) . Nitrates are
There are primary producers, primary and secondary toxic to plants.
consumers, and decomposers. The energy flow in such 3. Other kinds of bacteria convert some of
food webs begin with the Sun. the nitrites into nitrates (NO3–). Nitrates are
absorbed by plants and used for growth.
Chemical fixation by lightning

4. Plant cell also convert the nitrates into

Every time energy passes from one trophic level ammonium. Ammonium can be combined Animal waste Matter
to another. there are important losses. Each with carbon to make amino acids, proteins,
and other compounds needed by the plants. Decomposers
consumer gains only 10% of the energy that
5. Animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants. This (bacteria/ fungi)
resides in its prey. nitrogen is eventually returned to the soil.
PRIMARY PRODUCERS 6. Losses: A large portion of the nitrogen is lost
from the cycle. Human activity, fire and water
Bacteria return nitrogen to the atmosphere.

Plants on land and algae Ammonia (NH3)

in the water take solar remove nitrogen from the ecosystem. Some Ammonium (NH4)
bacteria convert nitrogen in the soil to nitrogen
energy and transform
gas, which escapes into the atmosphere.
it into chemical energy. Nitrites 
They make up the first
(NO )2

trophic level in the food Of all organic material on

Earth, 99% corresponds to Nitrates NO
web. plants and algae. The rest, in (3 )
animals, does not exceed !%.
DECOMPOSERS
These organisms
(such as fungi, worms,
bacteria and other The carbon Cycle
microorganisms) are arbon is a basic constituent of all organic compounds. The most import-
specialized to make use ant source of carbon for living organisms is carbon for living organisms is
of the sources of energy carbon dioxide (CO2), which makes up almost 0.04% of the air.
(such as cellulose and
nitrogen compounds)
C
Carbon dioxide is incorporated into living Herbivores ingest the ogranic
that cannot be used things by means of plant photosynthesis. compounds made by plants
by other animals. Plants use photosynthesis. Plants and reuse them. They also
use photosynthesis to form organic eliminate carbon dioxide
Decomposers feed compounds. In addition, plants expel through respiration.
carbon dioxide through respiration.
on detritus and other
waste products, usch as TERITARY CONSUMERS When a carnivore eats a
These are the carnivores that Atmospheric herbivore, it reuses carbon by
feces and dead animals. eat other carnivores. Some on CO2 incorporating this compound
sti Re
As they consume these food chains have as many as bu sp into its body. Carnivores also
m ira
eliminate carbon dioxide
five trophic s levels. Co tio
materials, decomposers Photosynthesis n through respiration.
return ingredients
that circulate in the Not every ecosystem has the
Sun as its principal source of The decomposers
Respiration

food web to the

energy. Once scientists were release carbon
environment as new Plants dioxide into the
able to explore the great
depths of the ocean, they Petroleum, coal, atmosphere through
inorganic material. natural gas respiration.
began to discover ecosystems Fossilization Food
whose primary producers
are bacteria that use the Factories and automobiles
heat from the Earth’s interior burn carbon deposited
0.1% PRIMARY CONSUMERS as their primary source of underground in the form of
energy. These organisms live hydrocarbons and release it
The amount of solar These consumers are the herbivoroes that eat the primary under extreme conditions, in as carbon dioxide into the
energy reaching the producers. Primary consumers require part of the chemical dark habitats under very high atmosphere.
pressures, with temperatures
Earth’s surface that is energy that they derive from primary producers to live. that can exceed 570° F Prehistoric Animals Humans
(300° C).
used by living things. Another part is stored within their bodies, and a third part

Ecosystem71
is eliminated without being used.
 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less affected by a
landscape form such as forest, grassland, desert, wetland or certain level of human disturbance. Others are highly fragile and
coastal area. The nature of the ecosystem is based on its are quickly de- stroyed by human activities. Mountain ecosys-
geo- graphical features such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, tems are extremely fragile as degradation of forest cover
lakes, coastal areas or islands. It is also controlled by climatic leads to severe erosion of soil and changes in river courses. Island
conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the temperature ecosystems are easily affected by any form of human activity
and the rainfall in the region. The geographical, climatic and which can lead to the rapid extinction of sev- eral of their
soil characteristics form its non-living (abi- otic) component. unique species of plants and ani- mals. Evergreen forests and
These features create condi- tions that support a community coral reefs are also examples of species rich fragile ecosystems
of plants and animals that evolution has produced to live in which must be protected against a variety of human activities
these specific conditions. The living part of the ecosystem is that lead to their degradation. River and wetland ecosystems
referred to as its biotic component. can be seriously affected by pollution and changes in surround-
Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land- based ing landuse.
ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems in water. These form the
two major habitat condi- tions for the Earth’s living organisms.
All the living organisms in an area live in com- munities Consider ecosystem as relevancy to environment. Look
of plants and animals. They interact with their non-living for geographical conditions those are suitable for
environment, and with each other at different points in time environment. These things helps both is Environment
for a large num- ber of reasons. Life can exist only in a small and Geography as subjects. A question on this relevancy
pro- portion of the earth’s land, water and its atmo- sphere. was asked in 2019.
At a global level the thin skin of the earth on the land, the sea
and the air, forms the bio- sphere. Understanding Ecosystems
At a sub-global level, this is divided into bio- geographical Natural ecosystems include the forests, grass- lands, deserts,
realms, eg. Eurasia called the palaeartic realm; South and and aquatic ecosystems such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea.
South-East Asia (of which India forms a major part) is the Man modified ecosystems include agricultural land and urban or
Oriental realm; North America is the Nearctic realm; South industrial land use patterns.
America forms the Neotropical realm; Africa the Ethiopian
realm; and Australia the Australian realm. Each ecosystem has a set of common features that can be
observed in the field:
At a national or state level, this forms biogeo- graphic regions.
‘What does the ecosystem look like?’
There are several distinctive geographical regions in India-
the Himalayas, the Gangetic Plains, the Highlands of Central One should be able to describe specific fea- tures of the different
India, the Western and Eastern Ghats, the semi-arid desert ecosystems in ones own surroundings. Field observations must
in the West, the Deccan Plateau, the Coastal Belts, and be made in both urban and natural sur- roundings.
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These geographically • What is its structure?
distinctive areas have plants and animals that have been Is it a forest, a grassland, a water body, an agricultural area,
adapted to live in each of these regions. a grazing area, an urban area, an industrial area, etc.?
What you should see are its different char- acteristics. A
At an even more local level, each area has sev- eral structurally
forest has layers from the ground to the canopy. A pond
and functionally identifiable eco- systems such as different types
has differ- ent types of vegetation from the periphery to
of forests, grass- lands, river catchments, mangrove swamps in
its center. The vegetation on a mountain changes from its
deltas, seashores, islands, etc. to give only a few examples. Here
base to its summit.
too each of these forms a habi- tat for specific plants and
• What is the composition of its plant and animal species?
animals.
List the well-known plants and animals you can see. Document
Ecosystems have been formed on land and in the sea by
their abundance and numbers in nature: very common,
evolution that has created species to live together in a specific
common, uncommon, rare. Wild mammals will not be seen
region. Thus ecosys- tems have both non-living and living
in large numbers, cattle would be common. Some birds are
compo- nents that are typical to an area giving it its own
common – which are the most common species? Insect spe-
special characteristics that are easily observed.
cies are very common and most abundant. In fact there are so
Definition: The living community of plants and animals in many that they cannot be easily counted.
any area together with the non-liv- ing components of • ‘How does the ecosystem work’?
the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the The ecosystem functions through several biogeochemical
ecosystem. cycles and energy transfer mechanisms. Observe and
72 Ecosystem
 document the components of the ecosystem which con- If tracked back to their source, one finds that the resources
sists of its non-living or abiotic features such as air, water, were originally obtained from nature and natural ecosystems.
climate and soil. Its biotic com- ponents, the various plants Our insensitiv- ity to using resources carefully has produced
and animals. Both these aspects of the ecosystem inter- act societies that nature can no longer sustain. If one thinks
with each other through several functional aspects to form before wasting resources such as wa- ter, reusing and recycling
Nature’s ecosystems. Plants, herbivores and carnivores can paper, using less plas- tics that are non-degradable, culminatively
be seen to form food chains. All these chains are joined this can have positive implications on the integrity of our
together to form a ‘web of life’ on which man depends. natural resource base and conserve the resources that nature
Each of these use energy that comes from the sun and provides.
pow- ers the ecosystem. Ecosystems and man: Every region of our earth has different
Ecosystem Degradation ecosystems based on its climatic conditions and geographical
feature. There are terrestrial ecosystems on land and aquatic
Ecosystems are the basis of life itself! The natu- ral ecosystems eco- systems in water.
in the wilderness provide a vari- ety of products and are regions
Resource Utilisation
in which a num- ber of vital ecological processes are present,
without which human civilization would not be able to exist. Most traditional societies used their environment sustainably.
Though inequality in resource utili- zation has existed in every
Ecosystems are however frequently disrupted by human actions society, the number of individuals that used a large proportion
which lead to the extinction of species of plants and animals of resources was extremely limited. In recent times the
that can live only in the different natural ecosystems. Some spe- proportion of ‘rich’ people in affluent soci- eties, grew rapidly.
cies if eliminated seriously affect the ecosystem. These are called Inequality thus became a se- rious problem. Whereas in the
‘keystone’ species. Extinction occurs due to changes in land use. past many re- sources such as timber and fuel wood from the
Forests are deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to forest were extracted sustainably, this pattern has drastically
create more agricultural land and semi arid grasslands that are changed during the last century. The economically better off
used as pastures are changed into irrigated fields. Pollution from sections began to use greater amounts of forest products,
industry and waste from urban settings can also lead to ex- while those people who lived in the forest became increasingly
tinction of several species. poor. Similarly the building of large irrigation projects led to
The reason for the depletion of natural resources is twofold – our wealth in those areas that had canals, while those who hand
rapidly exploding population that needs to sustain itself on to re- main dependent on a constant supply of water from the
resources, and the growth of affluent societies, which consume river itself, found it difficult to survive.
and waste a very large proportion of resources and energy. The key to this issue is the need for an ‘equi- table’ distribution
Increasing extraction of resources is at the cost of natural of all types of natural re- sources. A more even sharing of
ecosystems, leading to a derangement of their important resources within the community can reduce these pressures on
functions. Each of us in our daily lives use a variety of resources. the natural ecosystems.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Since each ecosystem has a non-living and a liv- ing part that are linked
Structural aspects to each other, one needs to look around us and observe this closely.
Components that make up the structural as- pects of an This is an important aspect that is a vital part of our lives.
ecosystem include: The non-living components of an ecosystem are the amount of
1. Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O. water, the various inorganic sub- stances and organic compounds,
2. Organic compounds – Protein, Carbo- hydrates, Lipids – and climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature,
link abiotic to bioticaspects. which depend on geographical conditions and location which is
3. Climatic regimes – Temperature, Mois- ture, Light & also related to the amount of sunlight. The living organisms in
Topography. an ecosystem are inseparable from their habitat.
4. Producers – Plants. The living component of plant life ranges from extremely
5. Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Largeanimals. small bacteria, which live in air, wa- ter and soil, algae which
live in fresh and salt water, to the terrestrial plants which range
6. Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers – fungi.
from grasses and herbs that grow after the monsoon every year,
Functional aspects to the giant long-lived trees of the forest. The plants convert
1. Energy cycles. energy from sunlight into organic matter for their growth.
2. Food chains. They thus function as producers in the ecosystem. The liv-
3. Diversity-interlinkages between organ- isms. ing component of the animal world ranges from microscopic
4. Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles. animals, to small insects and the larger animals such as fish,
5. Evolution. amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals. Man is just one of the
1.8 million species of plants and animals that inhabit the earth.
Ecosystem73
 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOM- POSERS
Every living organism is in some way dependent on other live on other fish and marine animals. Animals that live in the
organisms. Plants are food for herbivorous ani- mals which are sea range in size from microscopic forms to giant mammals
in turn food for carnivorous animals. Thus there are different such as the whale.
tropic levels in the ecosys- tem. Some organisms such as fungi Decomposers or detrivores are a group of or- ganisms consisting
live only on dead material and inorganic matter. of small animals like worms, insects, bacteria and fungi,
Plants are the ‘producers’ in the ecosystem as they manufacture which break down dead organic material into smaller particles
their food by using energy from the sun. In the forest these and finally into simpler substances that are used by plants as
form commu- nities of plant life. In the sea these include tiny nutrition. Decomposition thus is a vital function in nature, as
algal forms to large seaweed. without this, all the nutri- ents would be tied up in dead
The herbivorous animals are primary consum- ers as they live matter and no new life could be produced.
on the producers. In a forest, these are the insects, amphibia, Most ecosystems are highly complex and con- sist of an
reptiles, birds and mammals. The herbivorous animals include for extremely large number of individuals of a wide variety of
example hare, deer and elephants that live on plant life. They species. In the species-rich tropical ecosystems (such as in our
graze on grass or feed on the foliage from trees. In grasslands, country), only a few species are very common, while most spe-
there are her- bivores such as the blackbuck that feed on grass. cies have relatively few individuals. Some spe- cies of plants
In the semiarid areas, there are species such as the chinkara or and animals are extremely rare and may occur only at a few
Indian gazelle. In the sea, there are small fish that live on algae locations. These are said to be ‘endemic’ to these areas.
and other plants. When human activities alter the balance in these ecosystems,
At a higher tropic level, there are carnivorous animals, or the “perturbation” leads to the disappearance of these
secondary consumers, which live on herbivorous animals. In uncommon species. When this happens to an endemic
our forests, the carnivorous ani- mals are tigers, leop- ards, species that is not widely distributed, it becomes extinct
jackals, foxes and small wild cats. In the sea, carnivorous fish for all time.

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Every ecosystem has several interrelated mecha- nisms that affect them energy. A large part of this energy is used up for day to
human life. These are the wa- ter cycle, the carbon cycle, the day functions of these ani- mals such as breathing, digesting
oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle. While food, support- ing growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow
every ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem and body temperature. Energy is also used for activities such
its abiotic and biotic features are distinct from each other. as looking for food, finding shel- ter, breeding and bringing up
All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to young ones. The carnivores in turn depend on herbivorous ani-
the growth and regeneration of its plant and animal species. mals on which they feed. Thus the different plant and animal
These linked processes can be depicted as the vari- ous cycles. species are linked to one another through food chains. Each food
These processes depend on energy from sunlight. During chain has three or four links. However as each plant or animal
photosynthesis carbon di- oxide is taken up by plants and can be linked to several other plants or animals through many
oxygen is released. Animals depend on this oxygen for their different linkages, these interlinked chains can be depicted as a
res piration. The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which complex food web. This is thus called the ‘web of life’ that shows
is necessary for plants and animals to live. The energy cycle that there are thousands of interrelation- ships in nature.
recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. Our The energy in the ecosystem can be de picted in the form of a food
own lives are closely linked to the proper functioning of these pyramid or energy pyramid. The food pyramid has a large base of
cycles of life. If human activities go on altering them, humanity plants called ‘produc- ers’. The pyramid has a narrower middle
cannot survive on our earth. section that depicts the number and bio mass of herbivorous
The Energy Cycle animals, which are called ‘first order consumers’. The apex depicts the
small biomass of carnivorous animals called ‘second order consumers’.
The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through
Man is one of the animals at the apex of the pyramid. Thus
the ecosystem. Energy from sunlight is converted by
to support mankind, there must be a large base of herbivorous
plants themselves into growing new plant material which
animals and an even greater quantity of plant material.
includes leaves, flow- ers, fruit, branches, trunks and
roots of plants. When plants and animals die, this ma terial is returned to
Since plants can grow by converting the sun’s energy directly the soil after being broken down into simpler substances by
into their tissues, they are known as producers in the ecosystem. decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and fungi so that
The plants are used by herbivorous animals as food, which gives plants can absorb the nutrients through their roots.

74 Ecosystem
Animals excrete waste products after digesting food, which goes ecosys- tems. Their characteristics are specific to the plant
back to the soil. This links the energy cycle to the Nitrogen and animal communities in the region. This is related to the
cycle. geographical features of the area, the climate and the chemical
composition of the soil. Together the cycles are responsible
Integration of cycles in Nature
for maintaining life on earth. If mankind disturbs these cycles
These cycles are a part of global life processes. These beyond the limits that nature can sustain, they will eventually
biogeochcemical cycles have specific fea- tures in each of the break down and lead to a degraded earth on which man will
ecosystems. These cycles are however linked to those of adjacent not be able to survive.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystems tend produce a more or less stable state at the end of the suc-
to change over a period of time. Succession can be related to cessional stages. Developmental stages in the ecosystem thus
seasonal environ- mental changes, which create changes in consist of a pioneer stage, a series of changes known as serel
the community of plants and animals living in the ecosystem. stages, and finally a climax stage. The successive stages are
Other successional events may take much longer periods of related to the way in which energy flows through the
time extending to sev- eral decades. If a forest is cleared, it biological system. The most fre- quent example of successional
is initially colonized by a certain group of species of plants and changes occur in a pond ecosystem where it fluctuates from a
animals, which gradually change through an orderly process of dry terrestrial habitat to the early colonisation stage by small
community development. One can predict that an opened up aquatic species after the mon- soon, which gradually passes
area will gradually be converted into a grassland, a shrubland through to a ma- ture aquatic ecosystem, and then reverts
and finally a woodland and a forest if permitted to do so without back to its dry stage in summer where its aquatic life remains
human interference. There is a tendency for succession to dormant.

FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECO- LOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The transfer of energy from the source in plants through a The Ecological Pyramids
series of organisms by eating and being eaten constitutes
In an ecosystem, green plants – the producers, utilize energy
food chains. At each transfer, a large proportion of energy is
directly from sunlight and convert it into matter. A large
lost in the form of heat. These food chains are not iso- lated
number of these organ- isms form the most basic, or first
sequences, but are interconnected with each other. This
‘trophic level’ of the food pyramid. The herbivorous animals
interlocking pattern is known as the food web. Each step of
that eat plants are at the second trophic leveland are called
the food web is called a trophic level. Hence green plants oc-
primary consumers. The preda- tors that feed on them
cupy the first level, herbivores the second level, carnivores the
form the third trophic level and are known as secondary
third level and secondary carni- vores the fourth level. These
consumers. Only a few animals form the third trophic level
trophic levels to- gether form the ecological pyramid.
consisting of carnivores at the apex of the food pyramid. This
The Food Chains is how energy is used by living creatures and flows through
the ecosystem from its base to the apex. Much of the energy
The most obvious aspect of nature is that en- ergy must pass is used up in activities of each living organism.
from one living organism to an- other. When herbivorous animals
INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERIS- TIC FEATURES,
feed on plants, energy is transferred from plants to animals. In an
ecosystem, some of the animals feed on other living organisms,
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
while some feed on dead or- ganic matter. The latter form the Types of Ecosystems
‘detritus’ food chain. At each linkage in the chain, a major part of
the energy from the food is lost for daily ac- tivities. Each chain Terrestrial Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems
usually has only four to five such links. However a single species Forest Pond
may be linked to a large number of species. Grassland Lake
The Food Webs Semi and areas Wetland
Deserts River
In an ecosystem there are a very large number of interlinked
Mountains Delta
chains. This forms a food web. If the linkages in the chains that
make up the web of life are disrupted due to human activities islands Marine
that lead to the loss or extinction of species, the web breaks For each of these ecosystems we need to un- derstand 4 basic
down. issues:
Ecosystem75
Ecosystem goods and services What is a forest ecosystem?
Direct Values: These are resources that people depend upon The forest ecosystem has two parts:
directly and are easy to quantify in economic terms. • The non-living or abiotic aspects of the forest: The type
• Consumptive Use Value - Non-market value of fruit, fodder, of forest depends upon the abiotic conditions at the site.
firewood, etc. that are used by people who collect them Forests on mountains and hills differ from those along
from their surrounds.] river valleys. Vegetation is specific to the amount of
• Productive Use Value - Commercial value of timber, fish, rainfall and the local temperature which varies according
medicinal plants, etc. that people collect for sale. to latitude and altitude. Forests also vary in their plant
Indirect Values: These are uses that do not have easy ways to communities in response to the type of soil.
quantify them in terms of a clearly definable price. • The living or the biotic aspects of the for- est: The plants
• Non-consumptive use value - scientific research, bird- and animals form communities that are specific to each
watching, ecotourism, etc. forest type. For instance coniferous trees occur in the
• Option value - maintaining options for the future, so that Himalayas. Mangrove trees occur in river deltas. Thorn
by preserving them one could reap economic benefits in trees grow in arid areas. The snow leopard lives in the
the future. Himalayas while the leopard and tiger live in the forests
• Existence value - ethical and emotional aspects of the of the rest of India. Wild sheep and goats live high up
existence of wildlife and nature. in the Himalayas. Many of the birds of the Himalayan
Terrestrial ecosystems in their natural state are found in different forests are different from the rest of India. Evergreen
types of forests, grasslands, semiarid areas, deserts and sea forests of the Western Ghats and North East India are
coasts. Where the land is intensively used, these have been most rich in plant and animal species.
gradually modified over several thousand years into agricultural The biotic component includes both the large (macrophytes)
and pastoral regions. In the re- cent past they have been rapidly and the microscopic plants and animals.
converted into intensively irrigated agricultural ecosystems or into Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses, and herbs
urban and industrial centers. Though this has increased production in the forest. These include species that flower (angiosperms),
of food and pro- vides the raw material for ‘consumer’ goods that we and non-flow- ering species (gymnosperms) such as ferns, bryo-
use, the overuse and misuse of land and natural ecosystems has led phytes, fungi and algae.
to a serious degradation of our environment. The unsus- tainable use The animals include species of mammals, birds, reptiles,
of environmental goods such as soil, water, fuelwood, timber from amphibians, fish, insects and other in- vertebrates and a variety
forest, grasses and herbs from grasslands for grazing and re- of microscopic animals.
peatedly burning the grass, degrades these natu- ral ecosystems. As the plant and animal species are closely de- pendent on
Similarly, improper use of re- sources can destroy the services that each other, together they form dif- ferent types of forest
the natu- ral ecosystems provide. These processes of na- ture such communities. Man is a part of these forest ecosystems and the
as photosynthesis, climate control, pre- vention of soil erosion are local people depend directly on the forest for several natural
disturbed by many human activities. When our human population resources that act as their life support systems. People who do
was small, most ecosystems could supply all our needs. Resources not live in the forest buy forest products such as wood and
were thus used ‘sustainably’. As industrial ‘development’ led to a paper, which has been extracted from the forest. Thus they
very great increase in consumption of resources, the short term use forest produce indirectly from the market.
economic gains for people became an in- dicator of progress, Forest types in India: The forest type depends upon the abiotic
rather than long term eco- logical benefits. This has resulted in factors such as climate and soil characteristics of a region.
an ‘unsus- tainable use’ of natural resources. Forests thus disappear, Forests in India can be broadly divided into Coniferous forests
rivers run dry, deserts begin to spread, and air, water and soil and Broadleaved forests.
become increasingly pol- luted as by-products of development. They can also be classified according to the na- ture of their
Human well being itself is then seriously affected. tree species – evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn trees,
Forest Ecosystem mangroves, etc. They can also be classified according to the most
abundant species of trees such as Sal or Teak forests. In many
Forests are formed by a community of plants which is
cases a forest is named after the first three or four most
predominantly structurally defined by its trees, shrubs,
abundant tree spe cies.
climbers and ground cover. Natural vegetation looks vastly
different from a group of planted trees, which are in orderly Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan moun- tain region, where
rows. The most ‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly the temperatures are low. These forests have tall stately trees with
in our National Parks and Wild- life Sanctuaries. The landscapes needle- like leaves and downward sloping branches so that the
that make up various types of forests look very different from snow can slip off the branches. They eral months. Some even get
each other. Their distinctive appearance is a fas- cinating aspect two monsoons, such as in Southern In- dia. Evergreen plants shed
of nature. Each forest type forms a habitat for a specific a few of their leaves throughout the year. There is no dry leafless
community of animals that are adapted to live in it. phase as in a deciduous forest. An evergreen for- est thus looks
76 Ecosystem
green throughout the year. The trees overlap with each other to Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate
form a continuous canopy. Thus very little light penetrates down amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for only a few months.
to the forest floor. Only a few shade loving plants can grow in the Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type.
ground layer in areas where some light fil- ters down from the The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the win- ter and
closed canopy. The forest is rich in orchids and ferns. The barks of hot summer months. In March or April they regain their fresh
the trees are covered in moss. The forest abounds in ani- mal life leaves just before the monsoon, when they grow vigorously in
and is most rich in insect life. response to the rains. Thus there are periods of leaf fall and canopy
Broadleaved forest have cones instead of seeds and are called regrowth. The forest frequently has a thick undergrowth as
gymnosperms. light can penetrate easily onto the forest floor.
Broadleaved forests have several types, such as evergreen forests, Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid regions of India. The
deciduous forests, thorn forests, and mangrove forests. trees, which are sparsely distributed, are surrounded by open
Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various shapes. grassy areas. Thorny plants are in a mix of saline and fresh
Evergreen forests grow in the high rain- fall areas of the Western water. They grow luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt
Ghats, North Eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. that the rivers have brought down. The mangrove trees have
These forests grow in areas where the monsoon lasts for sev- breathing roots that emerge from the mudbanks.

Forest Communities
Forest type Plants Examples Common Animal Examples Rare Animal Examples
Himalayan Coniferous Pine, deodar Wild goats and sheep, Snow leopard, Hangul,Himalayan
Himalayan black bear. brown bear,Musk deer, Himalayan
Himalayan Broadleaved Maple, oak Wolf.

Evergreen North-east, Jamun, Ficus, Tiger, Leopard, Sambar, Malabar Pigmy Hog, Rhino,
Western Ghats, Andaman Dipterocarpus whistling thrush, Malabar Pied Liontailed macaque
& Nicobar hornbill, tree frogs.
Deciduous – Dry Teak, Ain, Tiger, Chital, Barking deer,
Terminalia
Moist Sal Babblers, Flycatchers, Hornbills.
Thorn and scrub, Babul, Ber, Neem Blackbuck, Chinkara, Fourhorned Wolf, Bustard, Florican,Bustards,
Semiarid forests antelope, Partridge, Monitor
lizard.
Mangrove Delta Avicenia Crocodile, shorebirds – sandpipers, Water monitor lizard.
Forests plovers, fish, crustacea.

Forest utilisation: Natural forests provide local people with a variety Forest products that are collected by people include food such
of products if the forest is used carefully. Over-exploitation for as fruit, roots, herbs and me- dicinal plants. People depend on
fuel wood or timber, and conversion to monoculture plan tations fuelwood to cook food, collect fodder for domestic animals, cut
for timber or other products, impover- ishes local people as the building material for housing, collect medicinal plants that
economic benefit goes to people who live elsewhere. The entire have been known for generations for several ailments and use a
resource base on which local people have tradi tionally survived vari- ety of non timer forest products such as fiber, cane, gum,
for generations, is rapidly de stroyed. Eventually the forest is to make household articles. Wood from different species of trees
completely de graded. have special uses. For instance a soft wood is used for the yok of
Natural forest ecosystems play an important role in controlling a bullock cart while a very hard wood is used for its axil. These
local climate and water regimes. It is well-known that under the forest products are of great economic value as they are collected,
canopy of a natu- ral forest, it is cooler than outside the forest. sold and mar- keted. Forest dwellers and agricultural people use
During the monsoon, the forest retains mois- ture and slowly these goods directly. Other people get them indirectly from the
releases it through perennial streams during the rest of the market. Traditional types of agriculture needs forest material
year. Plantations fail to perform this function adequately. The such as branches and leaves, which are burnt to form wood
loss of forest cover in the catchments of a river thus leads to ash which acts as a fertiliser for crops such as rice.
irreversible changes such as excessive soil erosion, large run-off Urban people use these forest resources indi- rectly as all their
of surface water dur- ing monsoons leading to flash floods, food and other goods come from agricultural areas that are
and a shortage of water once the monsoons are over. dependent on the neighbouring forests.
Ecosystem77
Forest services include the control of the flow of water in streams exploited beyond what they can pro- duce the forest canopy
and rivers. Forest cover re- duces surface runoff of rainwater is opened up, the eco- system is degraded, and its wildlife is
and allows ground water to be stored. Forests prevent ero- seriously threatened. As the forest is fragmented into small
sion of soil. Once soil is lost by erosion, it can take thousands patches its wild plant and animal species become extinct. These
of years to reform. Forests regu- late local temperature. It is can never be brought back. Extinction is forever.
cooler and more moist under the shade of the trees in the What if the forests disappear?
forest. Most importantly, forests absorb carbon diox- ide and
release oxygen that we breathe. When forests are cut down tribal people who depend directly
on them for food and fuelwood and other products find it
The wild relatives of our crop plants and fruit trees have very difficult to sur- vive. Agricultural people do not get
special characteristics in their genes which are used to develop enough fuelwood, small timber, etc. for making houses and
new crops and newer varieties of fruit. These newer varieties farm implements. Urban people who de- pend on food from
devel- oped from wild relatives give greater yields or are agricultural areas, which in turn depend on neighbouring forest
more resistant to diseases. New industrial products are being ecosystems have to pay a higher price for food as human
produced from the wild plants of the forest. Many of our new population grows.
medi- cines come from wild plants. Insects that live and breed in the forest such as bees,
butterflies and moths decrease in abun- dance once forests
Direct uses of Forest products
are degraded. As their num- bers decrease they are unable
Fruits – mango, jamun, awla Roots – Dioscoria to effectively pollinate agricultural crops and fruit trees. This
Medicine – Gloriosa, Foxglove leads to a decrease in agricultural yields.
Fuelwood – many species of trees and shrubs Small timber for The rain that falls on deforested land flows di- rectly into
building huts and houses Wood for farm implements nearby rivers. Thus water is not re- tained under the
Bamboo and cane for baskets ground. People thus do not get a sufficient quantity of water
Grass for grazing and stall feeding livestock throughout the year. The exposed soil is rapidly washed away
Indirect uses of forest products during the rains once the protective forest cover is removed. Thus
agriculture is seriously affected in such areas. In deforested areas,
Building material for construction and furni-ture for the urban the water in streams is brown in colour as soil is washed away
sector while water in forested streams is crystal clear.
Medicinal products collected and processedinto drugs
Wild animals lose their habitat. This leads to extinction of our
Gums and resins processed into a variety ofproducts precious species. Residual for- ests must be protected from
Raw material for industrial products andchemicals being destroyed any further if all the diverse species of plants
Paper from bamboo and softwoods and animals are to be kept for future genera tions.

What are the threats to the forest ecosystem? How can forest ecosystems be conserved?
We can conserve forests only if we use its re- sources carefully.
As forests grow very slowly, we cannot use more resources This can be done by using al- ternate sources of energy instead
than they can produce during a grow- ing season. If timber of fuelwood. There is a need to grow more trees than are cut
is felled beyond a certain limit the forest cannot regenerate. down from forests every year for timber. Affor- estation needs
The gaps in the forest change the habitat quality for its ani- to be done continuously from which fuelwood and timber
mals. The more sensitive species cannot survive under these
can be judiciously used.
changed conditions. Overutilizing forest resources is an
unsustainable way of mis- using our limited forest resources. The natural forests with all their diverse species must be
We are now creating more and more goods that are manu- protected as National Parks and Wild- life Sanctuaries where all
factured from raw material from the forest. This leads to the plants and animals can be preserved.
forest degradation and finally changes the ecosystem into Grassland ecosystems
wasteland. Wood is illegally extracted from many forests
leading to a highly disturbed ecosystem. A wide range of landscapes in which the veg- etation is mainly
formed by grasses and small annual plants are adapted to
Developmental activities such as rapid population growth
India’s various cli matic conditions. These form a variety of grass-
together with, urbanisation, industrialisation and the increasing
use of con- sumer goods, leads to over utilisation of forest land ecosystems with their specific plants and animals.
produce. Forests are shrinking as our need for agricultural land What is a grassland ecosystem?
increases. It is estimated that India’s forest cover has decreased
from about 33% to 11% in the last century. The increasing use of Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the
wood for timber, wood pulp for paper and the extensive use soil depth and quality is poor. The low rainfall prevents the
of fuelwood results in continual forest loss. Forests are also growth of a large number of trees and shrubs, but is sufficient to
lost by mining and building dams. As the forest re- sources are support the growth of grass cover during the monsoon. Many

78 Ecosystem
of the grasses and other small herbs become dry and the part Grasslands are not restricted only to low rainfall areas. Certain
above the ground dies during the summer months. In the next grassland types form when clear- ings are made in different
monsoon the grass cover grows back from the root stock and forest types. Some are located on the higher steep hill slopes
the seeds of the previous year. This change gives grasslands a with patches of forest that occur along the streams and in
highly sea- sonal appearance with periods of increased growth depressions. The grasslands are related to repeated fires that
followed by a dormant phase. do not permit the forest to grow.
A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of insects, birds The grasses are the major producers of biomass in these regions.
and mammals have evolved so that they are adapted to these Each grassland ecosystem has a wide variety of species of grasses
wide-open grass covered areas. These animals are able to live in and herbs. Some grass and herb species are more sensitive to
conditions where food is plentiful after the rains, so that they excessive grazing and are suppressed if the area is over grazed.
can store this as fat that they use during the dry period when Others are destroyed by re peated fires and cannot regenerate.
there is very little to eat. Man began to use these grasslands as Thus over- used or frequently burnt grasslands are de- graded
pas tures to feed his livestock when he began to domesticate and are poor in plant species diversity.
animals and became a pastoralist in ancient times.
How are grasslands used?
Grassland Types in India: Grasslands form a variety of ecosystems
that are located in differ- ent climatic conditions ranging from Grasslands are the grazing areas of many rural communities.
near desert conditions, to patches of shola grasslands that occur Farmers who keep cattle or goats, as well as shepherds who keep
on hillslopes alongside the extremely moist evergreen forests sheep, are highly dependent on grasslands. Domestic animals are
in South India. In the Hima- layan mountains there are the high grazed in the ‘common’ land of the village. Fod- der is collected
cold Hima- layan pastures. There are tracts of tall elephant grass and stored to feed cattle when there is no grass left for them
in the low-lying Terai belt south of the Himalayan foothills. to graze in sum- mer. Grass is also used to thatch houses and
There are semi-arid grass- lands in Western India, parts of farm sheds. The thorny bushes and branches of the few trees
Central India, and in the Deccan Plateau. that are seen in grasslands are used as a major source of
fuelwood.
The Himalayan pasture belt extends upto the snowline.
The grasslands at a lower level form patches along with Overgrazing by huge herds of domestic livestock has degraded
coniferous or broadleaved forests. Himalayan wildlife many grasslands. Grasslands have diverse species of insects that
require both the forest and the grassland ecosystem as pollinate crops. There are also predators of these insects such as
important parts of their habitat. The animals migrate the small mammals like shrews, reptiles like lizards, birds of prey,
up into the high altitude grasslands in summer and move and amphibia such as frogs and toads. All these carnivorous
down into the forest in winter when the snow covers the animals help to control insect pests in adjoining agricultural
grassland. These Himalayan pastures have a large variety lands.
of grasses and herbs. Himalayan hill slopes are covered with What are the threats to grassland ecosystems?
thousands of colourful flowering plants. There are also a
large number of medicinal plants. In many areas grasslands have been used for centuries
The Terai consists of patches of tall grasslands interspersed by pastoral communities. Overutilization and changes
with a Sal forest ecosystem. The patches of tall elephant grass, in landuse of the ‘common grazing lands’ of rural
which grows to a height of about five meters, are located in communities has lead to their degradation. The grassland
the low-lying waterlogged areas. The Sal forest patches cover cover in the country in terms of permanent pastures now
the elevated regions and the Hi- malayan foothills. The Terai covers only 3.7 percent of land. A major threat to natural
also includes marshes in low-lying depressions. This ecosys- tem grasslands is the con- version of grasslands into irrigated
extends as a belt south of the Himalayan foothills. farmlands. In the Deccan, grasslands have been altered
to irrigated farms and are now mainly used to grow
The Semi-arid plains of Western India, Cen- tral India and the
sugarcane. After continuous irrigation such land becomes
Deccan are covered by grass- land tracts with patches of thorn
forest. Several mammals such as the wolf, the blackbuck, the saline and useless in a few years. More recently many of
chinkara, and birds such as the bustards and floricans are these residual grassland tracts have been converted into
adapted to these arid conditions. The Scrublands of the Deccan industrial areas. This provides short-term economic gains
Plateau are cov- ered with seasonal grasses and herbs on which but result in long-term economic and ecological losses.
its fauna is dependent. It is teaming with insect life on which the Grasslands have a limited ability to support do- mestic
insectivorous birds feed. animals and wildlife. Increasing this pres- sure by increasing
The Shola grasslands consist of patches on hillslopes along with the number of domestic ani- mals reduces the ‘naturalness’
the Shola forests on the Western Ghats, Nilgiri and Annamalai of the grassland ecosystem leading to its degradation.
ranges. This forms a patchwork of grassland on the slopes and Most grassland ecosystems are highly modified by human
forest habitats along the streams and lowlying areas. activities. Cattle, sheep and goat graz- ing, and lighting

Ecosystem79
repeated fires affects grasslands adversely. Changing the How can Grassland Ecosystems be Conserved?
grasslands to other forms of landuse such as agriculture, tree
plan tations and industrialisation forms a serious threat to Grasslands should not be overgrazed and areas of the
this highly productive ecosystem. Thus some of the grassland grasslands should be closed for grazing. It is better to collect
patches which are in a less disturbed state and have retained grass for stall feeding cattle. A part of the grassland in an
their spe- cial plants and animals need to be urgently pro area must be closed every year so that a rotational grazing
tected. pattern is established. Fires must be prevented and rap-
idly controlled. In hilly areas soil and water man- agement
Degradation of grasslands due to over grazing by cattle, in each micro-catchment helps grass lands to return to a
sheep and goats occurs if more than a critical number of natural highly productive ecosystem.
domestic animals are present in the grasslands. When
To protect the most natural undisturbed grassland
animals overgraze the area, the grasses are converted into
ecosystems, Sanctuaries and National Parks must be created.
flat stubs with very little green matter. Degraded grass- lands
Their management should fo- cus on preserving all their
have fewer grass species as the nutritious species are entirely unique species of plants and animals. Thus they should not
used up by the large number of domestic animals. They are be converted into plantations of trees. The open grassland
thus unable to regenerate. is the habitat of its specialised fauna. Planting trees in
When fires are lit in the grasslands in summer, the burnt grass these areas reduces the natural features of this ecosystem
gets a fresh flush of small green shoots which the domestic resulting in the destruction of this unique habitat for wildlife.
animals graze on. If this is done too frequently the grasslands What should we do?
begin to deteriorate. Finally grasslands become bare, the soil
is solidly compacted by trampling, or is washed away during • There is a need to preserve the few natural grassland
the monsoon by rain and whipped into dust storms during areas that still survive by creating National Parks
the hot dry summer. The land is degraded, as there is no grass and Wildlife Sanctuaries in all the different types of
grasslands.
to hold the soil in place. It becomes a wasteland.
• Animals such as the wolf, blackbuck, chinkara and birds
Why are our grassland species vanishing? such as bustards and floricans have now become rare
all over the country. They must be carefully protected
Most people feel that it is only our forests and its wildlife that in the few National Parks and Wildlife Sanc- tuaries that
is disappearing. However, other natural ecosystems such as have natural grassland habitats as well as outside these
grasslands are dis- appearing even more rapidly. Protected Areas.
• We need to create an awareness among people that
Many of the grassland species have disappeared from several
grasslands are of great value. If we are all concerned
parts of India in which they were found 50 or 60 years ago. about our disappear- ing grasslands and their wonderful
The Cheetah is ex- tinct in India. The Wolf is now highly wildlife, the Government will be motivated to pro- tect
threatened. Blackbuck and chinkara are poached for meat. them.
Birds such as the beautiful Great Indian Bustards are vanishing. • Keeping grasslands alive is a National prior- ity.
Unless grassland species are protected they will vanish from
their shrinking habitat, as natural and undisturbed grasslands Desert Ecosystem
are left in very few locations. If these animals and birds are
Desert and semi arid lands are highly specialised and sensitive
killed or their habitat is reduced fur- ther, their extinction will ecosystems that are easily de- stroyed by human activities.
rapidly follow. The species of these dry areas can live only in this specialised
habitat.
What if our Grasslands Disappear?
What is a desert or a semi-arid ecosystem?
If our grasslands are lost we will lose a highly specialised
ecosystem in which plants and ani- mals have been Deserts and semi arid areas are located in West- ern India
adapted to these habitat condi- tions over millions of and the Deccan Plateau. The climate in these vast tracts is
years. Local people will not be able to support their extremely dry. There are also cold deserts such as in Ladakh,
livestock herds. which are located in the high plateaus of the Himalayas. The
The extinction of species is a great loss to Man- kind. most typical desert landscape that is seen in Rajasthan is in
The genes of wild grasses are extremely useful for the Thar Desert. This has sand dunes. There are also areas
developing new crop varieties. New medicines could well covered with sparse grasses and a few shrubs, which grow
be discovered from wild grassland plants. It is possible if it rains. In most areas of the Thar the rainfall is scanty and
that genes from wild herbivores such as wild sheep, goats sporadic. In an area it may rain only once every few years. In
and antelopes may be used for developing new strains of the adjoining semi arid tract the vegetation consists of a few
domestic animals. shrubs and thorny trees such as kher and babul.

80 Ecosystem
The Great and Little Rann of Kutch are highly specialised Kutch, areas of the little Rann, which is the only home of the
arid ecosystems. In the summers they are similar to a desert Wild Ass, will be destroyed by the spread of salt works.
landscape. However asDesert and Semi arid eco systems these Development Projects alter the desert and arid landscape.
are low-lying areas near the sea, they get converted to salt There is a sharp reduction in the habi- tat available for its
marshes during the monsoons. During this period they attract specialised species bringing them to the verge of extinction.
an enormous number of aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, We need a sus- tainable form of development that takes the
cranes, storks, etc. The Great Rann is famous, as it is the only special needs of the desert into account.
known breeding colony of the Greater and Lesser Flamingos
in our country. The Little Rann of Kutch is the only home of
Aquatic ecosystems
the wild ass in India. The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine environments
Desert and semi arid regions have a number of highly of the seas and the fresh water systems in lakes, rivers, ponds
specialized insects and reptiles. The rare animals include the and wetlands. These ecosystems provide human beings with
Indian wolf, desert cat, desert fox and birds such as the Great a wealth of natural resources. They provide goods that people
Indian Bustard and the Florican. Some of the commoner birds collect for food such as fish and marine salt water. There
include partridges, quails and sandgrouse. is very little fresh water on earth, which is a key resource
for people all over the world. Crustaceans. Natural aquatic
How are desert and semi-arid ecosystems used?
systems such as riv- ers and seas break down chemical and
Areas of scanty vegetation with semi-arid scru- bland have organic wastes created by man. However, this function has
been used for camel, cattle and goat grazing in Rajasthan and limitations, as the aquatic ecosystem cannot handle great
Gujarat, and for sheep grazing in the Deccan Plateau. quantities of waste. Beyond a certain limit, pollution destroys
Areas that have a little moisture, such as along the this natural function.
watercourses, have been used for growing crops such as If aquatic ecosystems are misused or over uti- lized, their
jowar, and bajra. The natural grasses and local varieties of ability to provide resources suffers in the long term. Over-
crops have adapted to growing at very low moisture levels. fishing leads to a fall in the fish catch. River courses that
These can be used for genetic engineering and devel- oping are changed by dams to provide electricity affect thousands
arid land crops for the future. of people who do not get a continuous supply of water
What are the threats to desert ecosystems? downstream for their daily use. When wetlands are drained,
their connected rivers tend to cause floods. These are all
Several types of development strategies as well as human
examples of un- sustainable changes in the use of natural
population growth have begun to affect the natural ecosystem
re- sources and nature’s ecosystems that are de- pendent on
of the desert and semi arid land. Conversion of these lands
hydrological regimes.
through extensive irrigation systems has changed several of
the natural characteristics of this region. The canal water Water is an important factor in all our ecosystems. Several
evaporates rap idly bringing the salts to the surface. The ecosystems exist in freshwater and marine salt water. There
region becomes highly unproductive as it becomes saline. is very little fresh water on earth, which is a key resource for
Pulling excessive groudwater from tube wells lowers the people all over the world.
water table creating an even drier environment. Thus human
What is an aquatic ecosystem?
activities destroy the naturalness of this unique ecosystem.
The special species that evolved here over millions of years In aquatic ecosystems, plants and animals live in water. These
may soon become extinct. species are adapted to live in different types of aquatic habitats.
The special abiotic features are its physical aspects such as the
How can desert ecosystems be conserved? quality of the water, which includes its clar- ity, salinity, oxygen
Desert ecosystems are extremely sensitive. Their ecological content and rate of flow. Aquatic ecosystems may be classified as
balance that forms a habitat for their plants and animals is being stagnant ecosystems, or running water ecosystems. The
easily disturbed. Desert people have traditionally protected mud gravel or rocks that form the bed of the aquatic ecosystem
their mea- gre water resources. The Bishnois in Rajasthan are alter its charac- teristics and influence its plant and animal spe-
known to have protected their Khejdi trees and the blackbuck cies composition. The aquatic ecosystems are classified into
antelope for several genera- tions. The tradition began when freshwater, brackish and marine ecosystems, which are based
the ruler of their region ordered his army to cut down trees on the salinity levels.
for his own use. Several Bishnois were said to have been The fresh water ecosystems that have running water are
killed while trying to protect their trees. streams and rivers. Ponds, tanks and lakes are ecosystems
There is an urgent need to protect residual patches of this where water does not flow. Wetlands are special ecosystems
ecosystem within National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in which the water level fluctuates dramatically in different
in desert and semi arid areas. The Indira Gandhi Canal in seasons. They have expanses of shallow water with aquatic
Rajasthan is destroying this important natural arid ecosys- vegetation, which forms an ideal habitat for fish, crustacea
tem, as it will convert the region into intensive agriculture. In and water birds.
Ecosystem81
Types of Aquatic ecosystems
Fresh water ecosystems Marine ecosystems
Flowing water Still water Brackish water Saline water
Streams Rivers Ponds, Deltas Coastal Deep ocean
wetlands, shallows
lakes Coral reefs

Marine ecosystems are highly saline, while brack ish areas energy from the sun. This is transferred to the microscopic
have less saline water such as in river deltas. Coral reefs animals, which feed on the algae. There are fish that are
are very rich in species and are found in only a few shallow herbivorous and are dependent on algae and aquatic
tropical seas. The richest coral reefs in India are around the weeds. The small animals such as snails are used as food
Andaman and Nicobar islands and in the gulf of Kutch. by small carnivorous fish, which in turn are eaten by larger
Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are covered by carnivorous fish. Some specialised fish, such as catfish, feed
mangrove forests and are among the world’s most productive on the detritus on the muddy bed of the lake.
ecosystems in terms of biomass production. The largest Energy cycles through the lake ecosystem from the sunlight
mangrove swamps are in the Sunderbans in the delta of the that penetrates the wa- ter surface to the plants. From plants
Ganges. en- ergy is transferred to herbivorous animals and carnivores.
Animals excrete waste products, which settle on the bottom
The Pond ecosystem
of the lake. This is broken down by small animals that live
The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem to observe. in the mud in the floor of the lake. This acts as the nutrient
There are differences in a pond that is tempo- rary and has material that is used by aquatic plants for their growth.
water only in the monsoon, and a larger tank or lake that is an During this pro- cess plants use Carbon from CO2 for their
aquatic ecosystem throughout the year. Most ponds become growth and in the process release Oxygen. This Oxygen is
dry after the rains are over and are covered by ter- restrial then used by aquatic animals, which filter water through
plants for the rest of the year. their respiratory system.
When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its life forms such Stream and River ecosystems
as the algae and microscopic animals, aquatic insects, snails, Streams and rivers are flowing water ecosystems in which
and worms come out of the floor of the pond where they all the living forms are specially adapted to different rates
have remained dormant in the dry phase. Gradually more of flow. Some plants and ani- mals such as snails and other
complex animals such as crabs frogs and fish return to the burrowing ani- mals can withstand the rapid flow of the hill
pond. The vegetation in the water consists of floating weeds streams. Other species of plants and animals such as water
and rooted veg- etation on the periphery which grow on the beetles and skaters can live only in slower moving water.
muddy floor under water and emerge out of the surface of Some species of fish, such as Mahseer, go upstream from
the water. rivers to hill streams for breeding. They need crystal clear
As the pond fills in the monsoon a large num- ber of food water to be able to breed. They lay eggs only in clear water
chains are formed. Algae is eaten by microscopic animals, so that their young can grow suc- cessfully.
which are in turn eaten by small fish on which larger As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in the streams
carnivorous fish depend. These are in turn eaten by birds that once flowed throughout the year become seasonal. This
such as kingfishers, herons and birds of prey. Aquatic insects, leads to flash floods in the rains and a shortage of water once
worms and snails feed on the waste material excreted by the streams dry up after the monsoon.
animals and the dead or decaying plant and animal matter. The community of flora and fauna of streams and rivers
They act on the detritus, which is broken down into nutri- depends on the clarity, flow and oxy- gen content as well
ents which aquatic plants can absorb, thus com- pleting the as the nature of their beds. The stream or river can have a
nutrient cycle in the pond. The tem- porary ponds begin to sandy, rocky or muddy bed, each type having its own species
dry after the rains and the surrounding grasses and terrestrial of plants and animals.
plants spread into the moist mud that is exposed. Ani- mals
such as frogs, snails and worms remain dor- mant in the mud, Marine ecosystems
awaiting the next monsoon. The Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal
Lake ecosystem constitute the marine ecosystems around peninsular India.
In the coastal area the sea is shallow while further away, it is
A lake ecosystem functions like a giant perma nent pond. A deep. Both these are different ecosystems. The producers in this
large amount of its plant material is the algae, which derives ecosystem vary from microscopic algae to large seaweeds. There
82 Ecosystem
are millions of zoop- lankton and a large variety of invertebrates on natu- ral river ecosystems. While water from dams used
on which live fish, turtles and marine mammals. for irrigation has lead to economic pros- perity in some areas,
The shallow areas near Kutch and around the Andaman and in semiarid areas that are artificially irrigated the high level of
Nicobar Islands are some of the most incredible coral reefs in evaporation leads to severe salinisation as salts are brought
the world. Coral reefs are only second to tropical evergreen for- up into the surface layers of the soil. This makes such lands
ests in their richness of species. Fish, crustacea, starfish, jellyfish gradually more and more saline and unproductive.
and the polyps that deposit the coral are a few of the thousands What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?
of species that form this incredible world under the shallow sea.
Deforestation of adjacent mangroves leads to silt being Water pollution occurs from sewage and poorly managed solid
carried out to sea where it is depos- ited on the coral waste in urban areas when it enters the aquatic ecosystem of
which then dies. There are many different types of coastal lakes and riv- ers. Sewage leads to a process called eutrophi-
ecosystems which are highly dependent on the tide. cation, which destroys life in the water as the oxygen content
The marine ecosystem is used by coastal fisherfolk for fishing is severely reduced. Fish and crustacea cannot breathe and
which forms their livelihood. In the past, fishing was done at are killed. A foul odour is produced. Gradually the natural
a sustainable level. The marine ecosystem continued to main flora and fauna of the aquatic ecosystem is destroyed.
tain its abundant supply of fish over many gen- erations. Now In rural areas the excessive use of fertilisers causes an increase
with intensive fishing by using giant nets and mechanised in nutrients, which leads to eutrophication. Pesticides used in
boats, fish catch in the Indian Ocean has dropped significantly. adjacent fields pollute water and kills off its aquatic animals.
Chemical pollution from industry kills a large number of life
Seashore ecosystems forms in adjacent aquatic eco- systems. Contamination by heavy
Beaches can be sandy, rocky, shell covered or muddy. On each metals and other toxic chemicals affects the health of people
of these different types, there are several specific species who live near these areas as they depend on this water.
which have evolved to occupy a separate niche. There are
different crustacea such as crabs that make holes in the sand. CASE STUDY
Various shore birds feed on their prey by prob- ing into the Threats to wetlands in Assam
sand or mud on the sea shore. Almost 40% of all wetlands in Assam are under threat. A survey
Several different species of fish are caught by fishermen. In conducted by the Assam Remote Sensing Application Center
many areas the fish catch has de- creased during the last (ARSAC), Guwahati, and the Space ResearchCenter, Ahemadabad,
decade or two. has revealed that 1367 out of 3513 wetlands in Assam are
under severe threat due to invasion of aquatic weeds and
How are aquatic ecosystems used?
several developmental activities. The wetlands of Assam form
Man uses aquatic ecosystems for the clean fresh- water on thegreatest potential source of income for theState in terms of
which his life is completely dependent. We need clean water fisheries and tourism. Though the wetlands of Assam have the
to drink and for other domestic uses. Water is essential for ca-pacity of producing 5,000 tones of fish perhectare per year,
agriculture. Fisherfolk use the aquatic ecosystems to earn around 20,000 tones of fish have to be imported to meet local
a livelihood. People catch fish and crabs. They also collect de-mands. This is primarily due to poor wetlandmanagement.
edible plants. This is used locally as food or for sale in the
market. Over fishing leads to a serious decline in the catch How can aquatic ecosystems be conserved?
and a long-term loss of income for fisherfolk.
For sustainable use of an aquatic ecosystem, water pollution
Marshes and wetlands are of great economic importance for
must be prevented. It does not make sense to allow water to
people who live on their fish, crustacea, reeds, grasses and
be polluted and then try to clean it up.
other produce.
Modern man impounds water in dams to be able to store f the aquatic ecosystem from a flowing water ecosystem to a static
it throughout the year. Agriculture and industry are highly eco- system destroys its natural biological diversity. Thus dams
dependent on large quanti- ties of water. However this leads across rivers decrease the popula- tion of species that require
to problems for tribal people who have lived there before the running water, while favouring those that need standing water.
dams were built as they are displaced to build large dams. Aquatic ecosystems, especially wetlands, need protection by
These dams make rich people richer in the farmland and including them in Sanctuaries or National Parks in the same way
supports people in large urban centres that use enormous in which we protect natural forests. These sanctuaries in aquatic
quanti- ties of water. The poor tribal folk become even poorer ecosystems protect a variety of forms of life as well as rare fish
as the natural resources they depend on are taken away as which are now highly endangered such as the Mahseer. Wetland
their lands are submerged under the water of the dam. Sanctuaries and National Parks are of greatest importance as
Dams are built across rivers to generate elec- tricity. A this is one of the most threat- ened of our ecosystems. As the
large proportion of this energy is used by urban people, proportion of the earth’s surface that is naturally covered by
by agriculturists in irrigated farmlands and in enormous wetlands is very small compared to forests or grasslands, the
quantities for indus- try. Large dams have serious ill effects wetland ecosystems are very highly threatened.
Ecosystem83