lOMoARcPSD|22790617

Lesson 2: Types of Communication

Unit 1: Language and Communication What is Communication?

Lesson 1: The Nature of Language • Defined as the exchange of thoughts, ideas,

concepts, and views between or among two
What is Language? or more people.

According to Linguists, language will be called a • The term communication is derived from the
language if there is a: Greek word “komunikare” which translates
as “to share” in English.
1. System of rules (grammar) • It was also derived from the Latin word
2. Sound System (phonology) “communis” which translates as “to make
3. Vocabulary (lexicon) common” in English.

Humans are able to communicate like • To satisfy the requirement of our course, we
asking/statement for food: define communication as the transfer of
ideas from one to another in order to
gain understanding.
• Food!
• Want some food? Types of Communication
• I’d like to share this food with you.
1. Type of Communication According to Mode;
Things to Remember: 2. Type of Communication According to
Context; and
• Speech community is the kind of group that 3. Type of Communication According to
sociolinguistics attempt to study or group of Purpose and Style.
people who share similar ideas, and uses
norms of language. The art of communication is the language of
• Language acquisition is the process
leadership. ~ James Humes
wherein people acquire the languages used by
those in the community.
o The language that we acquired
during our childhood is our mother tongue. Types of Communication According to Mode
It is also known as our First language or L1.
The term mode is derived from the Latin word
• Language learning is the process wherein
people learn second languages by studying "modus" meaning "manner, way, or method".
formally in school or informally on their own. Hence, the following are type of communicating
o The language that we learned or according to how they are made or performed:
studied is our Second language or L2.
• Language contact is the process wherein 1. Verbal Communication. The term verbal
people try to understand each other or to came from the Latin "Verbo" which means
communicate as one learns from each other's "Word." Examples of verbal communications
languages. include conversation, presenting a plan,
• Language change is the process when debating, sending e-mails, SMS, posting
various individuals who have different announcements, among others.
languages constantly interact and communicate 2. Non-Verbal Communication. This type of
with each other will eventually notice that the communication involve communicating without
language they use have changed to suit their employing written or spoken words. However,
needs. we know that for a fact, we cannot separate
words from our non-verbals. Thereupon, for
This concludes that:
• anguage is indeed a human complex and it
is important to be aware of its feature and
behavior.
•
 2

purposes of discussion, we will further look at relationship the people are in: Romantic, Family, or
non-verbal communication into its various Friends.
categories to satisfy or learning objectives:
5. Chronemics is the study of how people use
time. Levine believes our use of time
communicates a variety of meanings to those
1. Kinesics. Kinesics is the study of how we use
around us.
body movement and facial expressions. We
6. Paralanguage is the term we use to describe
interpret a great deal of meaning through body
vocal qualities such as pitch, volume, inflection,
movement, facial expressions, and eye contact.
rate of speech, and rhythm. How we say words
often expresses greater meaning than the actual
2. Oculesics which comes from the Latin word
words themselves. Sarcasm and incongruence are
oculus, meaning “eye.” The face and eyes are the
two examples of this. The comedian Stephen
main point of focus during communication, and
Wright bases much of his comedy on his use of
along with our ears our eyes take in most of the
paralanguage. He talks in a completely monotone
communicative information around us. Certain eye
voice throughout his act and frequently makes
behaviors have become tied to personality traits or
statements such as, “I’m getting really excited”
emotional states, as illustrated in phrases like
while using a monotone voice, accompanied by a
“hungry eyes,” “evil eyes,” and “bedroom eyes.”
blank facial expression. The humor lies in the in
congruency—his paralanguage and facial
3. Haptics is the study of touch. Touch is the first
expression contradict his verbal message.
type of nonverbal communication we experience as
humans and is vital to our development and health
7. Finally, silence serves as a type of nonverbal
(Dolin & Booth-Butterfield; Wilson, et al.). We use
communication when we do not use words or
touch to share feelings and relational meanings.
utterances to convey meanings. Silence has a
Hugs, kisses, handshakes, or even playful
variety of meanings and, as with other types of
roughhousing demonstrate relational meanings and
nonverbal communication; context plays an
indicate relational closeness.
important role for interpreting the meaning of
silence.
4. Proxemics is the study of how our use of space
influences the ways we relate with others. It also
demonstrates our relational standing with those 3. Visual Communication. This type of
around us (May). Edward Hall developed four communication covers a wide range of
categories of space we use in the U.S. to form and communicative activities and events which are
maintain relationships. Intimate space consists of generally perceived by the visual sense. It
space that ranges from touch to eighteen inches. covers the signs, symbols, codes, even smoke
We use intimate space with those whom we are signals, as well as communications that
close (family members, close friends, and intimate involves the use of visuals, presentations,
partners). Intimate space is also the context for billboards, tarps, and all.
physical fighting and violence. Personal space
ranges from eighteen inches to four feet and is
reserved for most conversations with non-intimate
others (friends and acquaintances). Social space Types of Communication According to Context
extends from four to twelve feet and is used for
small group interactions such as sitting around a Communication context refers to the entire
dinner table with others or a group meeting. Public situation, environment, time, place and event as
well as the surrounding circumstances where
space extends beyond twelve feet and is most often
used in public speaking situations. We use space to the entire communication takes place. In this, the
following are the types of communication according
regulate our verbal communication and
communicate relational and social meanings. A fun to context:
exercise to do is to go to a public space and observe
people. Based on their use of the above categories 1. Intrapersonal Communication.
of space, try to determine what type of 2. Interpersonal communication.
3. Extended Communication.
4. Organizational Communication.
 3

Intrapersonal Communication very meaningful goals which are rather difficult

to do in a dyadic and triadic communications.
Examples of SGC include club officers' meetings,
The Latin prefix " intra" means "within or inside", faculty deliberations, committee caucuses, among
hence, intrapersonal communication means others.
communication with or within oneself. When we are 5. Public Communication. The term public is
engaged in a deep thought, decision making activity, derived from the Latin publicus, meaning
contemplating, and self talk, we are doing "people at a gathering", hence, communicating
interpersonal communication. In almost every thing with a group of gathered people in a venue. In
that we do which requires a bit of self-introspection, this context, a number of persons ranging from
we are essentially communicating with ourselves. 11 and above gathered in a venue listening (as
Special consideration is given to self-talks. They receivers) to a speaker (sender) may constitute
are very important to boost our self-confidence and a public communication. In PC, there are two
self esteem. We do self talk not only via oral means requirements needed: (1) a public address
but also written as well. Do you find it normal to talk system through which the sender uses to
to yourself? address such a large crowd, if needed, and (2)
a system of control by the sender over the
Interpersonal Communication behavior of the receivers. Public communication
happens during lectures, symposiums,
The Latin prefix inter means "between among and seminars, presentations, and many other
together" which means, interpersonal instances where the requirements are present.
communication is communicating with or among 6. Mass Communication. This type of
other persons. In this context, the number of persons communication has the largest, broadest, and
communicating may suggest that there are various widest range of possible audiences where the
types of interpersonal communication. IC may have sender can't seem to enforce control over the
two functions: (1) interactional, which functions to receivers anymore. Mass comm, as popularly
establish or deepen relationships such as casual called, employs the triumvirate of (1) Print
greetings, short talks, and brief introductions; and (2) (newspapers, books, magazines, etc), (2)
transactional, which aims toachieve an objective or Audio (AM/FM band, two-way radio, etc), and
goal such as dialogues, debates, asking for (3) Audio-visual also known as Broadcast
directions, etc. Read the communication situations media (TV, Movie, Advertisements, Short and
depicted on pages 18-19in our official textbook for a Indie Films, etc) to reach out to such
detailed example. audiences.

1. Dyadic Communication. The Latin prefix Extended Communication

dyad means "two" which means, dyadic
Extended communication involves the use of
communication involves communication
electronic media. The description of EC may be
between to persons such as dialogue, debate,
expanded to include tele, audio, or video
among others. However, dyadic communication
conferencing such as Skype, Facetime, Duo and
may also involve two groups, sides, and parties
Messenger, among others. In short, all forms of
which may have more than two persons
communications utilizing the latest technological
communicating at a given moment such as
electronic trends fall under EC and that being,
agreements, tutorials, interviews, among
utmost care and caution must be exercised when
others.
engaging in it.
2. Triadic Communication. The Latin prefix
triad means "three", which suggests that triadic
communication is communication among three Organizational Communication
persons, such as court litigation, arbitration, This is the type of communication being utilized in
treaty; three sides, or three groups, which, as the course of interaction in the context of an
suggested, may involve more than three organization. The Focus is on the role that
individuals. communication plays in organizational contexts.
3. Typically, organizations have communication
4. Small Group Communication. A small protocols and standards which is clear and obeyed
group of 4-10 persons is very manageable for a by everyone within.
small group communication. SGC is a very
effective communication platform to achieve
 4

Normally, there are two structures of organizational hindrance, at a little cost and in a proper way.
communication, which are (1) Formal, which Such as meetings, legal and commercial
include memorandum, circulars, bulletins, and notices, reports and documents.
newsletters; and (2) Informal, which include SMS, 2. Informal communication does not employ
tweets, and even the "grapevine" means such as formal language. It involves personal and
gossips, rumors, etc. Under the formal structure, ordinary conversations with friends, family
there are four communication flows which include: members and acquaintances. Moreover, it is
also casual communication between coworkers
in the workplace. It is unofficial in nature and is
1. downward communication (top-down
based in the informal, social relationships that
flow) when the higher-ups communicate to
are formed in a workplace outside of the normal
those in the lower rank and file;
hierarchy of business structure. Such as casual
2. upward communication (bottom-up flow)
discussions, sharing of feelings, gossips and
communication when those rank and file below
others.
communicates to their superiors;
3. horizontal communication (lateral flow)
when employees of the same rank and position Lesson 3: Communication Processes,
communicate with each other; and Principles, and Ethics
4. crosswise communication (diagonal
flow) when employees from different units and Communication Models
ranks communicate, even towards outside the
organization. A model is often abstract. It is a representation of a
real world phenomenon applied to different forms.
Grapevine – unofficial channels of message flow.
Messages coming from different levels of the Four Communication Models
organization are transmitted.
Aristotle’s Communication Model
“Company cultures are like the country
cultures. Never try to change one. Try instead,
to work, with what you’ve got” – Peter Drucker

Intercultural Communication
As the term implies, intercultural communication is Aris
the communication between or among people totle, writing 300 years before the birth of Christ,
having different linguistic, religion, ethnic, social, provided an explanation of oral communication that
professional, and gender backgrounds. Utmost care is still worthy of attention. Aristotle's model of
should be exercised when communicating with a communication is widely accepted model up to this
diverse groups of individuals. We are studying time. Aristotle called the study of communication
intercultural communications in order for us to be "rhetoric." Rhetoric is the faculty of observing in
culturally-sensitive and have a very high tolerance any given case the available means of persuasion.
with others. We should avoid our cultural biases and Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with 3
prejudices so as not to hurt others because of their basic elements (i) Speaker, (ii) Speech, (iii)
cultural affiliations. Audience. In the context of Public speaking Aristotle
suggests that the speakers must adjust their speech
for different audience on different times (occasions)
Types of Communication According to Purpose and for different effects. The speaker must analyze
and Style the audience needs.

1. Formal communication employs formal

language delivered orally or in written form.
Moreover, it also refers to interchange of
information officially and the flow of
communication is controlled and is a deliberate
effort. This makes it possible for the information
to reach the desired place without any
Laswell’s Communication Model
 5

like a circle where people communicate and

feedback will be given back to the sender and yes,
a complete circle. But of course just saying and
giving feedback is easy, but there is also the
process of communication. There are also other
elements in the process of communication other
than the sender and the receiver. For example,
there is the encoding and decoding of message and
also the channel which is the noise.
David Berlo’s Communication Model

Lassw
ell’s communication model was developed by
communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell (1902-
1978) in 1948. Lasswell’s model of communication
(also known as action model or one way model of
communication) is regarded as one the most
influential communication models. Though
Lasswell’s model was developed to analyze mass
communication, this model is used for interpersonal
communication or group communication to be
David Berlo’s model conceptualized in 1960 is
disseminated message to various groups in various
probably the most well-known among the
situations.
communication models. Berlo’s SMCR Model of
Lasswell’s model was developed to study the Communication represents the process of
media propaganda of countries and businesses at communication in its simplest form. The acronym
that time. Only rich people used to have SMCR stands for Sender, Message, Channel, and
communication mediums such as televisions and Receiver. It was modified later on to include noise,
radios back them. It was made to show the mass hence the acronym SMCRN. Berlo’s SMCR Model
media culture. This model is similar to Aristotle’s. of Communication describes the different
components that form the basic process of
Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Model communication. Because this communication tool
also emphasizes the coding and decoding of the
message, it can be used for more efficient
communication.
As far back as ancient Greece, Aristotle already
wrote about communication processes. He
described three primary aspects of all forms of
communication: the speaker, the subject, and the
person who receives the message. He argued that
it is the listener who ultimately determines the
meaning of any particular message. Similar to
modern theories on communication, Berlo’s SMCR
Model of Communication describes four
Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver’s components of communication.
model of communication was introduced in
1949, a year after Laswell’s for Bell Laboratories.
Originally was conceptualized for the functioning of
Communication Elements
the radio and television. The above diagram shows
Shannon and Weaver’s model which is also known The Sender-Method-Channel-Receiver (SMCR)
as “mother of all models”. Through understanding model of communication, sometimes called the
the diagram and research, this model probably is Berlo's Model, is the most basic form of
complete. Communication is said to be completed communication we engage in today. It's really less
 6

of a ''model,'' and more of an identification of the General Principles of Effective Communication

parts of communication as a whole. The SMCR In oral and written communication, the following
model relies on the following key elements: principles should be considered:
1. Sender is the person who originates the 1. Know your purpose in communication.
message. 2. Know your audience.
2. Message is the content that is being 3. Know your topic.
communicated. 4. Adjust your speech or writing to the
3. Channel is the medium being used to context of the situation.
transmit the message. 5. Work on the feedback given you.
4. Receiver is the person who the message is
directed toward. Principles of Effective Oral Communication
5. Feedback is the response or reaction of the
receiver about the message. 1. Be clear with your purpose.
6. Noise is anything that disrupts, disturbs, or 2. Be complete with the message you deliver.
distorts the normal flow of communication. 3. Be concise.
There are different classifications of noises and 4. Be natural with your delivery.
these are: 5. Be specific and timely with your feedback.
o Physical noise is any noise that is
man-made, animal-produced, or emanating The 7C’s Effective Written Communication
from the physical environment.
o Mechanical noise is any noise that 1. Clarity. Be clear. The message to be
is produced or created by machines. delivered must be clear in the mind of the
o Physiological noise is any sender.
physiological defect or deformity that affects 2. Conciseness. Be concise. The message
the sender or receiver's ability to should not include any unnecessary details. It
communicate. should be short and complete.
o Psychological noise is anything 3. Concreteness. Be concrete.
that disrupts or hinders the interlocutors' Communicators should be specific, definite and
ability to communicate effectively. vivid rather than vague and general.
o Syntactic noise refers to errors in 4. Correctness. Be correct. Correct language
the structure or construction of the should be used and the sender must ensure
message or idea that hampers that there is no grammatical spelling mistakes.
communication. 5. Coherence. Be coherent. This refers to the
o Semantic noise refers to distortion written or spoken communication express
of meanings that affect the exchange of clearly, logically and intelligibly.
information. 6. Completeness. Be complete.
o Cultural noise is the cultural Communicators one should include all the
prejudice, bias, and stereotype that may relevant information as required by the intended
affect our judgment and perception of other audience.
people. 7. Courtesy. Be courteous. This implies that
o Organizational noise is the the sender must take into consideration both the
organizational belief and attitude that is feelings and viewpoints of the receiver such that
influenced by one affinity to an organization. the message is positive and focus at the
audience.
This model was first developed in 1960 by David
Berlo, a theoretician and founder of the Ethics of Communication
communications department at Michigan State Communication ethics emphasizes that morals
University. It's used in television advertising, influence the behavior of an individual, group or
newspaper and magazine ads, and even some organization thereby affecting their
types of social media. communications.
 7

To achieve ethical communication: 4. Text-based communication – does not

1. Establish an effective value system that will pave originally provide video and audio benefits, it has a
the way for the development of your integrity as a wider reach and can disseminate information to a
person. bigger audience quickly. Such as e-mail, facsimile,
2. Provide Complete and accurate information. text messaging, and instant messaging.
3. Disclose vital information adequately and
appropriately.
Lesson 2: Communication and Technology
Unit 2: Modes of Communication
Communication in Social Media
Lesson 1: Forms of Communication
Pinoys Top Social Media Users, According to
Communication mode refers to the channel through
Study by Miguel R. Camus (2017)
which one expresses his/her communicative intent.
It is the medium through which one conveys his/her Time spent on social media:
thoughts. Filipinos – 4 hours and 17 minutes
Japanese – 40 minutes
1. Face-to-face interaction – most common Brazilians – 3 hours and 43 minutes
interaction mode. It is an informal or casual Argentinians – 3 hours and 32 minutes
conversation between two or more people. Americans – 2 hours and 6 seconds
South Korea – 1 hour and 11 minutes
Dau Voire suggests: “Be brave enough to start a
conversation that matters” Internet Speed:
You should be able to hold a conversation at a Philippines – 4.2 mbps
Brazil – 5.5 mbps
social event without offending the other party. In
Argentina – 5 mbps
other words, topic initiation should be followed by South Korea – 26.3 mbps
topic maintenance, topic change or shift, and
finally, topic down. (1) The Philippines’ internet and social media users
grew by over 25%, up 13 million and 12 million over
“All social changes begins with a
last year.
conversation.” – Margaret J. Wheatley
(2) Mobile was also a fast-growing platform,
“Meaning is made in conversation, accounting for 38% of all Web traffic in the country,
Reality is created in communication, up almost a third over 2016.
And knowledge is generated through social (3) The Philippines had a social penetration of 58%,
interaction… higher than the average of 47% in the Southeast
Language is the vehicle through which we create Asia.
our understanding of the world.” – Diana Wheatley (4) Around the world, internet users grew 10%, or
an additional 354 million people, while active social
2. Video – Web cameras are used so that two or media users jumped 21% or and additional 482
more people who cannot interact face-to-face can million.
communicate. Convenient communication mode for (5) Global active citizens using mobile phones and
other devices surged 30% or another 581 million
people who want to reach out to each other despite
people.
distance.
(6) The total internet penetration stood 50% or 3.77
Examples: Viber, WhatsApp, Apple Facetime, and billion people.
Facebook Messenger (7) The 2016 report has been downloaded 70,000
times and read 2.5 million times on SlideShare so
Video conferencing – in more for formal settings far.

3. Audio – means transmitted sound. Only the voice Unit 3: Intercultural Communication
of the speaker is heard. An obvious downsideof this
mode is not being able to see the body language or Lesson 1: Communication and Globalization
cues of the person you are talking to. Globalization Phenomenon
 8

How globalization works? of course, coffee. (In fact, the habit of drinking
coffee in a social setting originates from a Turkish
In simple terms, globalization is the process by custom, an example of how globalization can
which people and goods move easily across spread culture across borders.)
borders. Principally, it's an economic concept – the
integration of markets, trade and investments with What Drives Globalization?
few barriers to slow the flow of products and
services between nations. There is also a cultural Globalization has sped up enormously over the last
element, as ideas and traditions are traded and half-century, thanks to great leaps in technology.
assimilated. Globalization has brought many
benefits to many people. But not to everyone. The internet has revolutionized connectivity and
communication, and helped people share their ideas
Storm in a coffee cup much more widely, just as the invention of theprinting
press did in the 15th century. The advent of email
To help explain the economic side of globalization, made communication faster than ever.
let's take a look at the well-known coffee chain
Starbucks. The invention of enormous container ships helped
too. In fact, improvements in transport generally –
The first Starbucks outlet opened its doors in 1971 faster ships, trains and airplanes – have allowed us
in the city of Seattle. Today it has 15,000 stores in to move around the globe much more easily.
50 countries. These days you can find a Starbucks
anywhere, whether Australia, Cambodia, Chile or What's good about it?
Dubai. It's what you might call a truly globalized
company. Globalization has led to many millions of people
being lifted out of poverty.
And for many suppliers and jobseekers, not to
mention coffee-drinkers, this was a good thing. The For example, when a company like Starbucks buys
company was purchasing 247 million kilograms of coffee from farmers in Rwanda, it is providing a
unroasted coffee from 29 countries. Through its livelihood and a benefit to the community as a whole.
stores and purchases, it provided jobs and income A multinational company's presence overseas
for hundreds of thousands of people all over the contributes to those local economies because the
world. company will invest in local resources, products
But then disaster struck. In 2012, Starbucks made and services. Socially responsible corporations
headlines after a Reuters investigation (Links to an may even invest in medical and educational
external site.) showed that the chain hadn't paid facilities.
much tax to the UK government, despite having Globalization has not only allowed nations to trade
almost a thousand coffee shops in the country and with each other, but also to cooperate with each
earning millions of pounds in profit there. other as never before. Take the Paris Agreement on
As a multinational company, Starbucks was able to Climate Change (Links to an external site.), for
use complex accounting rules that enabled it to instance, where 195 countries all agreed to work
have profit earned in one country taxed in another. towards reducing their carbon emissions for the
Because the latter country had a lower tax rate, greater global good.
Starbucks benefited. Ultimately, the British public What's bad about Globalization?
missed out, as the government was raising less tax
to spend on improving their well-being. While some areas have flourished, others have
floundered as jobs and commerce move elsewhere.
How did globalization happen? Steel companies in the UK, for example, once
thrived, providing work for hundreds of thousands of
We might think of globalization as a relatively new people. But when China began producing cheaper
phenomenon, but it’s been around for centuries. steel, steel plants in the UK closed down and
thousands of jobs were lost.
One example is the Silk Road, when trade spread
rapidly between China and Europe via an overland
route. Merchants carried goods for trade back and
forth, trading silk as well as gems and spices and,
 9

Every step forward in technology brings with it new Characteristics of Cultural Contextual
dangers. Computers have vastly improved our Communication
lives, but cyber criminals steal millions of pounds a Communicating across cultures is challenging. Each
year. Global wealth has skyrocketed, but so has culture has set rules that its members take for
global warming. granted. Few of us are aware of our own cultural
While many have been lifted out of poverty, not biases because cultural imprinting is begun at a very
everybody has benefited. Many argue that early age. And while some of a culture's knowledge,
globalization operates mostly in the interests of the rules, beliefs, values, phobias, and anxieties are
richest countries, with most of the world's collective taught explicitly, most of the information is absorbed
profits flowing back to them and into the pockets of subconsciously.
those who already own the most. The challenge for multinational communication has
Although globalization is helping to create more never been greater. Worldwide business
wealth in developing countries, it is not helping to organizations have discovered that intercultural
close the gap between the world's poorest and communication is a subject of importance—not just
richest nations. Leading charity Oxfam says that because of increased globalization, but also
when corporations such as Starbucks can legally because their domestic workforce is growing more
avoid paying tax, the global inequality crisis and more diverse, ethnically and culturally.
worsens (Links to an external site.). We are all individuals, and no two people belonging
Basically, done wisely (in the words of the to the same culture are guaranteed to respond in
International Monetary Fund (Links to an external exactly the same way. However, generalizations are
site.)) globalization could lead to "unparalleled valid to the extent that they provide clues on what
peace and prosperity". Done poorly, "to disaster". you will most likely encounter when dealing with
The Impact of Globalization of Communication members of a particular culture.

• As more people cross borders because of

Globalization, more language contact happen, High-Context culture vs. Low-Context culture
making communication more challenging.
All international communication is influenced by
Lesson 2: Local and Global Communication in cultural differences. Even the choice of
Multicultural Settings communication medium can have cultural
overtones. The determining factor may not be the
Intercultural Communication degree of industrialization, but rather whether the
country falls into a high-context or low-context
Science explains that each person is genetically culture.
unique. except for identical twins, each person has
a unique genetic composition. This uniqueness High-context cultures (Mediterranean, Slav,
becomes even more heightened because of Central European, Latin American, African, Arab,
individual experiences. Humans are formed by Asian, American-Indian) leave much of the
forces other than genetics. Family background, message unspecified, to be understood through
Religious Affiliations, Educational Achievements, context, nonverbal cues, and between-the-lines
Socio-cultural forces, economic conditions, interpretation of what is actually said. By
emotional states, and other factors shape human contrast, low-context cultures (most Germanic and
identities. Because of this, no two people can ever English-speaking countries) expect messages to
be exactly the same. be explicit and specific.
People interacting with those coming from
unfamiliar cultures may have difficulties in
communication. Most people tend to conclude that Characteristics of Cultural Contextual
miscommunication results from a speakers lack of Communication
proficiency in a language. What is that realized is Sequential vs. Synchronic
that fact that even with a excellent language skills,
people may still experience miscommunication. Some cultures think of time sequentially, as a linear
commodity to "spend," "save," or "waste." Other
 10

cultures view time synchronically, as a constant Reason and emotion are part of all human
flow to be experienced in the moment, and as a communication. When expressing ourselves, we
force that cannot be contained or controlled. look to others for confirmation of our ideas and
feelings. If our approach is highly emotional, we are
In sequential cultures (like North American, seeking a direct emotional response: "I feel the
English, German, Swedish, and Dutch), business same way." If our approach is highly neutral, we
people give full attention to one agenda item after want an indirect response: "I agree with your
another. thoughts on this."

In synchronic cultures (including South America, It's easy for people from neutral cultures to
southern Europe and Asia) the flow of time is sympathize with the Dutch manager and his
viewed as a sort of circle, with the past, present, frustration over trying to reason with "that excitable
and future all interrelated. This viewpoint influences Italian." After all, an idea either works or it doesn't
how organizations in those cultures approach work, and the way to test the validity of an idea is
deadlines, strategic thinking, investments, through trial and observation. That just makes
developing talent from within, and the concept of sense—doesn't it? Well, not necessarily to the
"long-term" planning. Italian who felt the issue was deeply personal and
who viewed any "rational argument" as totally
Orientation to the past, present, and future is irrelevant!
another aspect of time in which cultures differ.
Americans believe that the individual can influence When it comes to communication, what's proper
the future by personal effort, but since there are too and correct in one culture may be ineffective or
many variables in the distant future, we favor a even offensive in another. In reality, no culture is
short-term view. Synchronistic cultures’ context is to right or wrong, better or worse—just different. In
understand the present and prepare for the future. today's global business community, there is no
Any important relationship is a durable bond that single best approach to communicating with one
goes back and forward in time, and it is often viewed another. The key to cross-cultural success is to
as grossly disloyal not to favor friends and relatives develop an understanding of, and a deep respect
in business dealings. for, the differences.

Characteristics of Cultural Contextual Lesson 3 Varieties of English

Communication
Varieties of English
Affective vs. Neutral
World Englishes (WE) stands for the localized
In international business practices, reason and varieties of English as they are used or spoken in
emotion both play a role. Which of these dominates
certain areas. In the Asian Context, the concept
depends upon whether we are affective (readily
showing emotions) or emotionally neutral in our was introduced by Braj Kachru. The famous
approach. Members of neutral cultures do not "Three Concentric Circles of Asian Englishes"
telegraph their feelings, but keep them carefully attributed to Kachru presents the three circles:
controlled and subdued. In cultures with high affect,
people show their feelings plainly by laughing, Inner Circle with ENL (English as a Native
smiling, grimacing, scowling, and sometimes Language) member countries, Outer Circle with
crying, shouting, or walking out of the room. ESL (English as a Second Language) member
This doesn't mean that people in neutral cultures countries, and the Expanding Circle with EFL
are cold or unfeeling, but in the course of normal (English as a Foreign Language) member
business activities, neutral cultures are more countries.
careful to monitor the amount of emotion they
display. Emotional reactions were found to be least
acceptable in Japan, Indonesia, the U.K., Norway,
and the Netherlands and most accepted in Italy,
France, the U.S., and Singapore.
 11

Three Concentric Circles: understood as the context - specific variety of

Inner circle: Australia, New Zealand, USA, language to which the field -mode – tenor framework
UK,Canada
is important.
Outer Circle: Bangladesh, Kenya, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, Ghana, Malaysia, Philippines, Tanzania, Field – analyzed in terms of the social setting and
India, Nigeria, Singapore, Zambia communicative purposes

Expanding Circle: China, Indonesia, Korea, South Tenor – described in terms of the role/s required ofthe
Africa, CIS, Caribbean Countries, Israel, Nepal, writers and readers.
South America, Zimbabwe, Egypt, Japan, Saudi
Arabia, Taiwan Mode – explained in the light of knowledge of other
texts required of speakers/listeners and
ODEL – Oxford Dictionary of English Language writers/readers as regards the genre including the
- World Governing body
- 79 words everyday formal text features.
Acrolect – Standard English
Language register refers to the formality of
Basilect – Closest to pidgin
language which one speaks. Different registers are
Mesolect – middle variety
used in different situations. It is through register that
- middle of standard and non-standard
you are able to determine the kind of lexicon or
- “edulect”, educated class
vocabulary to use as well as the kind of structure to
be used. even in Writing, you may use a formal or
As regards structural variation, Kachru and Nelson
an informal register. In some instances, even a
(2006) claim that these varieties of Englishes are neutral language register is identified. The formal
influenced by the lcocal language(s) in various register then is used in formal speaking and writing
areas of their grammars and exhibit specific situations. The formal register is likewise
appropriate, for use in professional writing like
phonolohical, lexial, syntactic, and discoursal project proposals, position papers, and business
characteristics. letters as in the case of writing to a superior or to a
head of a certain organization. It is more impersonal,
objective and factual. Informal register, which is
Maria Lourdes Bautista’s monograph on Defining
more casual in tone, is appropriate for people with
Standard Philippine English: Its Status and whom you have established a more personal
Grammatical Features came out in 2000. relationship as in the case of friends and relatives.
This type of writing may sometimes be emotional as
an intimate relationship exists between the speaker
English – fastest growing language and listener or writer and reader.
Mandarin – largest language
Oxford – parents of English language Legalese – legal language
Textese – language of text
7.2 Language Registers/Registers of English
Examples
Language Registers/Registers of English
British English American
David Crystal (2008), defines register as "a varietyof
English
language defined according to its use in social
torch flashlight
situations e.g. a register of scientific, religious,
caretaker janitor
formal English. (p. 409)."
catalogue catalog
biscuit cookie
It is to be noted that genre and register overlap and
sometimes used interchangeably. According toLee defence defense
(2001), Genre is associated more with the lift elevator
organization of culture, Register is associated with flat apartment
the organization of situation. To this end, register is
 12

1. Ambiguity – lack of explicitness

Lesson 4: Exploring Texts Reflecting different 2. Performance-related misunderstanding –
Cultures slips of the tongue and mishearing
3. Language-related misunderstanding –
Cultural Texts ungrammaticality of sentences.
4. Gaps in the world knowledge – gaps in
One cause of miscommunication is pronunciation.
content rather than language.
Lesson 5: Coping with the Challenges of 5. Local context – turns and turns within
Intercultural Communication sequences

Challenges of Intercultural Communication Cultural Diversity – People have different

languages, lifestyles, and ways of thinking,
It has become a widespread notion that speakers’ speaking and behaving.
use of different language results in intercultural
miscommunication and misunderstanding. Grice Cooperative Theory – involves turn-taking
communication
As Scollon and Scollon (1995) state: When we are
communicating with people who are very different Three Approaches to Intercultural
from us, it is very difficult to know how to draw Communication explained by Martin and
inferences about what they mean, and so it is Nakayama (2010)
impossible to depend on shared knowledge and
background for confidence in our interpretations. 1. Social Science or Functionalist
2. Interpretative
English has been declared as the official or working 3. Critical
language of ASEAN.
Meierkord (2000, p.11 as cited by Kaur, 2016) Unit 4: Communication for Various Purposes
emphasizes that communication in English as Lesson 1: The Explanation Essay
Lingua Franca (ELF) is “a form of intercultural
communication characterized by cooperation rather Explanation Essay
than misunderstanding. One example of a written piece of work that
addresses WHY questions. It explains a particular
The Handshake
topic to its readers. It is mend to inform or educatethe
United States – firm handshake readers, the essay should present convincing and
adequate support for the explanations.
France – Soft handshake
Germany – Firm handshake, for men, traditionally An example of Explanation Essay by Danton
accompanied by a slight bow Remoto (2017) entitled " A Mansion of Many
Languages"
Japan – Handshake with arm firmly extended,
accompanied by a bow
A Mansion of Many Languages
Middle East – Handshake and free hand placed on By Danton Remoto (2017)
the forearm of the other person
German bow – termed as diener means a bow to In 1977, my mentor, the National Artist for Literature
and in recognition of an authority.
and Theater Rolando S. Tinio, said: “It is too
simpleminded to suppose that enthusiasm for
Sources of Misunderatnding Filipino as lingua franca and national language of the
Kaur (2016) cites the following as the sources of country necessarily involves the elimination of
misunderstanding: English usage or training for it in schools.
Proficiency in English provides us with all the
 13

advantages that champions of English say it does – these issues in a way that would interest thegeneral
access to the vast fund of culture expressed in it, public.
mobility in various spheres of the international
scene, especially those dominated by the English- Anne Frank’s Diary Entry (October 9 1942)
Anne Frank – 12 years old, German-born Jew
speaking Americans, participation in a quality of
Gestapo
modern life of which some features may be Westerbork – the big camp in Drenthe
assimilated by us with great advantage. Linguistic Miep – anne’s friend
nationalism does not imply cultural chauvinism. (1) Water is only available one hour per day
(2) One toilet and sink for several thousand people
Nobody wants to go back to the mountains. The (3) Men and women sleep in the same room
essential Filipino is not the center of an onion one (4) Women and children often have their heads
gets at by peeling off layer after layer of vegetable shaved.
skin. One’s experience with onions is quite telling: Lesson 3: Research-based Argumentative
peel off everything and you end up with a pinch of Essay
air.”
Argumentative Essay
An essay that presents a writer’s position with
How did students master the two languages? support from research studies.
The purpose of this is to persuade readers to
accept the writer’s position.
a) They had a very good teachers in both
Research must be used to support the writer’s
languages. claim or position.

Essay – a prose non-fiction which is a critical

b) They inhabited the worlds of both languages.
examination of a topic written from the author’s
personal point of view.
c) They have gone beyond the false either-or
Essai – French word, “an attempt”
mentality that hobbled their parents.
Michel de Montaiqne – Father of essay, essayist
“The Philippines is a multi-lingual paradise”
Sir Francis Bacon – Father of Modern Essay

Lesson 2: The Blog Annotated research bibliography – a list of

sources with a brief description of the content of
The Blog
each source.
The term "blog" was first used in the 1990s. It is a
short version of "Web Blog" or an individualized Lesson 4: The Oral Presentation
piece of written work found on the web. Blogs, like
Consider the following so you can render an
diary entries, are individual accounts of a writer's effective speech and be a good public speaker:
experiences and emotions. Thus, the view point is
usually personal and subjective. Blogs are uploaded 1. Audience - know the profile of your listeners. It
is important to know who will listen to you – their
to online platforms that make it easier for bloggers to
age, gender, educational background, religion,
include visual features, as well as links to other sites economic status, and interests. Also, know how
on the net. Unlike diary entries, blogs are public in much the audience knows about the topic.
nature, this means that bloggers, evenif they write
2. Logistics – It is something basic or essential for
about personal issues, must present every speaker to know who is organizing the event.
 14

Know who will be introducing you and who will be to eight inches apart, with one foot over the other.
speaking before and after you. Your weight should also rest on balls of your feet
and your hands should hang naturally naturally at
2.1. Venue – The venue is equally important. the sides.
Locate the lights and if you have movable visual
aids, know where to position them. As a speaker, Gesture is another important variable. Gestures
you should know how to position yourself and how are used to make a point more emphatic. They
you should move in front to get the attention of the should be used only for important points raised as
listeners. they can become distractive when used often.

2.2. Facilities – Ask beforehand about the pieces Movement, whereas gestures are made by some
of equipment available for you. These facilities parts of the body such as the hand and the other
should match the presentation aids that you will arm, movement is made by the entire body.
use.
2. Prosodic features – When you speak, aim at
3. Content of the report/speech/lecture – If the delivering your message clearly through intelligible
purpose of the event is to inform just like in a and comprehensible pronunciation. You need to
convention, conference, or a training-seminar, it is articulate the sounds clearly by paying attention to
expected that you are able to contribute new how you move your lips, tongue, and teeth. An
information. If the purpose is to entertain, your aspect of articulation is assimilation. It means
speech should be lighthearted, amusing, and lively. blending the final sound of a preceding word with
If the purpose is to persuade, your presentation the initial sound of the following word.
should sound convincing enough.
Examples:
How do you prepare for the big event? The To each his own the pros and cons
following are some tips: To eachizown the prosend cons

1. Read a lot. The splendor in the grass for a while

2. Prepare your oral presentation with an Thus plendor in the grass for a while
introduction, body and a conclusion.
3. Rehearse by practicing aloud and getting the
feedback of those who will act as your audience 9.1 Communication Modes
during the rehearsal stage.
Communication Mode
4. Use Technology
• Refers to the channel through which one
expresses his/her communicative intent
Delivering the report/speech/talk
When you deliver your report, speech, talk, make • Conveys his/her thoughts
sure use of both the verbal and non-verbal code. • Views or feelings can be communicated through
These two are always linked together. While the
former is important, the latter is equally essential as face to face interaction, video, audio and text
it gives emphasis to a striking thought or idea. based modes.

1. Paralinguistic cues – Subsumed under this Communication Modes are the following:
category are facial expression, posture, gesture,
and movement. 1. Face to face interaction
2. Video
For facial expression, the eyes and eye-to-eye
contact are very important. There is the saying 3. Audio
which states: “The eyes are window to the soul.” 4. Text-Based Communication
Posture, refers to the speakers’ stance. How
speakers carry themselves during the presentation
will show wether or not they possess credibility.
Simply stand comfortably with your feet at least six
 15

How do you initiate conversations? important to realize the message you are
sending. Otherwise, you may be saying one
“All social change begins with a conversation.” ~ thing, yet the receiver is hearing another.
Margaret J. Wheatley
• Visual communication strategies can be seen
through signs, webpages, and illustrations.
These strategies are used in the workplace to
draw attention and provide documentation.
9.2 Communication Strategies
Human resources is required to post certain
What Are Communication Strategies? visuals throughout the workplace to comply with
Communication is the exchange of information safety laws.
between a sender and a receiver. It used to be that
you only had to worry about the way you
communicated face-to-face or on paper. 10.1 Physical Media
Technology has changed this completely. It is Physical media
important for people to take into account every With physical media we mean channels where the
aspect of how they are relaying information. This is actual person who is talking can be seen and heard
where communication strategies come into play. by the audience. The whole point here is to be able
to not only hear the messages but also to see the
Communication strategies are the blueprints for body language and feel the climate in the room.
how this information will be exchanged. This does not need to be two-way channels. In
certain situations the receiver expect physical
Types of Communication Strategies communication. This is the case especially when
Communication strategies can be verbal, dealing with high concern messages, e.g.
nonverbal, or visual. Integrating all the strategies organizational change or downsizing. If a message
together will allow you to see the most success. is perceived as important to the receiver they
This allows a business to meet employee needs expect to hear it live from their manager.
and increase workplace knowledge.
1. Large meetings, town hall meetings
2. Department meetings (weekly meetings)
Verbal communication strategies can be
3. Up close and personal (exclusive meetings)
broken down into the two categories of written
4. Viral communication or word of mouth
and oral communication. Written strategies
consist of avenues such as e-mail, text, and 1. Large meetings
chat. Examples that fall into the oral category Large meetings have got great symbolic value and
are phone calls, video chats, and face-toface should be used only at special occasions. This
conversation. channel works very well when you need to get
across strategic and important messages to a large
• Nonverbal communication strategies consist group of people at the same time, creating a wide
of mostly visual cues, such as body language, attention, get engagement or communicate a sense
facial expressions, physical distance between of belonging. Large meetings are excellent when
communicators, or the tone of your voice. These you want to present a new vision or strategy, inform
cues are typically not
 16

about a reorganisation or share new values. The The second type of communication medium is
opportunity for dialogue is limited at large meeting, mechanical media. With mechanical media we
of course but you can create smaller groups where mean written or electronic channels. These
dialogue can be performed. channels can be used as archives for messages or
for giving the big picture and a deeper knowledge.
2. Weekly departmental meetings But they can also be very fast. Typically though,
In the weekly meetings you and your group because it is written, it is always interpret by the
communicate daily operative issues, gives status reader based on his or her mental condition. Irony
reports and solves problems. Weekly meetings are or even humour rarely travels well in mechanical
also used to follow up on information from large channels.
meetings, management team meetings etc from a
1. E-mail
“what’s-in-it-for-us-perspective”. This type of
smaller group meetings gives good opportunities for 2. Weekly letters or newsletters
dialogue. This channel is often the most important 3. Personal letters
channel you have as a manager, because that’s 4. Billboards
where you have the opportunity to build the big
5. Intranet
picture, you can prepare for change, you can create
ownership of important strategies and goals etc. 6. Magazines or papers
This is a favorite among the types ofcommunication 7. Sms
medium. 8. Social media

3. Up close and personal E-mail

This is a form of meetings where, often, a senior E-mail is a good channel for the daily
manager meets with a “random” selection of communication to specific target groups. It is
employees to discuss and answer questions. Some suitable mainly for up-to-date and “simple”
managers use this as a on going activities on a messages and where there is no risk of
monthly basis. It can also be used in specific misunderstanding, E-mail is an important
projects or campaigns e.g. launching new supplement to weekly meetings and the Intranet.
strategies. Invitation to and agenda for meetings can with
advantage be sent out with e-mail before the
4. Viral communication meeting, while background facts and minutes from
Or viral marketing as it is also called works external meetings is well suited to be stored on the Intranet.
as well as internal and refer to marketing techniques
that use pre-existing social networks to produce Some short e-mail tips:
increases in awareness or knowledge through
1. Write short and to the point.
selfreplicating viral processes. It can be word-of-
2. Target your messages to the audience and
mouth delivered or enhanced by the network effects
avoid sending unnecessary all-employees-e-
of social media.
mails.
3. Set up your subject line to describe what the e-
10.2 Mechanical Media mail is about.

Mechanical media
 17

4. Clearly state if the message is for information or tool for you as a manager, but it is also your job
for action. to help your employees prioritize and pick out
the information on the Intranet, as well as
5. Avoid attaching large documents if possible.
translating messages into local consequences.
Post a link or direct to the source instead.
Ask your self: what information concerns you
Weekly letters employees? In what way are they concerned?
Managers that have large groups of employees and How do I best communicate this to my
who has difficulties in meeting all of them often employees? Weekly meeting or your weekly
choose to publish a personally weekly letter. It is letter can be a suitable channel to discuss or
sort of a short summary of news with personally inform of information found on the Intranet.
reflections. Many employees often appreciate it
because it has the potential to give the “what’s-in- Employee magazine
it-for-us” angle. They can also contain summaries A magazine offers the opportunity to deepen a
and status in tasks, projects or issues – yesterday, specific issue, explain context, describing
today and tomorrow. consequences or tell a story. It also has the
opportunity to reach many employees. If you want
to create a broad internal understanding of strategic
messages the magazine can be a good vehicle to
Personal letters
use e.g. by writing an article based on aninterview
At special occasions it can be justified to send a
with you. As were the case with the Intranet you also
personal letter to employees in order to get attention
have to “translate” the information in the magazine
to a specific issue. E.g. pat on the back letter after
to your employees. You can ask yourself: What
extra ordinary achievements. Or it can be a letter
does the content in a specific article mean to us?
with your personal commentary on an ongoing
How shall I best communicate it to theemployees?
reorganisation that affects many employees. One
other example is a letter that summarizes the past
SMS
year and wishes all the bestfor the holidays.
Or text messaging to the mobile phone is one of the
new types of communication medium and not avery
Billboard
widely used channel but where it is used it is proven
One of the most forgotten types of communication
very effective. Some companies use it as an alert
medium is clearly the billboard. Especially today,
system e.g. for giving managers a head start when
when everything is about social media. But the good
something important will be published on the
thing with the billboard is that you can use billboards
Intranet. The advantage with Sms is that it is fast.
to inform people who does not have computers
But it should be used rarely as an exclusivechannel.
and/or access to the Intranet or to reachpeople that
Some companies use it as a subscription tool where
work part time and does not attend weekly
you can subscribe to e.g press- releases.
meetings.

Intranet Social media

The Intranet is of course one of the most usedtypes Wikipedia describe social media as “Media
of communication medium and a very important designed to be disseminated through social
communication channel and work
 18

interaction, created using highly accessible and Push media refers to a media distribution model
scalable publishing techniques. Social media wherein pieces of content are delivered to the users
supports the human need for social interaction, with little interaction from them.
using Internet- and web-based technologies to Marketing via direct mail (telemarketing), for
transform broadcast media monologues (one to example, and use of brochures and catalogs are
many) into social media dialogues (many to many). the best illustrations of the push media model.
It supports the democratization of knowledge and Moreover, the advancement in Internet and mobile
information, transforming people from content technology has created a new world of
consumers into content producers. Businesses also opportunities for this model.
refer to social media as user-generated content
(UGC) or consumer-generated media (CGM).” The latest digital tools and the advancement in
Internet technology have created significant
possibilities to employ the push media model. Pop-
More and more companies are using social media up advertisements aimed at customers as per their
in their external marketing, setting up twitter and search behavior, ad banners as well as links
redirecting to commercial sites on Internet pages
Facebook accounts etc. But these channels are that the users visit are some instances of the push
also used internal where managers become media model employed by online marketers.
“friends” on Facebook with their employees or In addition, the mobile phone is a unique tool that
where managers use blog and twitter targeting promotes the push media model effectively. This
their employees. type of marketing is growing rapidly in the online
world. Vendors send mobile phone notifications in
10.3 Push and Pull Media the form of coupons and special alerts. Marketers
Push and Pull Media who use the push model for mobile marketing
determine the people to target, design
You can also divide the different types of
advertisements that attract their attention and
communication medium in Push or Pull channels.
employ powerful means of presenting those ads.

Push Media
Pull Media
Push channels are channels where the sender are
Pull media is a media distribution model wherein
pushing the message to the receiver. Meaning it is
customers are drawn to a brand by means of
up to the sender to control the communication.
search engine optimization (SEO) as well as
• E-mail other non-intrusive techniques. The main objective
is to enhance the customer awareness regarding a
• News letters and letters (if sent out)
specific brand and its products, and to nurture
• Magazines (if sent out)
demand. In this model, the user requests the
• Meetings required item individually.
• Telephone
• SMS Pull media model activities may include, but are not
limited to:
 19

• eBooks
• Blogging
11.1 Print Media
• Article marketing
Print media
• Podcasting
Print media is one of the oldest and basic forms of
• Social media marketing communication. It includes newspapers, weeklies,
magazines, monthlies, banners & graphics, posters
The pull media strategy fuels demand and
and other forms of printed material. The contribution
motivates the users to intentionally investigate
of print media in providing information and transfer
certain products. A powerful and visible brand is
of knowledge is remarkable.
necessary to guarantee the success of a pull media
marketing strategy.

The pull media model relies on the law of 11.2 Broadcast

attraction. So, the organizations implementing this
strategy should take the necessary steps to target
Broadcast media - Broadcast Media this refers to
the right audience.
primarily television and radio, although
broadcasting companies have expanded to offer
The Ambition Stairway
digital offerings including media streaming
Choosing the right types of communication medium
applications and other robust web-based offerings.
is first and most about understanding your ambition
with the communication. What effect is you looking
for after you have communicated? Increased 12.1 Interactive Media
knowledge, better understanding more motivation or
Digital Media - This refers to products and services
involvement, or do you want it to lead to some sort
on digital computer-based systems which respond to
of action or changed behaviour? the user's actions by presenting content such as text,
moving image, animation, video, audio, and video
games.
Video games, DVDs, cell phones and the Internet
are an integral part of the modern day world. All of
these technologies employ interactive media.
Advertising and marketing agencies are looking for
new ways to use interactive media to connect with
customers. Educational institutions are expanding
their reach by providing online degrees. In this
article, you can explore interactive media education
The Ambition Stairway is a useful tool for you to use
and career options. Schools offering Animation
when deciding what channels to use for your level
degrees can also be found in these popular choices.
of ambition. Witch gives you control of the different
types of communication medium. Also, it isimportant
to realise that just publishing something on the 12.2 Electronic Media
Intranet will not get employees motivated and
Electronic Media
involved.
 20

This refers from any type of device that stores and 11. integration of digital data with the telephone,
allows distribution or use of electronic information. such as Internet telephony
This includes television, radio, Internet, fax, CD- 12. digital cameras.
ROMs, DVD, and any other electronic medium.

12.3 New Age Media

New Media
New Media is used to describe content made
available using different forms of electronic
communication made possible through the use of
computer technology. Generally, the phrase new
media describes content available on-demand
through the Internet.

This content can be viewed on any device and

provides way for people to interact with the
content in real time with the inclusion of user
comments and making it easy for people to share
the content online and in social with friends and
co-workers.

Examples of New Media

The phrase new media is in relation to "old" media
forms, such as print newspapers and magazines
that are static representations of text and graphics.

New media include:

1. websites and blogs

2. streaming audio and video
3. chat rooms
4. email
5. online communities
6. social media and sharing platforms
7. mobile apps
8. Web advertising
9. DVD and CD-ROM media
10. virtual reality environments