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Sensors
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Choosing a Sensor
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Differences Between Sensors and
Transducers
Sensor Transducer
Components Sensor itself Sensor and signal conditioning
Function Detects the changes and Conversion of one form of energy
induces the corresponding into another
electrical signals.
Examples Proximity sensor, Magnetic Thermistor, Potentiometer,
sensor, Accelerometer sensor, Thermocouple, etc.
Light sensor etc.
Dependency A sensor may not be a A transducer will always contain a
transducer. sensor
Feedback A sensor measures a physical It is generally used for providing
quantity only and cannot give feedback to the desired system
input to the desired system on through the output device after due
its own. processing takes place in the signal
conditioning unit.
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Functions and Data Flow
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Functions and Data Flow

Acquisition of information carried out by a
sensor
Measurement requires the processing of that
information
Presentation of the result in order to make it
perceptible to human senses
These functions can be local or remote
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Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators
Transducer
Converts a signal from one physical form to a
different physical form
Energy converter
Input signal always has energy or power
Example measuring a force
Assume that the displacement in the transducer
is insignificant
There is no “loading'' effect
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Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators

Six different kinds of signals
Mechanical
Thermal
Magnetic
Electric
Chemical
Radiation
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Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators
Devices offering an electric output are called
sensors
Most measurement systems use electric
signals, and hence rely on sensors
Electronic measurement systems –advantages
Sensors can be designed for any nonelectric
quantity
By selecting an appropriate material
Any variation in a nonelectric parameter implies a
variation in an electric parameter
Electronic structure of matter
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Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators
Energy does not need to be drained from the
process being measured because sensor output
signals can be amplified
Variety of integrated circuits available for electric
signal conditioning or modification
Some sensors integrate these conditioners in a single
package
Many options exist for information display or
recording by electronic means
These permit us to handle numerical data and text,
graphics, and diagrams
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Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators
Signal transmission is more versatile for
electric signals
Output transducers are termed actuators
or effectors
Sensors are intended to acquire
information
Actuators are designed mainly for power
conversion
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Signal Conditioning and Display
Signal conditioners
Start with an electric sensor output signal
Then yield a signal suitable for transmission, display, or
recording
Normally consist of electronic circuits – functions
Amplification
Level shifting
Filtering
Impedance matching
Modulation and demodulation
Transmitter
Sensor plus signal conditioner subsystem
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Signal Conditioning and Display
Measuring systems is usually digital and the sensor
output is analog
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)
Relatively low input impedance
Require their input signal to be dc or slowly varying, with
amplitude within specified margins
Sensor output signals, which may have an
amplitude in the millivolt range
Must be conditioned before they can be applied to the
ADC
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Signal Conditioning and Display

Display of measured results can be in an
Analog (optical, acoustic, or tactile) or
Digital (optical)
Recording
Magnetic
Electronic or
On paper
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Interfaces, Data Domains, and
Conversion
Generally there is a need for some signal processing
of the sensor output signal before its end use
Interface
Refer to signal-modifying elements that operate in the
electrical domain
Data domain
Quantity used to represent or transmit information
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Data Domains
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Data Domains
Analog domain the information is carried by signal
amplitude
Charge
Voltage
Current or
Power
Time domain - time relations
Period or frequency
Pulse width or
Phase
Digital domain
Signals have only two values
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Interfaces, Data Domains, and
Conversion
Analog domain is the most prone to electrical
interference
Direct physical measurements
Physical object or action by direct comparison with a
reference quantity
Mechanical, as in a weighing scale
Indirect physical measurements
Calculated by applying an equation
Usually an electric one
Many measurements are indirect
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Resistive Sensors
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Potentiometer
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Resistive Potentiometer
Advantage
Inexpensive
Simple to operate
Useful for measurement of large amplitude
of displacement
Electrical efficiency is very high
Cermet and metal film potentiometer the
resolution is infinite
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Resistive Potentiometer
Disadvantage
Require a large force to move their sliding
contacts (wiper)
Sliding contact
Wear out
Contaminated
Misaligned – generate noise
Life of transducer is limited
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Resistive Position Transducers

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Potentiometer
Sliding contact is called wiper
Motion of slider may be translator/rotational
Some pot have both – helix
Helipots
Translational resistive
2 mm to 0.5 m
Rotational – angular displacement
Potentiometer may be excited with DC/AC source
Passive transducer
Pot resistive material
Cermet, hot moulded carbon, carbon film, thin metal film
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Translational - Potentiometer
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Potentiometer
Rotational
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Potentiometer
Translational
Ideal V0 α x and Vi
V0 α x
Sensitivity (S) = output/Input
S = V0/x
S =(Vi * x/L) (1/x) = Vi/L
Under ideal condition sensitivity is constant
Rotational
Θi – input angular displacement (degree)
Θt – total travel of the wiper
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Potentiometer
Output = e0 = ei (Θi / Θt )

Unloaded Pot
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Resistive Transducer
Application
Displacements
Mechanical strain
Pressure
Force and load
Temperature
Fluid velocity
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Potentiometer
Resistive device with a linear or rotary sliding contact

Where ρ is the resistivity

A is the cross section
l- is the length
x is the distance traveled from the bottom terminal
α is the corresponding length fraction
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Resistive Position Transducers

EXAMPLE-1:
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of
3.0 in. is applied in the circuit of Fig. The total
resistance of the potentiometer is 5 k , and the
applied voltage VT=5.0V. When the wiper is 0.9 in.
from B, what is the value of the output voltage V0?
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EXAMPLE-1:
A linear resistance potentiometer is 50 mm long
and is uniformly wound with a wire having a
resistance of 10,000 Ω. Under normal conditions,
the slider is at the center of the potentiometer. Find
the linear displacement when the resistance of the
potentiometer as measured by a Wheatstone
bridge for two cases is
(a). 3850 Ω
(b). 7560 Ω
Are the two displacements in the same direction?
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Resistance of potentiometer at the normal position =

10000/2 = 5000 Ohm
Resistance of potentiometer wire per unit length =
10000/50 = 200 ohm/mm

Change in resistance of potentiometer from its

normal position = 5000 – 3850 = 1150 ohm
Displacement = 1150/200=5.75 mm
(b) Change in resistance of potentiometer from its
normal position = 7560 - 5000 = 2650 ohm
Displacement = 2650/200=12.55 mm
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Since one of the displacements represents a

decrease and the other represents an
increase in resistance of the potentiometer
as compared with the resistance of the
potentiometer at its normal position, the two
displacements are in the opposite direction