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Chapter 4

Chapter 4 focuses on combinational logic circuits, covering key concepts such as converting logic expressions to sum-of-products, simplifying logic circuits using Boolean algebra and Karnaugh maps, and designing logic circuits without truth tables. It also discusses the operation of exclusive-OR and exclusive-NOR circuits, as well as the characteristics of TTL and CMOS digital ICs. The chapter provides a systematic approach to designing logic circuits, including truth table creation and circuit implementation.

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Chapter 4

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Chapter 4 – Combinational Logic Circuits

Digital Electronics – I
Mekelle Institute of Technology

2016 Academic Year

Semester - I
Chapter 4 Objectives

• Selected areas covered in this chapter:

– Converting logic expressions to sum-of-products
expressions.
– Boolean algebra and the Karnaugh map as tools to
simplify and design logic circuits.
– Operation of exclusive-OR & exclusive-NOR circuits.
– Designing simple logic circuits without a truth table.
– Basic characteristics of TTL and CMOS digital ICs.
– Basic troubleshooting rules of digital systems.

• A Sum-of-products (SOP) expression will appear

as two or more AND terms ORed together.

• The product-of-sums (POS) form consists of two

or more OR terms (sums) ANDed together.

• The circuits shown provide the same output

– Circuit (b) is clearly less complex.

Logic circuits can be simplified using

Boolean algebra and Karnaugh mapping.

• Place the expression in SOP form by applying

DeMorgan’s theorems and multiplying terms.
• Check the SOP form for common factors.
– Factoring where possible should eliminate one
or more terms.

Theorem (16) says inverting the OR sum of two variables is the same as
inverting each variable individually, then ANDing the inverted variables.

Theorem (17) says inverting the AND product of two variables is the
same as inverting each variable individually and then ORing them.

Simplify the logic circuit shown.

The first step is to determine the expression for the output: z = ABC + AB • (A C)

Once the expression

is determined, break
down large inverter
signs by DeMorgan’s
theorems & multiply
out all terms.

Simplify the logic circuit shown.

Factoring—the first & third terms above have

AC in common, which can be factored out:

Since B + B = 1, then…

Factor out A, which results in…

Simplifed logic circuit.

z = A(C + B)

• To solve any logic design problem:

– Interpret the problem and set up its truth table.
– Write the AND (product) term for each case where output = 1.
– Combine the terms in SOP form.
– Simplify the output expression if possible.
– Implement the circuit for the final, simplified expression.

Circuit that
produces a 1
output only for
the A = 0, B = 1
condition.

An AND gate with appropriate inputs can be used to

produce a HIGH output for a specific set of input levels.

Each set of input conditions that is to produce a

1 output is implemented by a separate AND gate.
The AND outputs are ORed to produce the final output.

Truth table for a 3-input circuit.

AND terms for each

case where output is 1.

Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Ronald J. Tocci, Neal S. Widmer, Gregory L. Moss Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
4-4 Designing Combinational Logic Circuits

Design a logic circuit with three inputs, A, B, and C.

Output to be HIGH only when a majority inputs are HIGH.

AND terms for each

Truth table. case where output is 1.

SOP expression for the output:

Design a logic circuit with three inputs, A, B, and C.

Output to be HIGH only when a majority inputs are HIGH.
Simplified output expression:

Implementing the
circuit after factoring:

Since the expression is in SOP form, the circuit is a

group of AND gates, working into a single OR gate,

• A graphical method of simplifying logic equations

or truth tables—also called a K map.
• Theoretically can be used for any number of input
variables—practically limited to 5 or 6 variables.

The truth table values are placed in the K map.

Shown here is a two-variable map.

Four-variable K-Map.

Adjacent K map square differ in only one

variable both horizontally and vertically.
A SOP expression can be obtained by
ORing all squares that contain a 1.

Looping 1s in adjacent groups of 2, 4, or 8

will result in further simplification.

Looping groups of 2 (Pairs)

Groups of 4 Groups of 8
(Quads) (Octets)

• When the largest possible groups have been

looped, only the common terms are placed
in the final expression.
– Looping may also be wrapped between top, bottom,
and sides.

• Complete K map simplification process:

– Construct the K map, place 1s as indicated in the truth table.
– Loop 1s that are not adjacent to any other 1s.
– Loop 1s that are in pairs.
– Loop 1s in octets even if they have already been looped.
– Loop quads that have one or more 1s not already looped.
– Loop any pairs necessary to include 1st not already looped.
– Form the OR sum of terms generated by each loop.

When a variable appears in both complemented and

uncomplemented form within a loop, that variable
is eliminated from the expression.

Variables that are the same for all squares of

the loop must appear in the final expression.

• The exclusive OR (XOR) produces a HIGH

output whenever the two inputs are at
opposite levels.

Exclusive OR circuit and truth table.

Output expression: x = AB + AB
This circuit produces a HIGH output whenever
the two inputs are at opposite levels.

Traditional XOR gate symbol.

An XOR gate has only two inputs, combined so that x = AB + AB.

A shorthand way indicate the XOR output expression is: x = A B.
…where the symbol represents the XOR gate operation.
Output is HIGH only when the two inputs are at different levels.

Quad XOR chips containing four XOR gates.

74LS86 Quad XOR (TTL family)
74C86 Quad XOR (CMOS family)
74HC86 Quad XOR (high-speed CMOS)

• The exclusive NOR (XOR) produces a HIGH

output whenever the two inputs are at the
same level.
– XOR and XNOR outputs are opposite.

Exclusive NOR circuit and truth table.

Output expression: x = AB + AB
XNOR produces a HIGH output whenever
the two inputs are at the same levels.

Traditional XNOR gate symbol.

An XNOR gate has only two inputs, combined so that x = AB + AB.

A shorthand way indicate the XOR output expression is: x = A B.
XNOR represents inverse of the XOR operation.
Output is HIGH only when the two inputs are at the same level.

Quad XNOR chips with four XNOR gates.

74LS266 Quad XNOR (TTL family)
74C266 Quad XOR (CMOS)
74HC266 Quad XOR (high-speed CMOS)

Truth table and circuit

for detecting equality of
two-bit binary numbers.

How an XNOR gate may

be used to simplify circuit
implementation.

XOR and XNOR gates are useful in circuits

for parity generation and checking.

• Situations requiring enable/disable circuits occur

frequently in digital circuit design.
– A circuit is enabled when it allows the passage
of an input signal to the output.
– A circuit is disabled when it prevents the passage
of an input signal to the output.

A logic circuit that will allow a signal to pass to output

only when control inputs B and C are both HIGH.
Otherwise, output will stay LOW.

A logic circuit that will allow a signal to pass to output

only when one, but not both control inputs are HIGH.
Otherwise, output will stay HIGH.

A logic circuit with input signal A, control

input B, and outputs X and Y, which operates as:
When B = 1, output X will follow input A, and output Y will be 0.
When B = 0, output X will be 0, and output Y will follow input A.

• IC ―chips‖ consist of resistors, diodes & transistors

fabricated on a piece of semiconductor material
called a substrate.
Digital ICs are often categorized by complexity,
according to the number of logic gates on the substrate.

• The dual-in-line package (DIP) contains two

parallel rows of pins.

The DIP is probably the

most common digital IC
package found in older
digital equipment.

• Pins are numbered counterclockwise, viewed

from the top of the package, with respect to
an identifying notch or dot at one end.

Shown is a 14-pin DIP

that measures .75” x .25”.

• The actual silicon chip is much smaller than the

DIP—typically about 0.05‖ square.

The silicon chip is

connected to the pins
of the DIP by very fine
(1- mil) wires.

• The PLCC is one of many packages common

in modern digital circuits.
– This type uses J-shaped leads which curl
under the IC.

• ICs are also categorized by the type of

components used in their circuits.
– Bipolar ICs use NPN and PNP transistors
– Unipolar ICs use FET transistors.

The transistor-transistor logic (TTL) family

consists of subfamilies shown here:

Differences between the TTL devices is limited to electrical

characteristics such as power dissipation & switching speed.
Pin layout and logic operations are the same.

VCC for TTL devices is normally +5 V.

Power (VCC) and

ground connections
are required for
chip operation.

TTL
INVERTER

The Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor

(CMOS) family consists of several series

CMOS devices perform the same function as, but are not
necessarily pin for pin compatible with TTL devices.

VDD for CMOS

devices can be Power (VDD) and
from +3 to +18 V. ground connections
are required for
chip operation.

CMOS
INVERTER

• Inputs not connected are said to be floating.

– Floating TTL input acts like a logic 1.
• Voltage measurement may appear indeterminate,
but the device behaves as if there is a 1 on the
floating input
– Floating CMOS inputs can cause overheating and
damage to the device.
• Some ICs have protection circuits built in.
– The best practice is to tie all unused inputs.
• Either high or low.

Voltages in the indeterminate range provide

unpredictable results and should be avoided.

Logic levels for TTL and CMOS devices.

A connection diagram shows all electrical

connections, pin numbers, IC numbers, component
values, signal names, and power supply voltages.

This circuit uses logic gates

from two different ICs.

Each gate input & output pin

number is indicated on the
diagram, to easily reference
any point in the circuit.

Power/ ground connections

to each IC are shown.

Logic diagram using Quartus II schematic capture.

• Three basic steps in fixing a digital circuit or

system that has a fault (failure):
– Fault detection—determine operation to expected
operation.
– Fault isolation—test & measure to isolate the fault.
– Fault correction—repair the fault.
• The basic troubleshooting tools are the logic
probe, oscilloscope, and logic pulser.

The logic probe will indicate the presence or absence

of a signal when touched to a pin as indicated below.

• Most common internal failures:

– Malfunction in the internal circuitry.
• Outputs do not respond properly to inputs.
• Outputs are unpredictable.
– Inputs or outputs shorted to ground or VCC .
• The input will be stuck in LOW or HIGH state.
– Inputs or outputs open-circuited .
• An open output will result in a floating indication.
• Floating input in a TTL will result in a HIGH output.
• Floating input in a CMOS device will result
in erratic or possibly destructive output.
– Short between two pins (other than ground or VCC).
• The signal at those pins will always be identical.

These two types of failures force the input signal

at the shorted pin to stay in the same state.
Left—IC input internally shorted to ground.
Right—IC input internally shorted to supply voltage.

These two types of failures do

not affect signals at the IC inputs.
Left—IC output internally shorted to ground.
Right—IC output internally shorted to supply voltage.

An IC with an internally open input will not

respond to signals applied to that input pin.

An internally open output will produce an

unpredictable voltage at that output pin.

An internal short between two pins of an IC will force

the logic signals at those pins always to be identical.

When two input pins are internally shorted, the signals

driving these pins are forced to be identical, and usually
a signal with three distinct levels results.
Digital Electronic – I
Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e MU-MIT (Property of Tocci)
Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
Ronald J. Tocci, Neal S. Widmer, Gregory L. Moss
4-12 External Faults

• Open signal lines—signal prevented from moving

between points—can be caused by:
– Broken wire.
– Poor connections (solder or wire-wrap).
– Cut or crack on PC board trace.
– Bent or broken IC pins.
– Faulty IC socket.
• This type of fault can be detected visually and
verified with an ohmmeter between the points
in question.

What is the most probable fault in the circuit shown?

The indeterminate level at the NOR gate output is

probably due to the indeterminate input at pin 2.

Because there is a LOW at Z1-6,

this LOW should also be at Z2-2.

• Shorted signal lines—the same signal appears

on two or more pins—and VCC or ground may
also be shorted, caused by:
– Sloppy wiring.
– Solder bridges.
– Incomplete etching.
• This type of fault can be detected visually and
verified with an ohmmeter between the points
in question.

• Faulty power supply—ICs will not operate or will

operate erratically.
– May lose regulation due to an internal fault or
because circuits are drawing too much current.
• Verify that power supplies provide the specified
range of voltages and are properly grounded.
– Use an oscilloscope to verify that AC ripple is not
present and verify that DC voltages stay regulated.
• Some ICs are more tolerant of power variations
and may operate properly—others do not.
– Check power and ground levels at each IC that
appears to be operating incorrectly.

• Output loading—caused by connecting too many

inputs to the output of an IC, exceeding output
current rating.
– Output voltage falls into the indeterminate range.
• Called loading the output signal.
– Usually a result of poor design or bad connection.

Digital Electronic – I
Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e MU-MIT (Property of Tocci)
Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
Ronald J. Tocci, Neal S. Widmer, Gregory L. Moss
END
Digital Electronic – I
Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 11/e MU-MIT (Property of Tocci)
Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
Ronald J. Tocci, Neal S. Widmer, Gregory L. Moss

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