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Introduction to
Instrumentation
Control Engineering and Instrumentation
BNJ 30703

Muhammad Farid bin Shaari, PhD.

Faculty of Engineering Technology
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Outlines
• Measurement, units and measurement elements
• Fundamental of instrumentation
• Types of instruments
• Statics and dynamic characteristics of instrument
• Errors and Noise
Measurement
Measurement is the process of determining the amount, degree
or capacity by comparison with the accepted standards of the
system units being used.

Measurement, the process of associating numbers with physical

quantities and phenomena.
Encyclopedia
Brittanica
How fast the bullet train?
Measurement units
• A standard unit of measurement is a quantifiable language that helps
everyone understand the association of the object with the measurement.
Case study
• Can all things in the world be referred in units?
• How to measure coffee taste?
Measurement & Data friendly Culture
Measurement & Data friendly culture
Meter m
Kilogram kg
Second s
Ampere A
Kelvin K
Candela cd
Mole mol
Measurement system
Measurement system elements
Instrumentation
• Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which serves
sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.

• Instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude

of a quantity or variable.
Analogue instruments
Digital instruments

(Rechberger, 2016 in Amir Thesis 2023)

(Michael, 2014 in Amir Thesis 2023)
Digital instrument

Require qualified
specialist or technologist
to handle/operate
Analogue vs Digital Instruments
Types of measurement instruments
• Time • Voltage
• Geometry • Resistance, Conductance
• Mass • Magnetic field
• Speed • Hardness
• Acceleration • Imaging
• Force • Viscosity
• Pressure • Humidity
• Torque • pH
• Temperature • Color
• Electric charge • ….and many more.
• Electric current
Types of measurement instruments

Determine these and gives examples;

• Direct measurement vs Indirect measurement
• Passive instruments vs Active instruments
Direct and Indirect Measurement
Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement

• Measure the dimensions of • Target dimension are

the target directly. measured by comparing to
• Wide range of specified by measuring instruments or
the scale of the measuring standards.
instrument. • Examples:
• Example: Scale, Gauge, Caliper, block, hole
gauges, Adjustable parallels,
Vernier caliper, ruler, micrometer planer gauge, scriber, radius
gauge
Active and passive Instruments
Active instrument Passive Instrument
• Require external energy • Does not require external
or power supply energy or power supply
• Require excitation power • Does not require
• Example: excitation power
• Strain gauge • Example:
• Pressure sensor • Thermocouple
• Laser displacement sensor • Mechanical weighing scale
• Bending sensor
Which one is the larger domain,
instrumentation or measurement?
From ChatGPT AI
What is the task for an instrumentation
engineers?
• Instrumentation engineer
are responsible for
designing, installing, and
maintaining instrumentation
systems.
• They have expertise in a
variety of fields, including
electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering and
computer science.
 Bicycle FEA simulation and structural test

https://broadtechengineering.com/bike-frame-fea-analysis/

https://www.eurolab.net/en/testler/bisiklet-testleri/
Case study
Case study
Statics characteristics
• Accuracy • Hysteresis effect
• Precision/Repeatability • Dead space
• Tolerance
• Range or span
• Linearity
• Sensitivity of measurement
• Threshold
• Resolution
• Sensitivity to disturbance
Accuracy, Precision and Tolerance
Range of Span
Resolution
• Resolution is the smallest unit of measurement that can be
indicated by an instrument.
• Capacity divided by readability.

More gear teeth has

higher resolution

Resource: Freepik
Resource: Freepik
Sensitivity

• Sensitivity is the smallest amount of difference in quantity that

will change an instrument's reading. - OR
• Ratio of output change to input change.
Sensitivity

OUTPUT
variable

INPUT variable
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is a phenomenon under which the measuring
instrument shows different output effects during loading and
unloading.
• Hysteresis results from the inelastic quality of an element or
device.
Hysteresis
• Water boiler, steam-up water
with pressure and flow rate.
• To control the pressure and
flowrate, boiling temperature
must be controlled.
• Thermocouple must give right
temperature value to ensure the
output parameter are correlated.
Voltage

Temp
Why it happened?
• Hysteresis in sensors occurs when the sensor's output
depends not only on the current input but also on its past
states. This means that the sensor does not immediately return
to its original state when the input changes in the opposite
direction. Instead, there is a lag or difference between the
increasing and decreasing response.
Causes of hysteresis
• Material properties
• A pressure sensor with an elastic diaphragm may deform slightly and take time to
return to its original position.
• Friction and internal resistance
• A strain gauge might not immediately return to zero after force is removed due to
internal resistance.
• Magnetic effects
• A Hall effect sensor measuring magnetic fields may retain some magnetization after
the external field is removed.
• Electrical & circuit effects
• A temperature sensor in a thermostat may only turn ON at 40°C but turn OFF at 38°C
to prevent unnecessary switching.
• Thermal effects & heating delay
• A bimetallic temperature sensor (like in old thermostats) bends at a certain
temperature but does not return instantly.
Threshold
• The minimum value of input signal that is required to make a
change or start from zero.
• This is the minimum value below which no output change can
be detected when the input is gradually increased from zero.
• The amount of measurement change required before a
measuring instrument reacts to a change in measurement
output or produces a specified result.

V V Tensile Force
Tensile Force

Start apply loads After certain value

Why it happened?

• To Filter Out Noise

– Avoid false triggers from tiny environmental changes.

• To Ensure Reliability
– Only real, intentional touches activate the system.

• To Improve Accuracy
– Helps differentiate between a soft accidental touch and a
deliberate press.

• To Optimize Power Consumption

– Ignoring weak signals saves energy in battery-powered
devices.
No output
Factors that lead to threshold
1. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
• A small input signal may be indistinguishable from noise, so a minimum threshold is set to avoid false
triggers.
2. Material and Mechanical Limitations
• If the input is too weak, it may not create a detectable change in the sensor's material or structure.
3. Internal Circuit Design (Hysteresis)
• Many sensors use hysteresis to prevent rapid switching between states due to small fluctuations.
4. Response Time and Energy Threshold
• Some sensors require a certain energy level to activate.
5. Digital vs. Analog Processing
• Analog sensors have a gradual response, but digital systems often impose a threshold to convert
analog signals into ON/OFF states.
• Example: A microphone picks up small sounds, but a voice activation system only turns on if sound
exceeds a set volume (threshold)
Full Scale (F.S)
• "Full scale" indicates the full scope of the measurement range.
• For example, full scale for a Sensor with a measurement range
of ±10 mm is 20 mm.

https://www.optex-fa.com/products/dsp_sensor/ls/
Linearity
• Linearity is an indicator of a measurement system's capability. The value
represents the maximum error value between an ideal value and the
actual measurement result.
• For example, when a target is moved 1 mm using a measurement system
with a linearity of ±5 µm, the displayed value is said to possibly include an
error margin of ±5 µm (e.g., 9.995 µm to 1.005 µm).
• Linearity specifications are defined as
± XX % of F.S., where F.S. represents
the measurement range.
Examples
1. A measurement system that has a linearity of 0.02% of F.S. and a
measurement range of ±3 mm (F.S. = 6 mm), the linearity will be 0.02% ×
6 mm = ±1.2 µm.
2. Linearity: ±0.2% F.S. If F.S. is 20 mm (a measurement range from 30 to
50 mm), the dimensional error is calculated as ±0.2 × 1/100 × 20, or ±40
μm.
Example: Reading sensor specification 1

https://br.omega.com/omegaFiles/pressure/pdf/LC101.pdf
Example: Reading sensor specification 2

https://www.ifm.com/my/en/product/SBY246?tab=details
Errors in measurement
• Errors in measurement systems can be divided into;
• those that arise during the measurement process
• those that arise due to later corruption of the measurement signal by
induced noise during transfer of the signal from the point of
measurement to some other point.

• Errors arising during the measurement process can be divided

into two groups;
• systematic errors
• random errors
Systematic errors
Systematic errors describe errors in the
output readings of a measurement system
that are consistently on one side of the
correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are
positive or they are all negative. Two major
sources of systematic errors are system
disturbance during measurement and the
effect of environmental changes (modifying
inputs). Other sources of systematic error
include bent meter needles, the use of
uncalibrated instruments, drift in instrument
characteristics and poor cabling practices.
 Random errors
Random errors are perturbations of the
measurement either side of the true value caused
by random and unpredictable effects, such that
positive errors and negative errors occur in
approximately equal numbers for a series of
measurements made of the same quantity.
Such perturbations are mainly small, but large
perturbations occur from time to time, again
unpredictably.
Random errors often arise when measurements
are taken by human observation of an analogue
meter, especially where this involves interpolation
between scale points. Electrical noise can also be
a source of random errors.
Summary of Errors

Systematic error Random error

Cause: Cause:
• Environmental effect • Incorrect reading methods
• Disturbance, i.e: accident • Electrical noise

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c5_p5.html
Error in instrumentation: Case study 1

How to determine the height of the grain in the silo?

H=?
Error in instrumentation: Case study 2

How to ensure the separation process is well controlled?

GAS

WATER OIL
Error in instrumentation: Case study 3

https://hbr.org/2017/09/the-tragic-crash-of-flight-af447-shows-the-unlikely-but-catastrophic-
consequences-of-automation
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
• Measurement always introduce error.
• Error may be expressed either as absolute or percentage of error

Absolute error, e = Yn − X n

where;
Yn : expected value
X n : measured value

Yn − X n
% Error = 100
Yn
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Yn − X n
Relative accuracy, A = 1 −
Yn

% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error

= A 100

Precision, P= Xn − Xn
1−
Xn
where;
X n : value of the nth measurement
X n : average set of measurement
Example 1.1

Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V.

The measurement is 79V. Calculate,
i. The absolute error
ii. The % of error
iii. The relative accuracy
iv. The % of accuracy
 Solution (Example 1.1)

Given that , expected value = 80V

measurement value = 79V

i. Absolute error, e = Yn − X n = 80V – 79V = 1V

80 − 79
ii. % error = Yn − X n 100 = 100 = 1.25%
Yn 80

iii. Relative accuracy, A = 1 −

Yn − X n = 0.9875
Yn
iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100% = 98.75%
Example 1.2
Table 1.1
From the value in Table 1.1 No Xn
calculate the precision of 6th 1 98
measurement? 2 101
3 102
4 97
5 101
6 100
7 103
8 98
9 106
10 99
Solution Example 1.2

the average of measurement value;

98 + 101 + .... + 99 1005
Xn = = = 100.5
10 10

the 6th reading (Xn = 100)

100−100.5 0.5
Precision = 1 − =1− = 0.995
100.5 100.5
 LIMITING ERROR

• The accuracy of measuring instrument is guaranteed within a

certain percentage (%) of full scale reading
• e.g manufacturer may specify the instrument to be accurate
at 2 % with full scale deflection
• For reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases
 LIMITING ERROR (cont)
Example 1.6

Given a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy 2% full scale.

Calculate limiting error when the instrument is used to measure a voltage of
250V?

Solution

The magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12V

Therefore, the limiting error for 250V = 12/250 x 100 = 4.8%
 LIMITING ERROR (cont)
Example 1.7

Given for certain measurement, a limiting error for voltmeter at 70V is 2.143% and
a limiting error for ammeter at 80mA is 2.813%. Determine the limiting error of the
power.

Solution

The limiting error for the power = 2.143% + 2.813%

= 4.956%