Lesson 7: Carbohydrates and Lipids Glucose is the primary form of sugar stored in

the human body for energy. Fructose is the main

Explain
sugar found in most fruits. Both glucose and
In the previous activity, you were able to sort fructose have the same chemical formula
two of the major macromolecules – (C6H12O6); however, they have different
Carbohydrates and Lipids. structures, as shown (note: the carbon atoms that
sit in the "corners" of the rings are not labeled).
Carbohydrates are one of the major These are the pentagons and hexagons you see in
macromolecules which serve as the main energy the activity.
source for the human body. Chemically,
carbohydrates are organic molecules in which
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen bond together.
Animals (including humans) break down
carbohydrates during the process
of metabolism to release energy. For example,
the chemical metabolism of the sugar glucose is
shown below:

Disaccharides have two sugar units bonded

together. For example, common table sugar is
sucrose, a disaccharide that consists of a glucose
unit bonded to a fructose unit:

Complex carbohydrates are polymers of simple

sugars. In other words, the complex
Animals obtain carbohydrates by eating foods carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugar
that contain them, such as potatoes, rice, bread, units bonded together (for this reason the
and fruits. These carbohydrates are complex carbohydrates areoften referred to
manufactured by plants during the process as polysaccharides). The potato we discussed
of photosynthesis. Plants harvest energy from earlier actually contains the complex
sunlight to run the reaction described in reverse: carbohydrate starch. Starch is a polymer of the
monosaccharide glucose.

Starch is the principal polysaccharide used by

plants to store glucose for later use as energy.
Plants often store starch in seeds or other
specialized organs; for example, common
sources of starch include rice, beans, wheat,
corn, potatoes, and so on. When humans eat
All carbohydrates are made up of units of sugar starch, an enzyme that occurs in saliva and in the
(also called saccharide units). Carbohydrates intestines called amylase breaks the bonds
that contain only one sugar unit between the repeating glucose units, thus
(monosaccharides) or two sugar units allowing the sugar to be absorbed into the
(disaccharides) are referred to as simple sugars. bloodstream. Once absorbed into the
bloodstream, the human body distributes glucose
Simple sugars are sweet in taste and are broken
to the areas where it is needed for energy or
down quickly in the body to release energy. Two
stores it as its own special polymer – glycogen.
of the most common monosaccharides are
glucose and fructose.
Glycogen, another polymer of glucose, is the The straight chains can be packed together very
polysaccharide used by animals to store energy. tightly, allowing them to store energy in a
Excess glucose is bonded together to form compact form. This explains why saturated fatty
glycogen molecules, which the animal stores in acids are solids at room temperature. Animals
the liver and muscle tissue as an "instant" source use saturated fatty acids to store energy.
of energy. Both starch and glycogen are
polymers of glucose; however, starch is
a long, straight chain of glucose units, whereas
glycogen is a branched-chain of glucose units, as
seen below:
On the other hand, Unsaturated fats contain
some number of double bonds in their structure.
These fats are generally liquid at room
temperature (fats that are liquid at room
temperature are referred to as oils). Unsaturated
fats can be either polyunsaturated (many double
bonds) or monounsaturated fats (one or few
double bonds). Recent research suggests that the
Another polymer of glucose is healthiest of the fats in the human diet are the
Cellulose. Cellulose differs from starch and monounsaturated fats, such as olive oil and
glycogen because the glucose units form a two- canola oil because they appear to be beneficial in
dimensional structure, with hydrogen bonds the fight against heart disease.
holding together nearby polymers, thus giving
the molecule added stability. Cellulose, also
known as plant fiber, cannot be digested by
human beings, therefore cellulose passes
through the digestive tract without being
absorbed into the body. Some animals, such as
cows and termites, contain bacteria in their
digestive tract that help them to digest cellulose.
Cellulose is a relatively stiff material, and in
plants, it is used as a structural molecule to add Other lipids, aside from fatty acid, may contain
support to the leaves, stem, and other plant parts. other molecules as well.
Despite the fact that it cannot be used as an
energy source in most animals, cellulose fiber is These includes:
essential in the diet because it helps exercise the
Triglycerides – contain alcohol molecules and
digestive tract and keep it clean and healthy.
are the main forms of stored energy in animals.
Phospholipids – contain phosphate groups and
are the major components of cell membranes.
Steroids – also contain alcohol and ketone
molecules in a four-ring structure, it serves as
chemical messengers and has other roles.
A common example of Phospholipid is Lecithin.
Lecithin is present throughout your body, most
especially in nerve cells and in brain tissues.
Good sources of lecithin are egg yolk and oil
from seeds. Lecithin has a phosphate group
(PO43-) linked to one of its side chains.

Lipids are macromolecules which are used to

store energy and other important roles. Lipids
consist of repeating units called fatty acids. Fatty
acids are organic compounds that have the
general formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH, where n
usually ranges from 2 to 28 and is always an
even number. There are two types of fatty acids:
saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids.
In saturated fatty acids, carbon atoms are bonded
to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. This
causes the molecules to form straight chains.
 ELABORATE:
In previous sections, you have learned about
carbohydrates and lipids. Also, the structures of
each were briefly discussed.
These macromolecules are important in our
metabolism.
Metabolism is a collection of chemical reactions
that takes place in the body's cells. Metabolism
converts the fuel in the food we eat (from
carbohydrates and lipids) into the energy needed When many amino acids bond together to create
to power everything we do, from moving to long chains, the structure is called a protein (it is
thinking to growing. also called a polypeptide because it contains
many peptide bonds). Proteins serve two broad
Metabolism is a constant process that begins purposes in the human body:
when we're conceived and ends when we die. It
is a vital process for all life forms — not just 1. Structural proteins form most of the solid
humans. If metabolism stops, living things die. material in the human body. For example, the
structural proteins keratin and collagen are the
main components of your hair, muscles, tendons
and skin.
Lesson 8: Proteins and Nucleic Acids
2. Functional proteins help carry out activities
Explain
and functions in the human body. For
In the activity, you were able to build Amino example, hemoglobin is a functional protein that
Acids. These are the building blocks of Proteins. occurs in the red blood cells and helps to
transport oxygen in the body. Myosin is a
Proteins are macromolecules made up of amino protein that occurs in muscle tissue and is
acids. Though there are hundreds of thousands responsible for the ability of muscles to
of different proteins that exist in nature, they are contract. Insulin is a functional protein that helps
all made up of different combinations of amino regulate the storage of sugar glucose in the
acids. Proteins are large molecules that may human body. A subclass of the functional
consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of amino proteins is the group of polypeptides referred to
acids. Amino acids all have the general as enzymes. Enzymes help to carry out specific
structure: chemical reactions in the body. For
example, amylase is an enzyme that occurs both
in human saliva and in the intestines that helps
to break apart the glucose-glucose bonds in the
carbohydrate starch, thus allowing your body to
absorb the glucose and use it for energy.

There are an estimated 100,000 different

proteins in the human body alone, and each of
them is made up of a combination of different
combinations of only 20 amino acids. Each
protein has a different structure and performs a
different function in the body. When we eat
The R in the diagram represents a functional protein-containing foods (such as meat, fish,
group that varies depending on the specific beans, eggs, cheese, etc.) the polypeptide chains
amino acid. For example, R can simply be an H are generally broken down in the digestive tract
atom, as in the amino acid glycine, or a more and the individual amino acids are absorbed into
complex organic group. When two amino acids our bodies. These amino acids are then
bond together, the carboxyl end bonds with the recombined into proteins specific to each
amino end to form a peptide bond. individual person in a process called protein
synthesis.
In the activity, you were able to build the last
type of macromolecule – the NUCLEIC ACIDS.
Nucleic acids received their name because they
were originally isolated from cell nuclei. They
contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus; have acidic character, and are found
in all living beings. They are linear
macromolecules formed by the polymerization
of units called nucleotides.
Nucleotides have three parts:
1. Nitrogenous base (In this case, adenine)
2. Pentose Sugar
3. Phosphate group

2. RNA (RiboNucleic Acid)

RNA gets its name from the sugar group in the
Functions: molecule's backbone - ribose. Several important
similarities and differences exist between RNA
1. they are the repository of the genetic
and DNA. Like DNA, RNA has a sugar-
information responsible for the
phosphate backbone with nucleotide bases
transmission of inherited characteristics
attached to it. Like DNA, RNA contains the
from parents to children and from one
bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine
cell to another; and
(G); however, RNA does not contain thymine,
instead, RNA's fourth nucleotide is the base
uracil (U).
2. they guide cell protein synthesis and are
responsible for the correct assembly of Unlike the double-stranded DNA molecule,
amino acids in defined sequences. RNA is a single-stranded molecule. RNA is the
main genetic material used in the organisms
Types of Nucleic Acids: called viruses, and RNA is also important in the
1. DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) DNA production of proteins in other living organisms.
gets its name from the sugar molecule RNA can move around the cells of living
contained in its backbone (deoxyribose); organisms and thus serves as a sort of genetic
however, it gets its significance from its messenger, relaying the information stored in the
unique structure. Four different cell's DNA out from the nucleus to other parts of
nucleotide bases occur in DNA: adenine the cell where it is used to help make proteins.
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and
thymine (T). The versatility of DNA
comes from the fact that the molecule is
actually double-stranded. The nucleotide
bases of the DNA molecule form
complementary pairs: The
nucleotides hydrogen bond to another
nucleotide base in a strand of DNA
opposite to the original. This bonding is
specific, and adenine always bonds to
thymine (and vice versa), and guanine
ELABORATE:
always bonds to cytosine (and vice
versa). This bonding occurs across the In the previous section, we discussed about
molecule, leading to a double-stranded DNA or DeoxyriboNucleic Acid.
system as pictured below: This nucleic acid is the reason why we inherit
traits from our parents.
 There are pieces of evidence for chemists to tell
that there is a chemical reaction that happened.
DNA and Heredity
1. Color Changes
Heredity is the passing on of characteristics from
one generation to the next. It is the reason why A change in color often indicates a chemical
offspring look like their parents. It also explains change. For example, in your activity, the white
why cats always give birth to kittens and never sheet of paper turned into ashes after being
puppies. Through heredity, living things inherit burned.
traits from their parents. Traits are physical
2.Temperature Changes
characteristics. You resemble your parents
because you inherited your hair and skin color, Changes in temperature might also indicate a
nose shape, height, and other traits from them. chemical change has occurred. Exothermic
reactions give off heat while endothermic
reactions absorb heat. In the burning of paper,
heat is absorbed which caused the paper to be
turned into ashes.
3.Percipitates
The formation of a precipitate is a sign that a
chemical change has occurred. A precipitate is
an insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid
solution. For example, if you mix the clear
Cells are the basic unit of structure and function solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride,
of all living things. Tiny biochemical structures silver chloride forms as a precipitate. The
inside each cell called genes carry traits from formation of precipitates is a fairly obvious sign
one generation to the next. of a chemical change because of the insoluble
solid floats or sinks to the bottom in what was
Genes are made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic
previously a clear liquid solution.
acid). Genes are strung together to form long
chains of DNA in structures known 4.Light Emission
as chromosomes.
Combustion reactions are notorious for giving
Genes are like blueprints for building a house, off light. Combustion is a rapid chemical
except that they carry the plans for building reaction of a substance with oxygen, involving
cells, tissues, organs, and bodies. They have the the production of heat and light. Also known as
instructions for making the thousands of burning. For example, phosphorus in the
chemical building blocks in the body. These presence of oxygen burns spontaneously,
building blocks are called proteins. producing a flame.
Proteins are made of smaller units of amino Other reactions can give off light without heat.
acids. Differences in genes cause the building of Lightsticks work as the result of a chemical
different amino acids and proteins. These reaction between hydrogen peroxide and phenyl
differences cause individuals to have different oxalate ester; when you break the stick, the
traits such as hair color or blood types. peroxide mixes with the ester, producing energy
in the form of light.

Lesson 9: Evidences of Chemical Reaction

Explain
In the previous activity, you were able to
conduct a simple chemical reaction.

A chemical reaction is a process in which one or

more substances, also called reactants, are
converted to one or more different substances,
known as products.
5.Gas Production
A common example is the formation of water by
reacting hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. Some chemical changes produce a gas as a
product of a reaction. The electrolysis of water,
for example, is a decomposition reaction that
breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. You
can tell this change has occurred when bubbles When you start chewing, food is mechanically
of gas arise from the electrodes. broken down into smaller pieces. You also
produce saliva, which contains amylase that
mixes with your food. Amylase is a digestive
enzyme that chewing activates and which
hydrolyzes or breaks down starch into
monosaccharides. Enzymes are biological
molecules (typically proteins) that significantly
speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical
reactions that take place within cells. Amylase
breaks down the starch in your mouth into
maltose, a disaccharide, which is made up of
two glucose molecules.

Lesson 10: Balancing Equations

Explain
From the activity, you see one of the common
chemical reactions which is the production of
water from hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
In the single replacement reaction between zinc
Chemists use Chemical Equations to describe
metal and sulfuric acid, zinc sulfate and
chemical reactions.
hydrogen gas are formed. You can tell hydrogen
gas is present by lighting a splint and placing it In a chemical reaction, there are two kinds of
inside the test tube after the reaction occurs; the substances involved:
splint will pop because the flame ignites the
hydrogen.  The reactant is a substance used up
during a chemical reaction.
 Products is a substance formed after a
chemical reaction.
ELABORATE:
Now that you know the different pieces of
evidence of chemical reaction, you can now tell
if there is a chemical reaction happening in a
system.

Did you know that your body is actually a

walking laboratory? Different chemical reactions
are happening in your body to maintain life.

One of which is Digestion. Digestion is the

process of changing the food you eat into a form
that can be used by the cells and that enables the
nutrients to get into the blood so they can be
transported throughout the body.
As soon as food enters your mouth, it starts the
process of digestion. Food needs to be broken
down into smaller nutrients so that the body can
store or utilize it. Your body produces
specialized enzymes that work on digesting the
different types of foods you consume.
During digestion, carbohydrates start out as
polysaccharides, which are large starch
molecules that are broken down into
disaccharides, which are two, linked-sugar
molecules. Disaccharides are then further broken You will be familiarized with these symbols as
down into even smaller simple sugars, known as you go through the lesson.
monosaccharides that are then absorbed into the
blood so that the body can then use them.
From the activity, you learned about balancing
equations. Balancing chemical equations is so
easy. Here are the steps for you to be guided:

1. Write the unbalanced chemical equation.

2. Balance the coefficient using the inspection
method. Add the coefficients before the formula
of each substance. Do not change the identities
(formula) of any of the reactants or products by
changing the subscripts (the number after an
element, 2 in case of H2O).
3. Check to see that the coefficients used to give
the same number of each type of atom on both
sides of the equation. Be sure that the
coefficients used are the smallest integers that
give the balanced equation.

Note that choosing the right coefficient is done

by trial and error. If you carefully check the
numbers of each atom every time a coefficient is
Solution: changed, you reduce the trial and eliminate the
error.
1. Write the unbalanced chemical equation.
Your goal is to make the number of
Hydrogen and Oxygen the same on the
reactant and product side.

Notice that the number of oxygen atoms on the

reactant side is greater than on the product side.

ELABORATE:
Chemical reactions also follow Law of
Conservation of Mass. You’ve already learned
this in your Grade 8 Chemistry.
According to this law, matter is neither created
nor destroyed. This means, in a chemical
reaction, amount of elements remains the same
before and after the reaction.
This law is actually the basis of balancing
This time, there are fewer hydrogen atoms on chemical equations. The number of atoms of
the reactant side (2) than there are on the product elements in the reactant side should always be
side (4). the same as the number of its atoms in the
What number should you place before H2 to product side.
balance the equation? Try placing a “2”. For example, burning wood using fire. In this
reaction, the wood combines with oxygen and
changes not only to ashes but also produces
carbon dioxide and water vapor. These gases
float off into the air, leaving behind the ashes of
the wood.
If you measured the mass of the wood before it
burned and the mass of the ashes after it burned;
and also if you had been able to measure the
oxygen used by the fire and the gases produced
by the fire, what would you find?
The total mass of matter after the fire would be
the same as the total mass of matter before the
fire. This follows the Law of Conservation of
Mass.