PHY 417 - RADIATION INSTRUMENT

Basic Concepts of Radiation and Its Units

Radiation refers to the emission of energy in the form of waves or particles. It can be categorized
into two main types:

 Ionizing Radiation: Has enough energy to ionize atoms by removing electrons.

Examples include alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X-rays, and neutron
radiation.
 Non-Ionizing Radiation: Lacks sufficient energy to ionize atoms but can still excite
molecules. Examples include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, and ultraviolet
radiation.

Types of Ionizing Radiation

1. Alpha Particles (α):

o Consist of two protons and two neutrons (helium nucleus).
o Highly ionizing but low penetration power; can be stopped by a sheet of paper or
human skin.
o Harmful if ingested or inhaled.

2. Beta Particles (β):

o High-speed electrons or positrons emitted from radioactive decay.
o Moderate ionizing power and penetration; can be stopped by plastic or aluminum.

3. Gamma Rays (γ):

o High-energy electromagnetic waves emitted from nuclear decay.
o Highly penetrating; requires dense materials like lead or concrete for shielding.

4. X-rays:
o Electromagnetic radiation produced by electron transitions or deceleration.
o Used in medical imaging but can be harmful in excessive exposure.

5. Neutron Radiation:
o Consists of free neutrons, primarily produced in nuclear reactions.
o Penetrates deeply; shielding requires hydrogen-rich materials like water or
concrete.

Units of Radiation Measurement

Radiation dosimetry uses various units to quantify radiation exposure, energy absorption, and
biological effects.
Radiation Dosimeters

Radiation dosimeters are devices used to measure radiation doses in different environments.
They can be classified into passive dosimeters and active dosimeters.

1. Passive Dosimeters

These dosimeters store radiation information and require post-exposure analysis.

 Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs): Store energy from radiation exposure and

release it as light when heated. Common materials include lithium fluoride (LiF).
 Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeters (OSLDs): Similar to TLDs but use
optical stimulation instead of heat.
 Film Badge Dosimeters: Contain photographic films that darken in response to
radiation.
 Chemical Dosimeters: Use chemical changes to measure radiation exposure (e.g., Fricke
dosimeter).

2 Active Dosimeters

These provide real-time radiation dose readings.

 Geiger-Müller (GM) Counters: Detect ionizing radiation through ionization in a gas-

filled tube.
 Ionization Chambers: Measure radiation dose directly by collecting ion pairs.
 Silicon Semiconductor Detectors: Measure radiation using semiconductor diodes.
 Scintillation Detectors: Convert radiation energy into visible light, measured by
photomultiplier tubes.

Calculations in Radiation Measurement

1. Activity Calculation
4.2. Absorbed Dose Calculation

4.3. Equivalent Dose Calculation

4.4. Effective Dose Calculation

4.5. Radiation Exposure Rate Calculation

Radiation Protection Standards

Radiation protection refers to the principles and measures used to safeguard humans and the
environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. These standards are established by
international and national regulatory bodies based on scientific research and recommendations.

Fundamental Principles of Radiation Protection

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) have established three fundamental principles of radiation protection:

1. Justification

 Any activity involving radiation exposure should provide a net benefit to individuals or
society.
 Examples:
o Medical imaging must be justified based on patient health benefits.
o Nuclear power must provide significant energy benefits while minimizing risks.

2. Optimization (ALARA Principle)

 ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle ensures that exposure is kept as
low as possible while considering economic and societal factors.
 Techniques include:
o Shielding
o Distance from radiation sources
o Minimization of exposure time
3. Dose Limitation

 Radiation exposure limits are set based on the potential health risks associated with
different levels of exposure. The limits vary for occupational workers, the general public,
and specific sensitive groups.
 Exposure limits are established to prevent deterministic (acute) and stochastic (long-term)
effects.
 Different limits apply to workers, the public, and special populations (pregnant workers,
children).

Occupational Exposure Limits

Category Annual Effective Dose Limit

Radiation Workers 20 mSv per year (averaged over 5 years)
Pregnant Workers 1 mSv to the embryo/fetus during pregnancy
General Public 1 mSv per year


Regulatory Bodies and International Standards

1. International Organizations

Organization Role in Radiation Protection

International Commission on Radiological Provides recommendations on radiation exposure
Protection (ICRP) limits and risk assessment.
International Atomic Energy Agency Develops safety standards and provides technical
(IAEA) guidance for radiation protection.
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Conducts research on radiation exposure and its
Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) effects on human health.
Provides guidelines on radiation health risks,
World Health Organization (WHO) especially in medical and environmental
exposure.
Establishes radiation safety regulations for
International Labour Organization (ILO)
workers in radiation-related fields.

2. National Regulatory Bodies

Each country enforces its own radiation protection regulations, often based on international
standards. Examples include:

 United States: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Nuclear Regulatory

Commission (NRC)
 United Kingdom: Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Office for Nuclear Regulation
(ONR)
 Nigeria: Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NNRA)
  China: National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA)

Radiation Protection Measures

1. Time, Distance, and Shielding

1. Time: Minimize the duration of exposure to radiation.

2. Distance: Increase the distance from the radiation source (inverse square law).
3. Shielding: Use appropriate materials to block radiation.
o Alpha particles: Stopped by paper or skin.
o Beta particles: Stopped by plastic or aluminum.
o Gamma rays/X-rays: Require lead or concrete shielding.
o Neutrons: Best shielded by hydrogen-rich materials (e.g., water, polyethylene).

2. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

 Lead aprons and gloves (for medical X-rays).

 Radiation dosimeters to monitor exposure.
 Respiratory protection against airborne radioactive particles.

Internal and External Irradiation

Radiation exposure can occur in two primary ways: internal irradiation and external
irradiation. These classifications depend on whether the radioactive source is inside or outside
the body. Both types have different biological effects, monitoring methods, and protection
strategies.

1. External Irradiation

Definition

External irradiation occurs when a person is exposed to radiation from a source located outside
the body. The radiation penetrates the body but does not involve the ingestion or inhalation of
radioactive substances.

Sources of External Irradiation

 Natural Sources: Cosmic radiation, terrestrial radiation from radionuclides in the soil
(e.g., uranium, thorium, radon).
 Medical Sources: X-rays, radiotherapy, nuclear medicine procedures.
 Industrial Sources: Nuclear power plants, industrial radiography, radiation sterilization.
 Nuclear Accidents: Fallout from nuclear reactor accidents, nuclear weapon detonations.
Radiation Types in External Irradiation

 Gamma rays (γ-rays): Highly penetrating electromagnetic radiation; can pass through
the body and cause deep tissue damage.
 X-rays: Similar to gamma rays but typically produced artificially in medical and
industrial applications.
 Beta particles (β): Less penetrating than gamma rays; can be stopped by plastic or thin
metal sheets but can cause skin burns.
 Neutrons: Highly penetrating and mainly encountered in nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators.

Effects of External Irradiation

The severity of biological effects depends on:

 Radiation dose (measured in Sieverts or Grays)

 Type of radiation
 Exposure duration
 Tissue sensitivity

Acute high doses can cause radiation burns, radiation sickness, and increased cancer risk,
while chronic low doses can lead to genetic mutations and long-term health effects.

Protection Against External Irradiation

Following the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle, protection strategies
include:

1. Time: Limiting exposure duration reduces dose accumulation.

2. Distance: Increasing distance from the radiation source significantly decreases exposure.
3. Shielding: Using barriers like lead, concrete, or water to absorb radiation.
4. Protective Clothing: For beta and low-energy gamma radiation, special suits and aprons
can reduce exposure.

2. Internal Irradiation

Definition

Internal irradiation occurs when radioactive materials enter the body through inhalation,
ingestion, absorption through the skin, or injection. Once inside, radionuclides emit radiation
directly to surrounding tissues, potentially causing localized damage.

Sources of Internal Irradiation

  Inhalation: Radon gas, airborne radioactive dust, nuclear fallout.
 Ingestion: Contaminated food and water (e.g., radioactive iodine-131, cesium-137,
strontium-90).
 Absorption through Skin: Radioactive isotopes in contaminated environments (e.g.,
tritium).
 Medical Procedures: Radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine (e.g., iodine-131
for thyroid treatment).

Radiation Types in Internal Irradiation

 Alpha particles (α): Very damaging inside the body due to their high ionization potential
but have low penetration (stopped by paper or skin).
 Beta particles (β): Cause localized tissue damage if internalized.
 Gamma rays (γ): Can irradiate multiple organs after internal deposition of radionuclides.
 Neutrons: Rarely encountered in internal exposure.

Effects of Internal Irradiation

 Localized Damage: Internal emitters deposit energy directly in tissues, leading to

increased risks of organ-specific cancers and radiation-induced diseases.
 Long-Term Retention: Some radionuclides accumulate in specific organs:
o Iodine-131: Thyroid gland.
o Strontium-90: Bones (mimics calcium).
o Cesium-137: Soft tissues and muscles.
o Radon and Uranium: Lungs.
 Delayed Effects: Radiation exposure may cause genetic mutations, organ dysfunction,
or leukemia.

Protection Against Internal Irradiation

1. Avoiding Contamination: Proper handling of radioactive materials, use of protective

gloves and masks.
2. Preventing Inhalation/Ingestion: Air filtration systems, proper food and water
screening in radiation-prone areas.
3. Biological Elimination: Using agents to remove internal radionuclides (e.g., potassium
iodide (KI) blocks radioactive iodine uptake in the thyroid).
4. Medical Intervention: Chelating agents like Prussian blue help remove cesium-137,
while DTPA (diethylenetriamine pentaacetate) assists in eliminating plutonium.

3. Key Differences Between External and Internal Irradiation

Feature External Irradiation Internal Irradiation

Source Location Outside the body Inside the body
Radiation Gamma, X-rays, Beta, Neutrons Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Neutrons
Feature External Irradiation Internal Irradiation
Types
Penetration Varies (some penetrate deep,
Localized within organs and tissues
Depth some stop at skin)
Effects Whole-body or partial exposure Organ-specific damage, long-term retention
Shielding, distance, time Avoiding ingestion/inhalation, biological
Protection
management decontamination
Dosimeters (TLDs, film badges, Bioassay, whole-body counting, urine/fecal
Monitoring
GM counters) analysis

Natural and Artificial Radiation Activity in the Environment

Radiation is an integral part of the environment, originating from both natural and artificial
sources. Natural radiation has existed since the formation of the Earth, while artificial radiation
has increased due to human activities such as nuclear energy production, medical applications,
and industrial uses. Understanding both sources is essential for assessing radiation exposure risks
and implementing safety measures.

A. Natural Radiation Activity

Natural radiation, also known as background radiation, comes from cosmic, terrestrial, and
internal sources. It is present in the air, soil, water, and even within the human body.

Sources of Natural Radiation

1. Cosmic Radiation

 Originates from space, including the sun and distant galaxies.

 High-energy particles (protons, neutrons) and gamma rays interact with the Earth’s
atmosphere.
 The intensity increases with altitude (e.g., higher radiation exposure in airplanes or
mountainous regions).

.2. Terrestrial Radiation

 Comes from naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in the Earth’s crust.
 Common radionuclides:
o Uranium-238 (U-238) → Produces radon gas.
o Thorium-232 (Th-232)
o Potassium-40 (K-40) → Found in soil and rocks.
o Radium-226 (Ra-226)
 Levels vary based on geological formations; for example, granite-rich areas have higher
radiation levels.
3. Radon Gas (Rn-222)

 A decay product of uranium found in soil and rocks.

 Seepage into homes, especially basements, poses health risks.
 Leading cause of lung cancer among non-smokers.

4. Internal Radiation

 Naturally occurring radionuclides within the human body from food, water, and air.
 Examples:
o Potassium-40 (K-40): Found in bananas, nuts, and meat.
o Carbon-14 (C-14): Present in all living organisms.

Measurement of Natural Radiation

 Geiger-Müller (GM) Counters: Detect cosmic and terrestrial radiation.

 Scintillation Counters: Used for gamma-ray detection.
 Dosimeters: Measure personal radiation exposure.

Health and Environmental Impact

 Prolonged exposure to radon gas increases lung cancer risks.

 High-altitude exposure can increase risks for airline crews.
 Radiation from soil and water contributes to background exposure, though usually at safe
levels.

B. Artificial Radiation Activity

Artificial radiation originates from human-made sources used in medical, industrial, military, and
energy applications.

Sources of Artificial Radiation

1. Medical Radiation

 X-rays: Used in medical imaging (CT scans, fluoroscopy).

 Radiotherapy: Cancer treatment using high-dose ionizing radiation.
 Nuclear Medicine: Use of radioactive tracers (e.g., iodine-131, technetium-99m).

2. Nuclear Power Plants and Accidents

 Nuclear reactors produce energy using controlled fission reactions.

 Radiation leaks can occur during accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima).
 Waste from reactors contains long-lived radionuclides (e.g., cesium-137, strontium-90).
3. Industrial Applications

 Radiography: Uses gamma rays for non-destructive material testing.

 Radiation Sterilization: Used for medical equipment and food preservation.
 Oil and Gas Exploration: Radioactive tracers help in reservoir mapping.

4. Nuclear Weapons and Fallout

 Atmospheric nuclear tests (1945–1980s) released radioactive fallout.

 Isotopes like cesium-137, strontium-90, and plutonium-239 remain in the environment.

Measurement of Artificial Radiation

 Gamma Spectroscopy: Identifies specific radionuclides.

 Liquid Scintillation Counting: Measures beta-emitting radionuclides.
 Radiation Dosimetry: Tracks radiation exposure in medical and nuclear industries.

Health and Environmental Impact

 Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS): Occurs with high doses (e.g., nuclear accidents).
 Cancer Risks: Prolonged exposure can lead to leukemia, thyroid cancer.
 Radioactive Contamination: Fallout affects soil, water, and food chains.

4. Comparison of Natural and Artificial Radiation

Feature Natural Radiation Artificial Radiation

Source Cosmic rays, soil, radon, food X-rays, nuclear reactors, fallout

Exposure Type Continuous, unavoidable Occupational, medical, accidental

Common Uranium-238, Potassium-40, Radon- Iodine-131, Cesium-137, Technetium-

Isotopes 222 99m

Cancer (long-term), lung damage Cancer, radiation sickness, genetic

Health Risks
(radon) mutations

Control
Ventilation (radon), shielding Regulatory limits, waste disposal
Measures

Ionizing Radiation Instruments: Detection and Measurement

Ionizing radiation instruments are essential for detecting, measuring, and monitoring radiation
levels in various environments, including medical, industrial, research, and nuclear applications.
These instruments work by detecting the interaction of radiation with matter and converting it
into measurable electrical signals.

Ionizing radiation includes alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), neutron, and X-rays, each
requiring different detection techniques.

2. Classification of Ionizing Radiation Instruments

Radiation detection instruments can be classified based on their operating principles and the
type of radiation they measure:

1. Gas-Filled Detectors
2. Scintillation Detectors
3. Semiconductor Detectors
4. Personal Dosimeters
5. Neutron Detectors

1. Gas-Filled Detectors

These detectors operate by ionizing gas inside a sealed chamber, producing an electrical signal
proportional to the radiation intensity.

i. Geiger-Müller (GM) Counter

 Principle: Radiation ionizes gas (usually argon or helium), producing a pulse detected by
an electronic circuit.
 Radiation Detected: Beta (β), Gamma (γ), and X-rays.
 Applications:
o Environmental radiation monitoring.
o Radiation protection in laboratories and nuclear facilities.
o Survey meters for contamination detection.
 Advantages:
o Simple and portable.
o Provides an audible "click" for radiation presence.
 Limitations:
o Cannot differentiate radiation types.
o Less accurate at high radiation levels due to saturation.

ii. Ionization Chamber

  Principle: Measures ion pairs produced in a gas-filled chamber by radiation.
 Radiation Detected: Alpha (α), Beta (β), Gamma (γ), and X-rays.
 Applications:
o Precise dose measurement in radiation therapy.
o Environmental radiation monitoring.
 Advantages:
o Provides accurate dose measurements.
o Can measure high radiation doses without saturation.
 Limitations:
o Requires high voltage.
o Less sensitive to low-energy radiation.

iii. Proportional Counter

 Principle: Operates similarly to an ionization chamber but amplifies the ionization

signal.
 Radiation Detected: Alpha (α), Beta (β), and Neutron radiation.
 Applications:
o Laboratory radiation analysis.
o Alpha and neutron spectroscopy.
 Advantages:
o Can differentiate radiation types based on pulse size.
o More sensitive than GM counters.
 Limitations:
o Requires precise calibration.
o Less robust than GM counters.

2. Scintillation Detectors

Scintillation detectors use phosphor or crystal materials that emit light when exposed to
radiation. A photomultiplier tube (PMT) converts this light into an electrical signal.

i. Sodium Iodide (NaI) Detector

 Principle: Gamma photons interact with NaI(Tl) crystals, producing visible light
detected by a PMT.
 Radiation Detected: Gamma (γ) and X-rays.
 Applications:
o Radiation monitoring in nuclear plants.
o Gamma-ray spectroscopy.
o Medical imaging (e.g., gamma cameras).
 Advantages:
o High sensitivity for gamma detection.
o Can identify specific radionuclides.
  Limitations:
o Hygroscopic (absorbs moisture).
o Requires regular calibration.

ii. Plastic Scintillator

 Principle: Uses organic plastic material to detect ionizing radiation.

 Radiation Detected: Beta (β) and Neutron radiation.
 Applications:
o Fast neutron detection.
o Beta radiation contamination monitoring.
 Advantages:
o Fast response time.
o Lightweight and portable.
 Limitations:
o Less efficient for gamma detection.

3. Semiconductor Detectors

These detectors use solid-state materials like silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) to convert
radiation into electrical signals.

i. Silicon (Si) Detector

 Principle: Ionizing radiation generates electron-hole pairs in silicon.

 Radiation Detected: Alpha (α) and Beta (β).
 Applications:
o Particle physics experiments.
o Radiation dosimetry.
 Advantages:
o High energy resolution.
o Compact and durable.
 Limitations:
o Limited gamma-ray detection.
o Sensitive to temperature variations.

ii. High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) Detector

 Principle: Similar to silicon detectors but provides superior resolution for gamma
spectroscopy.
 Radiation Detected: Gamma (γ).
 Applications:
o Nuclear spectroscopy for precise radionuclide identification.
o Environmental and forensic radiation analysis.
  Advantages:
o Excellent energy resolution.
o Identifies specific gamma-ray energies.
 Limitations:
o Requires liquid nitrogen cooling.
o Expensive and delicate.

4. Personal Dosimeters

These instruments measure the radiation dose absorbed by an individual over time.

i. Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)

 Principle: Stores radiation energy in crystals (e.g., lithium fluoride), later released as
light when heated.
 Radiation Detected: Beta (β), Gamma (γ), and X-rays.
 Applications:
o Personal monitoring for radiation workers.
o Environmental radiation assessment.
 Advantages:
o Reusable and accurate.
o Small and lightweight.
 Limitations:
o Requires specialized reading equipment.
o No immediate real-time measurement.

ii. Film Badge Dosimeter

 Principle: Radiation exposure darkens photographic film proportionally to dose.

 Radiation Detected: Beta (β), Gamma (γ), and X-rays.
 Applications:
o Occupational radiation monitoring.
o Emergency response in nuclear incidents.
 Advantages:
o Permanent dose record.
o Simple and inexpensive.
 Limitations:
o Requires film processing.
o Affected by heat and humidity.

iii. Electronic Personal Dosimeter (EPD)

 Principle: Uses semiconductor sensors or GM tubes to provide real-time dose readings.

 Radiation Detected: Beta (β), Gamma (γ), and X-rays.
  Applications:
o Real-time monitoring for nuclear industry workers.
o First responders in radiation emergencies.
 Advantages:
o Immediate readout.
o Programmable alarm settings for safety.
 Limitations:
o More expensive than passive dosimeters.
o Requires batteries.

5. Neutron Detectors

Neutrons are challenging to detect because they do not directly ionize matter. Special detectors
use conversion materials to produce secondary charged particles.

i. Helium-3 (³He) Detector

 Principle: Neutrons interact with helium-3 gas, producing ionized particles detected
electronically.
 Applications:
o Nuclear reactors and research facilities.
o Homeland security for detecting illicit nuclear materials.
 Advantages:
o Highly efficient for neutron detection.
 Limitations:
o Expensive due to helium-3 scarcity.

ii. Boron Trifluoride (BF₃) Detector

 Principle: Neutrons react with boron, producing alpha particles detected by an ionization
process.
 Applications:
o Radiation protection in nuclear power plants.
 Advantages:
o Sensitive to low-energy neutrons.
 Limitations:
o Toxic and requires careful handling.