the ancient world

CIVILIZATIONS OF

ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Volume 5
The Ancient World
Civilizations of

Asia and the Pacific

Volume 5

GENERAL EDITOR
Sarolta Takács, Ph.D.
Rutgers University

C O N S U LT I N G E D I T O R
Eric Cline, Ph.D.
The George Washington University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The ancient world / Sarolta Takács, general editor; Eric Cline, consulting editor.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-7656-8082-2 (set : alk. paper)
l. Civilization, Ancient--Encyclopedias. 2. History, Ancient--Encyclopedias.
I. Takács, Sarolta A. II. Cline, Eric H.
CB3ll.A535 2007

930.l03--dc22 2006l0l384

Printed and bound in Malaysia

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum
requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for
Printed Library Materials,
ansi z 39.48.l984

TI (c) l0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 l

All images provided by Getty Images and the following:

background image: Colin Samuels/Photonica
inset images (left to right):Harvey Lloyd/Taxi/Getty Images; Dennie Cody/Taxi; Digital Vision; Demetrio
Carrasco/Dorling Kindersley; Sylvain Grandadam/Stone
Contents
List of Illustrations vii Japan 54

Topic Finder ix TURNING POINT: The Divine Wind 57

Preface xi Java 59

Ancient Asia and the Pacific Basin: Khmer Empire 60

More Than the Sum of Its Parts xiii
Korea 61
Map of Ancient Asia and the Pacific xvii
Language and Writing 64

Mandate of Heaven 69
Aboriginal Peoples 1
Melaka 70
Agriculture 2
Micronesia 71
TURNING POINT: Terraced Farming 4
Mongols 72
Angkor Wat 6
ANCIENT WEAPONS: The Mongolian Bow 73
Archeological Discoveries 7
Monsoons 76
TURNING POINT: Terra-cotta Soldiers 10
LINK IN TIME: The Great Wall 12 Myths and Epics 77

Art and Architecture 14 LINK TO PLACE: Indian and Greek Epics 78

LINK TO PLACE: Asian Creation Myths 80
TURNING POINT: Todaiji Temple 16
New Zealand 81
Australia 18
LINK IN TIME: Maori Culture: Ancient and Modern 82
LINK TO PLACE: Fossils: Australia and the Americas 20
Pax Sinica 84
Buddhism 22
Polynesia 85
GREAT LIVES: The Buddha 25
Religion 87
China 26
TURNING POINT: Reincarnation 89
TURNING POINT: Chinese Civil Service 28
TURNING POINT: Indian Temples and
Confucianism 33 Temple Worship 91

GREAT LIVES: Confucius 34 Shinto 93

Culture and Traditions 36 Silk Road 95

Golden Horde 40 Slavery 96

Hinduism 41 Society 97

Huns 44 ANCIENT WEAPONS: The Japanese Samurai Sword

and the Javanese Kris 98
GREAT LIVES: Attila the Hun—“Scourge of God”? 45
Spice Trade 101
India 46
Sri Lanka 102
Indian Ocean Trade 49
Sukhothai and Ayudhya 103
Islam, Spread of 52
vi | CONTENTS

Technology and Inventions 104

TURNING POINT: The Concept of Zero 106

TURNING POINT: The First Seismograph 108

Tools and Weapons 109

Vietnam 111

Zheng He (ca. C.E. 1371–1433) 112

Glossary 114

Selected Bibliography 117

Index 122
List of Illustrations
Time Lines Maps

Archeological Discoveries 9 Ancient Asia and the Pacific, ca. 3000 B.C.E. xvii

Rise of Australia 22 Major Archeological Sites of Asia and

the Pacific 11
Milestones in Ancient Chinese History 27
Migratory Routes of Aboriginal Peoples
Origins and Growth of Hinduism 42 to Australia and Pacific Migrations 21

Milestones in Ancient Indian History 47 Chinese Dynasties, 1122 B.C.E.–C.E. 1365 31

Milestones in Ancient Japanese History 55 International Trade Routes of the Peoples

of Asia, ca. C.E. 1500 50
Rise and Decline of the Khmer Empire 61
Major Linguistic Groups of Ancient Asia
Language and Writing 65 and the Pacific 68

Technology and Inventions 105 Mongol Empire at Its Greatest Extent,

ca. C.E. 1300 74

Major Asian Religions Before C.E. 1500 92

The Spread of Technology 107

viii | LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Photos

Rice terraces 3 Tosho-gu Shrine 58

Hindu temple complex 7 Lanterns showing Japanese characters 66

Terra-cotta soldiers 10 Tale of Genji illustration 79

Australian rock art 19 Maori church façade 83

Statue of the Buddha 23 Temple in India 90

Grand Canal of China 29 Shinto shrine 94

Henna-painted hands 37 Brahmin caste member 100

Hindu deity 43 Early Chinese paper money 106

Attila the Hun 45 Fourteenth-century armor 110

Topic Finder
Agriculture Notable Figures
Culture and Traditions Attila the Hun (see Huns)
Mandate of Heaven Buddha (see Buddhism)
Religion Confucious (see Confucianism)
Slavery Zheng He
Society
Technology and Inventions Places
Tools and Weapons Angkor Wat
Australia
Civilizations and Peoples China
Aboriginal Peoples India
Huns Japan
Khmer Empire Java
Mongols Korea
Melaka
Culture and Language Micronesia
Archeological Discoveries New Zealand
Art and Architecture Polynesia
Culture and Traditions Sri Lanka
Language and Literature Sukhothai and Ayudhya
Myths and Epics Vietnam

General Topics Periods and Events

Agriculture China
Archeological Discoveries India
Art and Architecture Japan
Culture and Traditions Khmer Empire
Indian Ocean Trade Korea
Language and Literature Mandate of Heaven
Mandate of Heaven Pax Sinica
Monsoons
Myths and Epics Religion
Pax Sinica Buddhism
Religion Confucianism
Silk Road Hinduism
Slavery Islam, Spread of
Society Religion
Spice Trade Shinto
Technology and Inventions Society and Way of Life
Tools and Weapons
x | TOPIC FINDER

War and Military Affairs

China
Golden Horde
Huns
Mongols
Tools and Weapons
Preface
Studying the world’s history is like being an ex- Asia into what is now Alaska and from there moved
plorer who travels across centuries to unfamiliar farther south.
lands. The traveler encounters ancient cultures and While populations spread across the globe at an
civilizations and, above all, has countless opportu- early time, their growth was limited by a reliance on
nities to examine both what was thought to be fa- hunting and foraging for subsistence. In order for
miliar and what was completely unknown. large civilizations to develop, humans had to learn
The history of the ancient world, much like that how to manipulate their environment; the cultiva-
of the modern era, is a series of interactions played tion of crops became a necessity for survival. The
out by familiar and unfamiliar characters upon a earliest evidence of crop cultivation appeared in Jer-
stage of equally diverse geography. Knowing how icho (an oasis in the Jordan Valley) around 8,000
these interactions occurred and evolved, and how, at years ago. From there, agriculture spread in all di-
times, they were obstructed, is crucial to both the rections, giving rise to the greatest of the early civil-
study of the past and an understanding of the izations, those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. These
present, in terms of both progress and conflict. The kingdoms rose along what is known as the Fertile
five volumes of The Ancient World: Civilizations of Crescent, a region of rivers, oases, and arable coast-
Africa, Europe, the Americas, the Near East and South- land that stretches in a curve north from the Per-
west Asia, and Asia and the Pacific help readers step sian Gulf, across the northern reaches of modern-
back in time, making familiar what was unknown. day Iraq, and south along the Levantine coast into
The way we interact with others today—learning the Nile Delta region of northern Egypt.
a world language and exploring another culture, for Although different civilizations have been, and
example—is not very different from how people in continue to be, separated by distance and by variation
the ancient world interacted with each other. Geo- in climate and topography, not to mention differ-
graphical characteristics, however, played a much ences in languages, traditions, and belief systems,
more dramatic role in governing the interactions some elements of one culture’s intellectual history
among ancient peoples than they do in interactions closely resemble those elements in other cultures.
among modern ones. The creation and flood narratives of the Old Testa-
Humans have been on the move from the begin- ment, for example, exist alongside similar tales in the
ning. Paths they have taken and other peoples they ancient cultures of the Middle East, the Mediterra-
have encountered have always been functions of the nean region, and Africa. Ancient stories about the
geographical opportunities or hindrances they have creation of the world, genealogy, agricultural prac-
faced. From Africa, the first place where humans tices, and morality have been found to bear striking
lived, populations began to migrate north into Eu- similarities all over the globe among groups of peo-
rope and throughout Asia as the glaciers of the last ple who had little, if any, possibility of interacting.
Ice Age receded. In the South Pacific, people seek- With countless movements and human interac-
ing fertile hunting and fishing grounds sailed from tions obscured by time, distance, and varying per-
one island to another centuries before open sea spectives, surveying the terrain of the ancient world
travel was thought possible in the West. As a result may seem intimidating. As your guide, the volumes
of the Ice Age, a land bridge, known as Beringia, con- of this series provide a road map of the past. The An-
nected Eastern Siberia, Asia, and North America, a cient World allows you to travel back in time to ex-
connection that the Bering Sea now covers. Begin- amine the origins of human history, how the envi-
ning around 13,000 B.C.E. or even earlier, humans ronment shaped historical development, and how
called Paleo-Indians, in search of food, crossed from civilizations developed.
xii | PREFACE

Articles are arranged alphabetically, and sidebar Place” draw some startling parallels in far-flung
features expand the coverage: “Turning Points” dis- places; and “Ancient Weapons” reveal amazing
cuss topics such as inventions that have propelled early technology. May this journey offer you not
civilization forward; “Great Lives” reveal individuals only facts and data but also a deeper appreciation of
whose extraordinary deeds shaped a people’s his- the past and an understanding of its powerful con-
tory and culture; “Links in Time” connect the past nection to the present.
to the present or one period to another; “Links to Sarolta A. Takács
Ancient Asia and the Pacific Basin:
More Than the Sum of Its Parts
Early Asian civilizations developed through a com- gion in what is now southeastern Australia. Some
bination of human migrations, local innovations, 10,000 years later, the ancestors of Australia’s abo-
and the adaptation of customs and beliefs from riginal peoples migrated to the southern and east-
more advanced societies. The initial spread of civil- ern parts of the island continent. Ancestors of these
ization in Asia and the Pacific Basin resulted from early immigrants still inhabit the highlands of
migrations of early humanoids from Asia to India, China, Taiwan, and Hokkaido Island in
Southeast Asia to Australia in roughly 55,000 Japan. Between 15,000 and 10,000 B.C.E., northern
B.C.E., followed by another wave of aboriginal set- Asian populations also traveled east to settle in what
tlers from Asia some 35,000 years later. Maritime is now North America.
travelers, originally based in south China, the Phi- By 10,000 B.C.E., the land bridges had disap-
lippines, and Taiwan, settled the eastern Indone- peared, covered by rising sea levels triggered by the
sian archipelago about 10,000 B.C.E. By about end of the most recent Ice Age. Australia and the is-
1500 B.C.E., they began to migrate farther east to the lands of the Pacific became isolated from the main-
Pacific Islands. land and its surrounding islands, such as Japan, the
Most ancient Asian and Pacific Island societies Philippines, and Indonesia. As a result, the cultures
began as nomadic hunting-and-gathering and so- of the two regions developed along significantly dif-
journing bands that eventually adopted a settled ag- ferent lines. For example, while most mainland
ricultural lifestyle. These early agricultural commu- populations had adopted a settled agricultural life-
nities formed the foundations for more complex, style by 1000 B.C.E., Australian aborigines remained
centralized societies of Asia’s major premodern a hunting-and-gathering society until the arrival of
powers, India and China. From India, Hindu and European settlers in the late 1700s C.E.
Buddhist civilization spread to Tang-era China
(C.E. 618–907), where it blended with China’s ear- THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE
lier Confucian tradition. This tradition in turn led to Asia is by far the world’s largest continent, almost
the development of imperial neo-Confucian tradi- half again the size of Africa and larger than North
tions in neighboring Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. and South America combined. Its great expanses
consist of large swathes of fertile land broken by
PREHISTORY vast stretches of some of the world’s most difficult
The earliest evidence of human habitation in Asia is and hostile terrain. China, for example, not only
the remains of Homo erectus, a human ancestor who features productive coastal areas and the fertile val-
walked upright and used tools, including fire, dat- leys of the Yellow and Chang rivers but also the for-
ing to roughly one million years B.C.E. Discovered in bidding Gobi and Taklimakan deserts in the north-
China’s southwestern Yunnan Province in the ern and western parts of the country.
1980s, these remains are some 100,000 years older Settled agricultural communities appeared in
than similar ones found on the Indonesian island the river valleys of China and India before 4000
of Java in 1891, which were dubbed “Java Man.” By B.C.E., in Southeast Asia by 2000 b.c.e., and in
the time modern Homo sapiens appeared in Asia Japan shortly after 1000 B.C.E. These early farming
(between 70,000 and 20,000 B.C.E.), humans in- societies cultivated dry rice, or millet, as their staple
habited most of the continent. grain. By around C.E. 1000, communities had
In 70,000 B.C.E., Asia was joined to both North switched to the cultivation of wet rice, originally de-
America and Australia by land bridges. By 40,000 veloped in mainland Southeast Asia. These settled
B.C.E., early Homo sapien hunters and gatherers mi- cultures eventually evolved into the continent’s first
grated from Southeast Asia to the Lake Mungo re- centralized states: China’s Shang dynasty (1766–
xiv | ANCIENT ASIA AND THE PACIFIC BASIN

1122/1027 B.C.E.), the Mauryan kingdoms in India that the philosopher Confucius spread his notions
(ca. 400–180 B.C.E.), and the early Korean king- of the importance of orderly social behavior. Confu-
doms sometimes referred to as “Old Choson” (late cianism soon evolved into the guiding principle of
fourth century B.C.E.). Chinese secular political authority and adminis-
Nomadic and seminomadic peoples inhab- tration.
ited the peripheries of the settled civilizations, Early Chinese history was marked by periods of
interacting with and often profoundly shaping stability broken by periods of disorder and chaos. In
those agricultural societies. Around 1600 B.C.E., 403 B.C.E, the Zhou dynasty collapsed, leading to
seminomadic Aryan tribesmen from southern the so-called “Era of the Warring States,” which
Russia’s steppe grasslands entered India through ended in 222 B.C.E., when the Qin state emerged as
the Hindu Kush mountain passes. The resulting the victor. Likewise, the fall of the Han dynasty (206
mixture of Aryan and existing local Indian cultures B.C.E.–C.E. 220) triggered 350 years of turmoil until
produced both the Hindu faith, which predomi- the Sui dynasty (C.E. 581–618) reestablished impe-
nates in India to this day, and India’s caste system, a rial authority. Similar disruptions in central rule oc-
social hierarchy that separates classes by degrees curred again in the early 900s and in 1279, when
of ritual purity. Social influence, however, traveled the nomadic Mongols conquered China. The Ming
in both directions. In the thirteenth century C.E., the restored ethnic Chinese rule in 1368, and China re-
nomadic Mongols from the steppes of central Asia tained a traditional imperial structure until the
conquered virtually the entire continent except for early twentieth century.
India, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Mongol rulers,
however, readily adapted to and often adopted the India
cultural and religious practices of the societies they Like China, India struggled with internal divisions
conquered. Local culture changed the Mongols and waves of invasion. By 600 B.C.E., several com-
more than the Mongols changed local culture. peting kingdoms had arisen in India, as had Bud-
dhism, an alternative to the dominant Hindu reli-
EARLY PEOPLES AND gious tradition. The Mauryan kingdom, which
CIVILIZATIONS emerged as north India’s preeminent culture by
Natural barriers such as seas and mountain ranges 400 B.C.E., adopted Buddhism and its more inclu-
encouraged the evolution of distinct societies in the sive social doctrines. The collapse of the Mauryan
various regions of Asia and the Pacific. In time, state about 180 B.C.E. was followed by a series of in-
many of these separate societies contacted one an- vasions from the northwest that continued until the
other, sharing beliefs and practices and creating ele- early fourth century C.E. Among the attempted in-
ments of a common culture. The popularity of Bud- vaders was the Macedonian emperor Alexander III,
dhism in India, China, Japan, Korea, and Southeast the Great, who, in the 320s B.C.E., brought Greek
Asia is one example of a local cultural practice that culture to India’s northwestern frontier but failed in
spread widely by social exchange. Other societies, his attempt to add India to his vast empire.
such as the Australian aborigines and the Polyne- Alexander’s death in 323 B.C.E. led to the collapse
sians and Micronesians of the Pacific, developed of his empire and a transitional period during
unique cultures as a result of their isolation from which the Greek invaders competed for control over
mainland Asia. northwest India with the Asia-based Scythians and
the Iran-based Parthians while numerous Indian
China rulers held authority over all the Gangetic plain.
In China, the Shang were the first in a series of im- The Gupta Empire (ca. C.E. 320–550), claiming de-
perial dynasties that oversaw the growth and con- scent from earlier Mauryan rulers, finally restored
solidation of the Chinese state. The succeeding central authority and reinstated Hindu social and re-
Zhou dynasty (1122/1027–221 B.C.E.) was a time ligious practice in north India. The fall of the Gupta
of intellectual development. It was during this era rulers was followed by a period of competition
 ANCIENT ASIA AND THE PACIFIC BASIN | xv

among small regional states in the north, which Some were ruled by a supreme chief; in others, a
ended with the arrival of Islamic invaders in the local chief shared power with heads of family clans;
second millennium C.E., leading to 500 years of still others were ruled by a group of roughly equal
Muslim rule over the north Indian heartland that confederated chiefs. In Australia, by contrast, no
was the home of Buddhism and Hinduism. South central government of any type emerged among
India was ruled by the Cera, Cola, Pandya, and Pal- the aboriginal population, which remained orga-
laum original Hindu dynasties from c.e. 600 and nized in small nomadic bands. Australia and the
was never subject to Muslim rule. Pacific islands developed cultures unique from
those of the mainland, remaining isolated from
Southeast Asia and Japan cultural influences such as Buddhism, Hinduism,
Centralized kingdoms developed much later in and Confucianism.
Japan and Southeast Asia. In Japan, the Yamato
emerged about C.E. 400 as the most powerful of a ASIA IN TRANSITION
group of local clans and consolidated their power In the early fifteenth century c.e., the new Ming
into imperial rule. Power shifted among competing emperors, who had come to power in China in
clans until the late twelfth century, when imperial 1368, sent the admiral Zheng He and his fleet of
authority collapsed. After this time, a series of mili- Chinese battleships and troop transports to assert
tary leaders, known as shoguns, wielded power in China’s interests across the entire Indian Ocean
Japan, exercising their authority over a network of (1405–1433). Zheng He eliminated pirates and
regional clans. This system led to frequent strug- promised military assistance, continuing Chinese
gles between competing clans for control of the support for local political regimes that guaranteed
shogunate. Although torn by internal rivalry and in- the regular flow of international products from the
fighting, Japan avoided invasion despite several at- Middle East to China. Partly in response to the
tempts by Chinese Mongol emperors in the thir- Ming initiatives, the fifteenth century in Asia wit-
teenth century. Nevertheless, Japan was receptive to nessed substantial increases in trade volume, par-
outside cultural influences. Early Japanese society ticipants, and the diversity of traded commodities.
borrowed heavily from China, including the impor- Among these were Indian cotton and Chinese and
tation of Buddhist and Confucian ideas in the Japanese silk; Chinese, Thai, and Vietnamese ce-
seventh century C.E. ramics; and Indonesian spices. In this age, conver-
In Southeast Asia, early regional Hindu king- sions to Islam increased, especially among the multi-
doms arose in what is now Cambodia in the mid- ethnic populations who were based in a network of
sixth century. Shortly after 800, King Jayavarman II Indian Ocean ports and who became the most
began the process of assimilating these states prominent among Indian Ocean traders. As Ming
into a Khmer Empire centered at Angkor. Thai ar- interest in being directly involved in Indian Ocean
mies conquered the Khmer Empire in 1431 after affairs diminished in the 1430s, the international
more than 100 years of periodic conflict. Vietnam trade re-centered in the Melaka international mar-
was under periodic Chinese rule until 960, when ketplace, which became the critical intermediary in
the Ly state established the Buddhist-Confucian East–West trade. There international traders ex-
kingdom. This realm was the target of repeated changed Middle Eastern and Indian products for
Chinese annexation attempts thereafter. Southeast Asia’s spices and China’a silks and porce-
lain. This prosperity attracted the attention of Euro-
Australia and the Pacific Islands peans, who had previously had little direct contact
Because of their isolation, Australia and the Pacific with the Indian Ocean realm.
islands developed along paths that were quite dif- The European presence in Asia changed dramat-
ferent from those in the remainder of Asia. The is- ically in the early sixteenth century, however. At
lands that comprised Micronesia and Polynesia de- that time, advances in shipbuilding and navigation
veloped a wide range of political organizations. (some, ironically, imported from Asia) enabled
xvi | ANCIENT ASIA AND THE PACIFIC BASIN

European sailors to explore the open oceans, open- nist rulers rejected the Confucian system that had
ing new routes to Asia. In 1498, Portuguese ex- been in place for more than 2,000 years and
plorer Vasco de Gama became the first European to tried to replace it with nineteenth-century Marxist
sail directly to India around the Cape of Good Hope doctrines imported from Europe.
at Africa’s southern tip. Twelve years later, the Por- Despite these changes, ancient social and cul-
tuguese military established a trading port at Goa tural beliefs and practices continue to influence the
on India’s southwestern coast. lives of many Asians today. For example, although
Goa was only the first of many Asian regions to India is a secular state, most Hindus still observe
fall under European domination or outright control the caste system, which plays an important role in
during the next 400 years. By 1900, all of India and determining occupation and social status. Also, al-
most of Southeast Asia had become European colo- though Japan has embraced Western education,
nial possessions. China, although nominally inde- style, and technology more enthusiastically than
pendent, was carved up into economic spheres of any other Asian nation, its traditional customs are
influence by leading European powers and the remarkably resistant to Western influence. For
United States, and was politically powerless. Impe- thousands of years, Asia’s people have absorbed,
rial Russia annexed large tracts of central Asia and adapted, and transformed outside influences—a
Siberia, while Great Britain claimed the entire con- process that continues throughout the region to
tinent of Australia. The United States joined with this day.
European countries and Japan in gaining control
over most of the Pacific islands as well. Japan and FURTHER READING
Siam (modern Thailand) remained the only inde- Basham, A.L. The Wonder That Was India. New
pendent states of note. York: Grove Press, 1959.
Bellwood, Peter. Conquest of the Pacific: The Prehis-
CONNECTIONS TO TODAY tory of Southeast Asia and Oceana. Oxford: Oxford
Like many other former colonies around the world, University Press, 1979.
most Asian nations regained their independence Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. China: A Cultural, Social,
following World War II. However, these new states and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
were shaped strongly by ideas of secularism and 2006.
representative government, which had gained popu- Lieberman, Victor. Strange Parallels. Southeast Asia
larity in the West during the nineteenth and early in a Global Context, 800- 1830. Cambridge, UK:
twentieth centuries. Most of the new states shunned Cambridge University Press, 2003.
the close ties with religious orders that had charac- Roberts, J.M. Prehistory and the First Civilizations.
terized ancient Asian governments. In fact, in Com- New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
munist states such as China, government was ac-
tively hostile not only to religious influence but also Kenneth R. Hall
to traditional social organization. China’s Commu-
Map of Ancient Asia and the Pacific
ANCIENT ASIA AND THE PACIFIC, CA. 3000 B.C.E.

The vast Central Asian plateau, centered Silk Road trade route that joined ancient Huns, whose movements and invasions
on Mongolia, has served as a highway for Rome and Han China in the second dramatically shaped the course of Asian
commerce and conquest since ancient century B.C.E. It was also home to nomadic history.
times. It formed the heart of the the famous warriors such as the Mongols, Aryans, and

xvii
 A–C

Aboriginal Peoples
Hunting-and-gathering and simple agricultural cultures, which date back to 20,000 B.C.E. and
whose modern descendants represent the last primitive inhabitants of the Indian Ocean and
Asian Pacific basins. The origins of most aboriginal cultures are unclear, but those that have
survived were pushed from fertile lands into less productive ones by migration and invasion.
Small groups of these societies still live in rugged and less-accessible areas in a number of
modern Asian and Pacific nations.
Original aboriginal societies were based on the with poison made from the roots and stalks of local
family, usually in cooperation with other, neighbor- plants. They also employed snake venom or the poi-
ing families who together formed a tribal band. The sonous stingers or skin covering of fish such as the
group survived by a combination of small-scale agri- stingray. Many aboriginal shelters featured wood
culture, hunting, and gathering of wild grains and plank floors, some substantially elevated above the
vegetables. Economic activity was seasonal, with moist or frozen soil below, which offered protection
hunting taking place around the schedule of plant- against not only the elements but also predators
ing and harvesting. Males typically were responsible such as snakes, insects, and wild animals.
for hunting and fishing, whereas females and chil- Aboriginal religions were animistic, centered
dren gathered fruits, grains, and vegetables from the on the belief that spirit forces control the realm of
surrounding countryside. The normal diet consisted nature and were the source of a society’s well-being.
of cultivated and wild grains (including rice), roots Frequently, both men and women in aboriginal so-
and tubers (tapioca and yams), beans, coconuts, cieties tattooed their bodies as a form of protection
fruits, and vegetables. The aboriginal peoples sup- against possession by harmful natural spirits. Tat-
plemented their diet with small game and domesti- toos also served as marks of personal accomplish-
cated animals including chicken and pigs. ment and social status.
Although they possessed a relatively simple ma- Today, aboriginal cultures still cling to a precarious
terial culture, aboriginal peoples did develop tech- existence in Asia. They include the inhabitants of
nology with which to exploit the environment. Agri- Australia’s interior desert region known as the Out-
cultural implements used by aboriginal groups back; Adavasi tribal populations in the mountainous
included digging tools made of deer horn, bone, regions of northeastern India such as Assam; the
wood, stone, and metals such as bronze, tin, and Ainu, who live in Japan’s Hokkaido island frontier;
iron. Hunters often used spears or arrows coated the Xungen people of China’s mountains and

1
2 | ABORIGINAL PEOPLES

deserts; and assorted semi-isolated mountain and FURTHER READING

jungle dwellers scattered across Taiwan and South- Blusse, Leonard, and Natalie Everts, eds. The Formo-
east Asia. These aboriginal communities remain san Encounter: Notes on Formosa’s Aboriginal Soci-
distinct in many ways from the majority populations ety. 2 vols. Taipei: Shung Ye Museum of Formo-
of their countries, such as in the use of languages san Aborigines, 2000.
that are not written but have rich oral traditions. Fitzhugh, W. Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People. Seat-
tle: University of Washington Press, 2004.
See also: Agriculture; Archeological Discoveries; Morrison, Kathleen D., and Laura L. Junker, eds.
Australia; Japan; Monsoons; Myths and Epics; Forager-Traders in South and Southeast Asia. Cam-
Tools and Weapons. bridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Agriculture
The ready availability of productive land in premodern Asia, combined with the general
underpopulation of the Asia-Pacific region before C.E. 1500, shaped the pattern of agricultural
development there. As the result of natural catastrophes, climate change, or conflict with
neighboring groups, Asians frequently moved from less fertile to more productive yet
unoccupied areas.
The earliest evidence of settled agriculture in tion is cut in early winter, dried during the dry
Asia dates to roughly 20,000 B.C.E. Millet, or dry months, and burned late in the dry season, and a
rice, sorghum (grain-producing grasses), and other crop of rice, corn, bananas, and a wide range of
natural dry zone grains (wheat, barley, and rye) pre- other vegetation is planted in the fertile ash. Early
date wet rice as the staple grains in the early swidden farming used few agricultural tools. Plant-
densely settled river plains of northern India and ing usually involved making holes in the ground
China. Archeological evidence demonstrates the in- with pointed sticks and placing two or three seeds
itial cultivation of millet in northern China around in each hole; the plow was not used. Crops often
8500 B.C.E. and its widespread cultivation by 5000 were harvested by hand, without the use of a blade.
B.C.E.; people in India’s Indus Valley were growing Although they did not need draft animals, most vil-
millet by 4500 B.C.E.; millet cultivation in Japan and lagers kept dogs, chickens, and pigs. Nevertheless,
Korea did not begin until 1000 B.C.E. Millet (dry most of their animal protein came from fish and
rice) and sawah (wet rice) cultivation were incom- wild game.
patible. As sawah production spread from main- Swidden cultivation required shifting cultivation
land Southeast Asia to southern China and then to cycles because rain rapidly washed away the nutri-
other neighboring regions in the first millennium ents that were added to the soil in the initial burn
C.E., it replaced millet production wherever there off. After two harvests a field was allowed to lay fal-
was sufficient water and a favorable climate. low (unplanted) for at least 10 years in order to re-
plenish the nutrients in the soil, after which the
EARLY SHIFTING CULTIVATION cycle was repeated. In about 50 years, declining soil
Humans initially cultivated millet in the Asian productivity would force swidden cultivators to
highlands in order to avoid the seasonal flooding in move elsewhere to clear and burn new highland
the lowland river basins. Asian farmers used what forests. Then, perhaps after a 50- or 100-year inter-
is commonly called “slash-and-burn,” “shifting,” or val, they might return to their original land, which
swidden (“burned field”) cultivation. Swidden culti- by that time would be reforested and ready to clear
vation is a rotational system in which living vegeta- once more.
 AGRICULTURE | 3

The cultivation of dry rice, or millet, eventually gave way to wet-rice agriculture in the southern regions of ancient Asia that had
plentiful seasonal rainfall. Wet rice was better suited to planting on hillside terraces, such as those shown in the photo above.
(Keren Su/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images)

Shifting cultivation of rice by small human bands cultivation. In this initial phase of agricultural
was ideal for sloping highland areas with adequate transformation, millet and other traditional grains
drainage and little likelihood of flooding. It required were cultivated by settled and increasingly popu-
little labor and produced a substantial food surplus lous village societies, which were sustained by the
relative to the size of the workforce. Slash-and-burn rich alluvial, or sediment rich, soils on the plains
regions could usually produce a stable food supply, of the Indus, Ganges, and Yellow rivers.
but local migration cycles, together with the relatively
low yield per acre, limited highland population den- WET-RICE CULTIVATION
sity to 20 to 30 persons per square mile (2.6 sq km) It is generally believed that wet-rice cultivation be-
and made it difficult to pool significant surpluses. came common in Southeast Asia, central and
The transition from upland shifting to lowland southern China, coastal southern Asia, Sri Lanka,
settled cultivation, which was well underway in India southern Japan, and southern Korea during the first
and China by 3000 B.C.E., may have been caused by millennium C.E. Initially, in Thailand, Cambodia,
population pressure. This move was supported by and Vietnam, wet-rice seeds were distributed at the
new technology such as improved tools, better beginning of the monsoon season on a ploughed
water management, and a calendar, in use in China floodplain that had been subdivided into small
by 2637 B.C.E., which took advantage of seasonal fields bordered and contained by elevated earth, a
4 | AGRICULTURE

TURNING POINT

Terraced Farming
Throughout the Asia-Pacific region, mountainous social organization, marked by commitment to a cen-
regions have been reshaped over the centuries into tral cultural authority, an emphasis on group welfare
terraced pond fields, especially to grow wet rice. Ter- over the needs or desires of individuals, and a prefer-
raced farming in upland regions of China, Southeast ence for cultural continuity over change.
Asia, and elsewhere was a response to landscapes Historians debate whether terraced agriculture,
that had very little flat land for agriculture. It was and irrigated wet-rice agriculture as a whole, re-
also a practical response to Asia’s heavy seasonal quired the efforts of a well-organized and hierarchi-
monsoon rains. Terraces protected naturally fertile cal “hydraulic” society, and whether it contributed to
lowlands from harsh flooding, stopped monsoon the development of early centralized political
rainwater from running freely down the hillsides, systems. In a “hydraulic society,” the great majority
and stored enough water to support successful wet- of individuals are subordinated politically and ritu-
rice farming. Water from the upper terraces made its ally to those who build and maintain the terraces,
way, by the force of gravity, to each succeeding ter- water canals, and storage tanks that comprise the
race level, in a carefully controlled flow from hilltops water management system. In such a society, the
to the valleys below. needs of the individual are secondary to the welfare
Regional rice-growing cycles created a regular of the group. The social system reflects the natural
cycle of planting and harvesting that shaped the cal- hierarchical structure of terraced farming, with
endar of human events. These annual cycles rein- both water and power flowing from top to bottom.
forced a conservative and group-oriented approach to

practice called bunding. The rice matured after the loss of water through the soil. To the already rich
annual flooding of monsoon-swelled rivers and layers of soil, farmers added fertilizer, such as water
lakes filled the terraced fields with water. The wet- buffalo and duck excrement. They then used
rice crop grew quickly, needed little work, and was wooden and, later, metal-tipped plows to turn over
harvested after the floodwaters receded. the existing mulch, transforming the flooded soil
Other cultures of Asia adapted a more labor- into a creamy mud 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 51 cm)
intensive seeding method that was developed in the deep. Using water buffaloes, they then ploughed
Champa regions of central and southern Vietnam the irrigated fields to make the land suitable for the
in the first centuries C.E. In this method, farmers reception of seeds and seedlings.
sowed seed in small flooded seedling beds before, One limitation of sawah cultivation is that the
rather than at the beginning of, the rainy season. soil becomes more acidic as it dries out. This re-
While the seedlings took root, farmers and their duces the soil’s ability to retain nitrogen, which is
families prepared nearby bunded fields, weeding vital to a maturing wet-rice crop. Farmers adapted
and breaking up the soil with hoes until the mon- to these conditions by developing a range of differ-
soon rains came. Farmers then transplanted the ent rice varieties, from those with an 80-day grow-
seedlings by hand, leaving enough space between ing period (for lands that were moist much of the
them for each plant to grow. year and allowed double and even triple harvests) to
Both types of sawah cultivation systems depended ones with a growing period as long as 270 days (for
on capturing the nutrient-rich dissolved matter in lands that had unpredictable annual rainfall).
the annual floodwaters or irrigated water. Farmers Proper irrigation was another key to success in
therefore took special measures to minimize the sawah cultivation. Bunded-field farmers generally
 AGRICULTURE | 5

made small canals to spread wet-season floodwater diseases. Properly prepared, rice and fish—the latter
more evenly over their fields. In some areas, tempo- usually dried or fermented—could be stored for
rary channels and water wheels diverted water for more than a year. Coconuts (the source of fruit,
gravity-fed irrigation. Farmers collected runoff sugar, oil, and palm wine) could not be stored as
water in large ponds for domestic use during the long, but were available at three-month intervals.
dry season; such ponds were especially associated Most people ate rice, whether dry or wet, in prefer-
with temples. In a few areas, such as China, Java, ence to other grains or starches. Reliance upon other
Cambodia, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka, ancient re- staples was socially unacceptable, except during rice
gional canal networks are still used today. Terrac- famines when sawah cultivators could normally turn
ing, which involved the elaborate construction of to root crops (such as taro and tapioca, grown as sup-
level bunded fields on mountainsides, allowed pro- plemental crops in sawah areas) and yams (gathered
ductive wet-rice cultivation of otherwise marginally from nearby forests or cultivated in rain-fed fields).
productive hills and mountains. Terrace farmers Sago palms were another alternate source of starch.
channeled rainy season water from highlands to During the dry season, local populations grew a va-
lowlands by a network of dams and canals. riety of vegetables, such as beans, tomatoes, and pep-
The seedling method gave higher yields per unit pers, to supplement their normal rice diet. Early
of land used but did not yield the highest amount of Asian rice cultivators also supplemented their diet by
food based on the amount of work required. By ei- networking with highland hunters and gatherers,
ther the broadcast or seedling method, a productive both to reduce the highlanders’ inclination to raid
wet-rice farmer could normally expect an annual their villages and to exchange their diverse agricultu-
output of 20 to 25 bushels of grain per acre (20 to 25 ral produce for forest products (such as woods, bam-
bushels per 0.4 hectare). A field of two and one-half boo, and lacquer) and meat.
acres (one hectare) could support a household of ap- Urbanization in the early sawah regions was
proximately 10 to 20 people and still provide an ad- the exception rather than the rule, despite its poten-
ditional surplus. In early times, one rice crop proved tial for high productivity. In part this was due to cul-
adequate to supply local needs. However, a second tural preference, the geographical isolation of the
could be harvested with the available technology if productive regions, and the intensive labor de-
the weather was good, irrigation and water storage mands of wet-rice cultivation.
facilities were available, and there were incentives to Control or protection of access to water was an im-
produce a surplus for external consumption. portant issue, with social and political consequences.
To prevent cultivated fields from returning to the In regions where rainfall was plentiful, where there
wild state, a grassland periphery was commonly were multiple water sources useful for irrigation, or
maintained around cultivated fields. This served as where there was no threat from outsiders (such as
a border against the forest as well as a buffer against raids by hill populations and seminomads from the
enemies and wild animals. Settled agriculturalists grassland steppes) there was little need or opportu-
also used fire to maintain the border between nity for a political elite to manage or dominate the
sawah and swidden zones of habitation. The old, water system. But, where there was a limited water
taller grasses that burned were replaced by shorter, source, or where there was a need to coordinate
younger varieties that provided more nutritious water management (such as building regional dike
grazing fodder for livestock. networks to contain and manage destructive sea-
sonal flooding), political development was likely.
AGRICULTURE AND EARLY
CIVILIZATION See also: Aboriginal Peoples; Angkor Wat;
There were three food staples in the sawah regions of Archeological Discoveries; Australia; China; Culture
Asia: rice, fish, and coconut. Rice production was af- and Traditions; India; Japan; Java; Korea; Micronesia;
fected by periodic disease, rodents, and insects. Fish Monsoons; Myths and Epics; Society; Technology
and coconut, however, were virtually free of pests and and Inventions; Tools and Weapons; Vietnam.
6 | AGRICULTURE

FURTHER READING Bali. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

Bellwood, Peter S. The First Farmers: The Origins of Ag- 1991.
ricultural Societies. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005. Rawski, Evelyn S. Agricultural Change and the Peas-
Lansing, J. Stephen. Priests and Programmers: Tech- ant Economy of South China. Cambridge, MA:
nologies of Power in the Engineered Landscape of Harvard University Press, 1972.

Ancestor Worship See China; Culture and Traditions; Japan; Society.

Angkor Wat
Hindu temple complex that, along with the accompanying temples of Angkor, formed the ritual
and political center of the Khmer kingdom of Angkor (c.e. 802–1432) in what is now Cambodia.
These included a series of pyramidal commemoration temples (dating from the reign of
Yasovarman I [r. 889–900], all of which recognize the royal patron deity Siva). The spectacular
remains of these ancient temple complexes are located north of Cambodia’s Tonle Sap, or Great
Lake, and surrounded by the fertile wet-rice–producing heartland of the powerful Angkor realm.
Angkor Wat, the most renowned example of an- ritual center of Jayavarman’s newly constructed
cient Khmer architecture, honors Visnu, the Angkor Thom capital city that lay just to the north
Hindu deity of goodness and mercy. King Surya- of the Angkor Wat ritual complex, which had been
varman II (r. 1113–ca. 1150) built the temple to com- plundered and desecrated by the Chams several
memorate his deified ancestors and proclaim his years before.
rule at the center of the universe. Angkor Wat was The entire Angkor Thom complex is surrounded
intended to be the earthly recreation of Mount by a high wall and is enclosed by a 330-foot-wide
Meru, the celestial home of the gods. Its five tow- (100-m-wide) rectangular moat that is crossed by five
ers represent heavenly Mount Meru and the four causeways, each of which leads to a gate. The cause-
surrounding mountain peaks. ways are guarded by stone Cham and Khmer warri-
Angkor Wat consists of five focal towers sur- ors who hold a snake, or naga (serpent spirit), rope.
rounded by a 660-foot-wide (200-m-wide) rectan- Together these represented the sacred connection
gular outer moat. The approach to the towers between the secular world of humans and the celes-
crosses a causeway over the moat and proceeds tial Angkor Thom temple complex: the warriors sig-
through two terraced courtyards, each framed by nify the world of humans and the snakes the world of
galleries covered in carved reliefs. The outer gal- the divine. Each of the gateways, as well as the three
lery wall carvings depict kings giving orders to towers of the Bayon, bears four massive sculpted
their soldiers and courtiers, scenes from myth- heads that face in each of the cardinal directions.
ical Hindu epics and texts, and celestial women, The heads represent the realm’s new patron deity,
or apsaras. the bodhisattva (or saint) Avalokitesvara. According
The Angkor Thom Bayon was a later Mahayana to local belief, this bodhisattva of compassion can
Buddhist ritual complex built by Jayavarman VII (r. plead humanity’s case with the divine Lord Buddha
1181–ca. 1218), who restored the Angkor realm fol- or directly intervene on humankind’s behalf.
lowing a devastating 1177 invasion from the neigh- North of the Bayon shrine, the Angkor Thom
boring Champa kingdom in what is now central royal palace complex included older ancestral tem-
Vietnam. The Bayon Buddhist shrine was the sacred ples and royal residences, and a substantial parade
 ANGKOR WAT | 7

The ancient Hindu temple complex at Angkor Wat, in modern Cambodia, was built in the early twelfth century C.E. as the new
ritual center. Angkor Wat was the ritual center of the powerful Khmer kingdom of Angkor (C.E. 802–1432).(Colin
Samuels/Photonica/Getty Images)

ground that was framed on one side by the palace See also: Buddhism; Hinduism; Khmer Empire.
walls. One of the most impressive segments of
these walls, at the base of the royal reviewing plat- FURTHER READING
form, is covered with life-sized reliefs of the royal el- Coe, Michael D. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization.
ephant corps. Other segments contain larger-than- London: Thames and Hudson, 2005.
life depictions of mythical creatures, which, Ortner, Jon, Ian W. Mabbett, et al. Angkor: Celestial
together with the Bayon’s celestial Buddhist shrine, Temples of the Khmer. New York: Abbeville Press,
helped ensure the success of the renewed Angkor 2002.
realm.

Archeological Discoveries
Archeological sites in Asia and the Pacific document the earliest appearance of human ancestors
outside of Africa. They also shed light on the transition of hunting-and-gathering societies into
settled agrarian communities and then their progression to becoming urban communities
and temple centers.
8 | ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES

HUMAN EVOLUTION best-known sites are clustered around Ban Chiang

The earliest evidence of human habitation in Asia is in northeastern Thailand’s Udon Thani Province
the remains of Homo erectus, a human ancestor who plateau. First discovered in 1957, the sites feature
walked upright and used tools including fire, dating remains of the earliest rice cultivation in Asia, al-
to roughly one million years B.C.E. Discovered in though archeologists debate whether the rice was a
China’s southwestern Yunnan Province in the wild or domesticated variety. Clay pots at the site
1980s, these remains are some 100,000 years older contain food remains, and the bones of chickens
than similar ones, dubbed “Java Man,” that were and pigs reveal elements of the local diet. The site
found on the Indonesian island of Java in 1891. At also yielded bronze tools and weapons, as well as
that time this was the earliest find of Homo erectus clay and wooden “rollers” used to mark patterns on
remains beyond Africa. local bark cloth. Ritualized burials at the site in-
Other discoveries during the twentieth century clude bronze tools, weapons, and pottery. One site
confirmed that the Homo erectus species was wide- contains a large cemetery, suggesting some degree
spread in Asia by 500,000 B.C.E. This was the date of permanent settlement.
of “Beijing Man,” discovered near Beijing, China, Archeologists speculate that the Thai sites repre-
in 1921, which was reconfirmed by a find near Xian, sent the earliest evolution of Asian agriculture
China, in the 1990s, dating to about 600,000 B.C.E. among a society that was displacing earlier hunters
The major technological advance by Homo erectus and gatherers. Remains at the sites indicate that de-
over time was the fashioning of handheld axes that pendence on root crops such as taro and yams,
had a cutting edge rather than the earlier axes with which grew easily in the tropical floodplains, was
a blunt edge, which were likely used for chopping, giving way to cultivation of millet rice (or dry rice),
scraping, and digging. which grew wild in the uplands. Early upland popu-
Between approximately 70,000 and 20,000 lations adopted a mixture of hunting-and-gathering
B.C.E., Asia’s Homo erectus inhabitants evolved into and slash-and-burn cultivation, still practiced
modern Homo sapiens. Most of what is known about among highland populations in Southeast Asia and
Asia’s early Homo sapiens comes from the study of southern China. Slash-and-burn, or swidden, culti-
remains discovered in China and Australia. The vation involves the clearing of fields by cutting wild
earliest preaboriginal populations of Homo sapiens, vegetation and burning off the residue.
described as “robust heavy boned humans” are Between 1000–600 B.C.E., regional archeologi-
found in northwestern Australia and date to cal sites demonstrate that some swidden cultiva-
50,000–40,000 B.C.E. By 40,000 B.C.E., there were tors migrated from the highlands into Vietnam’s
settlements of early Homo sapiens hunters and gath- Red River floodplain. They abandoned swidden
erers in the Lake Mungo region of southeastern practices, instead adopting a so-called “hydraulic”
Australia. In 1968, an American archeologist, Jim agriculture based on irrigation. By controlling and
Bowler, discovered evidence of a ritual cremation at managing the annual Red River floodwaters,
Lake Mungo dating to about 23,000 B.C.E. Between farmers in the region developed the earliest wet-
30,000 and 20,000 B.C.E., “Gracile” populations, rice agriculture. This initial wet-rice civilization
the ancestors of Australian aborigines, inhabited a developed into what an archeologist, R. Heine Gil-
series of sites widely spread across southern and dern, dubbed the “Dongson” culture (500 B.C.E.–
eastern Australia. C . E . 43), named for the original site of the discov-
ery, in the 1920s, of the civilization’s large cast
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN bronze ritual drums.
SOUTHEAST ASIA
The earliest evidence of fixed permanent settle- EARLY AGRICULTURE IN CHINA
ments in Asia comes from the uplands of the Me- The earliest settled agricultural sites in China ap-
kong and Red rivers in northern Vietnam and Thai- peared about 4000 B.C.E., the date of the artifacts
land. Dating roughly from 8000 to 2000 B.C.E., the uncovered at Banpo, a large village site discovered
 ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES | 9

ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES

1891 Dutch anatomist Eugene Dubois unearths 1954 Discovery of Banpo, most famous Yangshao
remains of “Java Man,” first Homo erectus speci- culture site, near Xian, China
men found in Asia, dating to ca. 900,000 B.C.E.
1957 Evidence of early human settlement in
1920S Local Vietnamese villagers discover Southeast Asia first uncovered near Ban
monumental Dongson culture bronze Chiang, Thailand
drums dating to ca. 500 B.C.E.
1968 American archeologist Jim Bowler discovers
1921 Archeologists discover remains of “Beijing evidence of ritual cremation at Lake Mungo,
Man,” later identified as a Homo erectus speci- Australia, dated ca. 23,000 B.C.E.
men dating to ca. 600,000 B.C.E.
1975 Earliest excavation of Taosi, largest Longshan
1921 Excavation of first Yangshao culture site culture site in China
in Henan, China, dating to ca. 4000–
1976 Discovery of extensive grave goods in tomb
2000 B.C.E.
of Chinese emperor Wu Ding’s wife provides
1928 Chinese archeologist Wu Jinding excavates key insights into aristocratic life during Shang
first Longshan culture site in Shandong Prov- dynasty
ince, China
1995 Chinese archeologists discover remains of
1949 Discovery of first artifacts associated Yangshao settlement surrounded by pounded
with early Japanese Jomon culture near earth walls dating to ca. 3000 B.C.E.
Iwajiku, Japan

in 1954 near modern-day Xian in northern China. The consequences of this commitment to settled
The culture to which the artifacts (dating from agriculture are demonstrated at a Yangshao site at
4000 to 2900 B.C.E.) at the Banpo and other Yellow Xishan in Henan Province, discovered by Chinese
River basin archeological sites belonged has been archeologists in 1995, which is surrounded by a de-
named Yangshao, after the village in the Henan fensive wall of pounded earth. Although this is typi-
Province where the red painted pottery common to cal of village sites from roughly 3000 B.C.E. in the
these sites first came to the attention of Western ar- adjacent upper Chang River basin to the south, Xi-
cheologists in 1921. Yangshao sites provide the ear- shan is the only Yangshao site so guarded.
liest dated evidence of the transition from hunting The earliest permanent settlements in the upper
and gathering to settled agriculture in China. Chang River basin of western and southwestern
The Yangshao sites indicate that farmers in this central China date to as early as 4500 B.C.E. They are
region of northern China moved directly from distinguished from the Yangshao villages to their
hunting and gathering to settled intensive agricul- north by the cultivation of swamp rice rather than
ture without ever adopting swidden as an interme- millet, and by their kiln-fired, highly polished black
diate step. Remains at Banpo show that the local pottery. This ware was named Longshan after the
population independently domesticated wild forms first excavated site of this culture (ca. 3000–2000
of wheat, barley, and millet, which was the most B.C.E.), which was unearthed by a Chinese archeolo-
prominent crop. The prominence of pottery at the gist, Wu Jinding, in 1928. Early Longshan archeo-
Yangshao sites suggests its use in storing the sur- logical remains are associated with a region that was
pluses of crops that are associated with the develop- warmer and wetter than that of their neighbors in
ment of early agriculture. northern China, and had a longer growing season.
10 | ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES

This image shows some of the more

than 8,000 life-size terra-cotta soldiers
found in the tomb of the Chinese
emperor Shihuangdi (r. 221–210 B.C.E.).
In addition to foot soldiers, the tomb
includes figures of archers, warriors on
horseback, and charioteers. (Digital
Vision/Getty Images)

TURNING POINT

Terra-cotta Soldiers
In 1974, farmers digging a well near modern-day The pits provide a valuable picture of the Qin
Xian in northern China discovered an “army” of army’s forces, use of weapons, and military tac-
more than 8,000 life-size sculpted and painted clay tics. In the second pit, 1,000 troopers are pro-
warriors. The figures stand in underground pits next tected by 334 archers armed with crossbows, lined
to the tomb of the first Qin emperor Shihuangdi (r. in eight clusters; 160, who are wearing heavy
221–210 B.C.E.). The imperial tomb and its terra-cotta armor, are kneeling in a front line and others
army celebrate the Qin emperor’s unification of stand at the rear. The second pit contains 64 char-
China in 221 B.C.E. but also proclaim his ability to iots, in eight clusters. Each chariot is commanded
maintain that empire in the afterlife. by an archer, and is guarded by a soldier on each
In the first of the four pits, 6,000 warriors stand side and another at its rear. In the center of this pit
in rows four deep in squads of 70; in the second pit there are 19 war chariots and 100 warriors. In the
are 89 wooden chariots, 500 chariot and cavalry rear are three clusters of six chariots, 124 vaulting
horses, and 1,000 infantry in a u-shaped battle for- horses, and warriors armed with bows. Each char-
mation. The third pit contains the command head- iot carries two people—a charioteer and his scout.
quarters staffed by military officers. The fourth pit is Each section can engage the enemy on its own or
empty, apparently because the emperor died before attack or defend as a whole.
it could be filled with other figurines.
 ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES | 11

MAJOR ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES OF ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Treasured artifacts, such as pottery and recovered in China, Japan, Korea, along Southeast Asia, provide a glimpse of how
tools, which have been unearthed and the Indus Valley, and throughout ancient Asian societies lived and thrived.

Thick walls made of successive layers of Taosi, in China’s Shaanxi Province, which dates
stamped earth commonly surround Longshan ar- to about 2300 to 1900 B.C.E., is the largest Long-
cheological sites. Chinese written accounts of this shan archeological site, at almost 100,000 square
era, dating to the sixth century B.C.E., reported that feet (9,300 sq m). Excavated by Chinese archeol-
these walled cities provided protection against the ogists from 1975 to the present day, Taosi yielded
hunters and gatherers who lived in the highland similar artifacts to those at other Longshan sites,
frontiers to the south and west of the Longshan but also contained the first known Chinese ritual
sites. These seminomadic populations, who solar observatory, a common feature in China’s
had not made a similar commitment to settled later imperial courts. The observatory opens to the
agriculture, periodically raided the prosperous east, allowing observation of the sunrise during
agricultural communities, especially in times of solstices and equinoxes. Taosi residents likely
famine. enlisted these observations in their attempts to
12 | ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES

LINK IN TIME

The Great Wall

The Great Wall of China is a massive defensive struc- by the Yan regional state (475–222 B.C.E.), which con-
ture measuring roughly 4,000 miles (6,400 kilome- tributed during both the Zhao dynasty and the Era of
ters) long, cutting across northern China from Inner Warring States. The middle section represented
Mongolia in the east to the Yellow River and Gobi mostly new construction, and included strategically
Desert in the west. It began as a series of disconnected placed beacon towers from which fires were lit to sig-
sections built by competing factions during the Era of nal other sections of the wall in case of impending
Warring States (403–222 B.C.E.) to protect ancient attacks. The third (western) section included new
China from its seminomadic neighbors to the north segments linking several walls built by earlier states
and west. Emperor Qin Shihuangdi (221–210 B.C.E.) as protection against their Chinese neighbors.
was responsible for connecting the previously con- The Great Wall is perhaps history’s greatest pub-
structed sections into a continuous defensive wall. lic works project. Chinese dynastic histories report
In contrast to the Great Wall visible today, which that 300,000 soldiers, as well as 500,000 con-
was improved by later dynasties, the Qin wall con- scripted slaves, convicts, and local laborers, worked
sisted of a mound of loose stone and wooden frames 10 years to complete the Qin wall. Later Chinese
covered by packed earth. The eastern section was scholars cited the wall’s expense, and the estimated
built on a wall constructed originally during the thousands of deaths that occurred during its con-
Zhao dynasty (ca. 1045–221 B.C.E.) and later rebuilt struction, as examples of Qin tyranny.

develop a solar calendar, which is crucial to deter- These remains reveal much about aristocratic
mining appropriate planting and harvesting cycles. court life of the era, which formed the model for
The archeological remains of the northern Chi- imperial courts of later Chinese dynasties. The
nese city of Yin, located just outside modern-day elites of the Shang dynasty court were surrounded
Anyang in the upper Yellow River basin, represent by luxury and aided by numerous servants, who
the evolution of these earlier sites into impressive were bound in their service to the elite, even in
imperial cities. At its peak between 1400 and 1050 death. The era’s religious practices included the
B.C.E., Yin served as the capital city of the Shang reading of oracle bones to predict the future and the
dynasty (1766–1122/1027 B.C.E.) and covered performance of elaborate rituals that required finely
roughly 10 square miles (26 sq km). The complex crafted ritual paraphernalia. People believed in an
consisted of a palace, royal ancestral shrines, and existence after death, in which the dead lived
80 accompanying residences. The site also contains much as they had in their earthly existence, with
several dozen royal tombs, including that of the aristocrats needing servants, pets, ritual items, and
wife of the emperor Wu Ding (r. 1200–1181 B.C.E.), even money to maintain their lifestyles.
discovered in 1976. In the tomb were the remains The imperial grandeur that is displayed in the re-
of 16 servants and six pet dogs (buried as sacrifices mains of the Shang court reached new heights
to serve her in the afterlife); 468 bronze ritual ob- under the Qin dynasty (221–206 B.C.E.) and its elab-
jects; many inscribed oracle bones and elaborate orate capital at Xianyang near modern Xian. The
jade, stone, and bone carvings; bronze weapons, in- most famous project of the first Qin emperor, Shi-
cluding a wooden-handled bronze-bladed dagger, huangdi (r. 221–210 B.C.E.), was the Great Wall,
the preferred battle weapon of the period; and erected across China’s northern border to protect
6,900 cowrie shells, which served as money. his realm from attacks by seminomadic warrior
 ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES | 13

tribes from the surrounding grasslands of central spread and distinctive jomon, or “cord-marked,” clay
Asia and Mongolia. Continuing the Shang and Qin pots and figures, decorated using sticks wrapped in
initiatives, successor dynasties would also build, re- cord. Shell-covered trash mounds of Jomon sites in-
furbish, or expand imperial capitals, restore and ex- clude animal bones, tools, weapons, pottery, and
tend the Great Wall, and commission elaborate jewelry, which are appropriate to that era’s hunting,
tombs to house deceased rulers and elite. gathering, and fishing society. The first such site to
be discovered by archeologists was excavated
EARLY SITES IN KOREA near Iwajiku in 1949.
AND JAPAN The Yayoi civilization in southern Japan (ca. 300
Korea’s earliest archeological sites, discovered at B.C.E.–C.E. 300) introduced wet-rice cultivation, and,
Yang’yang-gun and Osan-ni in the province of Kang- like those of their Korean neighbors, the archeolog-
won, date from 8000 to 5000 B.C.E. They contain ical sites associated with this early settled wet-rice
flat-bottomed pottery decorated with relief designs. society contain bronze ritual artifacts and iron tools
Between 5000 and 1000 B.C.E., Jeulmun earthen- and weapons. Yayoi archeological sites are concen-
ware appears in western and southern coastal re- trated in the coastal regions of Japan’s three south-
gions of Korea. These wide-mouthed storage and ern islands that share the Inland Sea. Those in
cooking vessels, named after the Korea site of their Yayoi society, inspired by their contemporary Ko-
original discovery, are decorated with patterns of di- rean neighbors, built large earthen mounds, some
agonal lines made with a comblike instrument. surrounded by water moats, over the tombs of their
They are associated with the spread of evolving set- elite. These tombs include clay figurines depicting
tled agriculture societies during this era. mounted male warriors that are the subject of
Remains from Korea’s Mumun pottery period much debate among archeologists. Some believe
(1500–300 B.C.E.) show that, by this time, Koreans this statuary represents the era’s ruling elite as Jap-
had become millet farmers. The era is also well anese mounted warriors, while others assert that it
known for its large settlements and megalith, or represents victorious invaders from Jin Korea, who
large stone, burial sites found in the Liao River introduced their culture to Japan.
basin of North Korea. The elite were buried in
tombs using upright stones supporting a horizon- See also: Agriculture; Angkor Wat; China; Culture
tal slab. Another form of burial for elites and com- and Traditions; India; Indian Ocean Trade; Japan;
moners used stone cists (underground burial Java; Korea; Micronesia; Society.
chambers lined with stone) and earthenware jar
coffins. Bronze ritual objects, pottery, and jade or- FURTHER READING
naments similar to those found in the early Chi- Higham, Charles. Archeology of Mainland Southeast
nese imperial tombs have been recovered from Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
these first Korean tombs, reflecting that Koreans at 1989.
this time shared similar beliefs about an afterlife Imamura, Keiji. Prehistoric Japan: New Perspective on
with their Chinese neighbors. Insular East Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Japan’s earliest development mirrors that of Press, 1996.
Korea in the dates of its evolution from a hunting- Kim, H.J. Pre-History of Korea. Honolulu: Univer-
and-gathering culture to a settled agricultural econ- sity of Hawaii Press, 1978.
omy. Its first artifacts are associated with the Jomon Yang, Xiaoneng. New Perspectives on China’s Past.
culture (10,000–300 B.C.E.), named for its wide- New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
14 | ARCHEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES

Art and Architecture

South Asia’s Hindu and Buddhist traditions established artistic standards and principles that
formed the foundation for much of ancient Asia’s art and architecture. These principles were
most fully expressed in Chinese imperial art and architecture, which were influenced by Indian
Buddhist traditions and in turn inspired China’s Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese neighbors.

CHINESE ARTISTIC Pien-ching) in northern China (C.E. 960–1127),

TRADITIONS Hangzhou in southern China (C.E. 1127–1279), and
The ideas of the Chinese philosopher Confucius Beijing (C.E. 1271–1644). They also inspired
(Kungfutzu, 551–479 B.C.E.) shaped China’s early Kyongju, the capital city of Unified Silla Korea (C.E.
architecture. Confucianism emphasized the impor- 668–918) and the Nara and Kyoto capital cities of
tance of social order and hierarchy. As a result, imperial Japan (C.E. 710–1185).
China’s imperial courts and their accompanying rit- Tang cities, which were protected by defensive
ual and urban complexes celebrated the role of the walls and gates, also were based on the cardinal
Chinese emperor as the source of an orderly and points of the compass. The Tang imperial city of
productive Chinese society. China’s architecture Changan (modern-day Xian) had major east-west
also celebrated orderly use of space, consistent with and north-south thoroughfares that defined the
what became known as feng shui, the practice of subdivisions of the city. The imperial palace com-
placement and arrangement of space to achieve pound was in the north; beyond the palace and out-
harmony with the natural surroundings. side the northern city walls was an imperial park
Feng shui was reflected in the placement of public that included a large artificial lake, which served as
buildings. Rather than a random development, the a royal hunting preserve and private space for the
city was laid out in a grid pattern on a north-south emperor and his court.
axis. North was positive, sacred, and traditionally as- At the extreme north of the city was the em-
sociated with the realm of the supportive ancestors peror’s private residential compound, in a garden-
and celestial divine. South was negative, potentially like setting, complete with carefully placed group-
dangerous, and associated with malevolent spirits ings of plants and rocks and winding streams and
and threatening outsiders. East and west were the pathways. These natural elements satisfied the
middle ground where the sacred and the secular emperor’s need for a sense of a universal order be-
intersected. Burial grounds, as in the case of the royal yond the secular orderliness of his surrounding im-
tombs, were placed outside of this orderly urban rit- perial compound. Symbolically, the emperor alone,
ual, administrative, and residential realm, because in his residential compound, was able to bridge the
they contained the unpredictable spirits of the dead. two realms.

Urban Architecture IMPERIAL TOMBS

Cities of the Tang era (C.E. 618–907) built on the Chinese imperial tombs commemorated the secu-
earlier Chinese court art traditions that date to the lar accomplishments of an emperor and insured
Shang dynasty (1766–1122/1027 B.C.E.). They that the emperor became a benevolent ancestor. The
made a conspicuous public statement about orderly early underground tombs, which date to the Shang
Chinese society and became the architectural mod- era (1766–1122/1027 B.C.E.), were constructed in the
els for Chinese capital cities at Kaifeng (then called form of a Chinese house. The “home” of the
 ART AND ARCHITECTURE | 15

deceased replicated the imperial household, with scape in such a work typically includes the rural
inner and outer chambers flanked by side corridors communities surrounding the court, its urban cen-
and rooms containing grave offerings. Intricate ters, and the representative landscapes of a region.
bronze vessels, weapons, carved jades, and ceramic Traditional Chinese scroll paintings show little con-
objects were placed near the coffin to provide com- cern for perspective, the creation of a realistic scale,
fort and protection in the next world. The walls of or conveying a sense of hierarchy. All elements,
the burial chambers were often decorated with human and natural, are treated with the same care
carved or painted scenes that depicted popular leg- by the artist; none is emphasized as being more im-
ends or daily life. portant than another.
The underground tomb of the Qin dynasty
monarch Shihuangdi (r. 221–210 B.C.E.) near ARTISTIC TRADITIONS
modern Xian in northern China features a huge OF INDIA
underground chamber containing an army of life- Architecture and art in India reflected the ideals of
sized clay figures to “guard” and “serve” the em- early Vedic religious traditions, which promoted the
peror in the afterlife. The Han era (206 B.C.E.–C.E. moral superiority and spiritual leadership of the
220) is especially known for its tomb paintings, priest over the secular authority of a monarch. This
which display the first elements of Chinese land- emphasis on the sacred was consistent with the
scape painting, in contrast to the portrait art that central notions of India’s indigenous Hindu and
dominated the Han palaces. Buddhist religious traditions, which taught that hu-
Tang-era (C.E. 618–907) royal tombs featured manity was impermanent. In southern Asia, tem-
large commemorative archways leading into ples took precedence over the construction of elab-
“urban” areas, complete with broad avenues (“spirit orate palace complexes and royal tombs.
ways”) containing larger-than-life human and ani-
mal statuary, ritual halls, and elaborate gardens. Buddhist Art and Architecture
These avenues led to the burial mound, which was India’s early architectural and artistic traditions de-
located above the tomb entrance. A vertical shaft veloped following the founding of the Buddhist re-
connected the mound to an underground burial ligion in the fifth century B.C.E. The best-known
chamber. In front of each Tang tomb stands a focal Mauryan-era (ca. 400–180 B.C.E.) Buddhist struc-
memorial stone marker (stela) that proclaims the tures include inscribed stone pillars roughly 60
worldly accomplishments of the deceased. Tang feet (18.3 m) tall, strategically erected throughout
tombs are also known for their sancai, three-colored north India to establish the legitimacy of the Maur-
glazed pottery figures of horses and human figures yan king Asoka (ca. 273–232 B.C.E.) and his patron-
that were intended to accompany the deceased in age of the Buddhist religion. Typical of Indian artis-
their death. tic tradition, the inscriptions diminish Asoka’s
secular accomplishments in favor of highlighting
Landscape Painting his patronage of Buddhism. The inscriptions begin
Traditional Chinese landscape painting, which had by acknowledging Asoka’s glorious military victo-
its roots in the wall murals of the Han era, devel- ries and his inspired secular leadership, but then
oped its “classical” style in the reign of the Tang dy- proclaim that Asoka ascribed no great significance
nasty. It was heavily influenced by Buddhist and to these accomplishments. Instead, the inscrip-
Daoist traditions that minimized the importance of tions praise Asoka for regarding an orderly secular
humanity and asserted the prevailing power of na- world as his greatest achievement, as the necessary
ture. For example, although a painting may depict precondition for his subjects to achieve spiritual
the emperor’s court activities, it is done in a setting salvation. Thus Asoka, like other Mauryan kings,
in which all the participants, rulers as well as com- supported a mixture of secular art and sacred art
moners, are considered. The surrounding land- and architecture.
16 | ART AND ARCHITECTURE

TURNING POINT

Todaiji Temple
The Todaiji Buddhist temple in the central Japanese the size of the Buddha’s nostril. By tradition, if a per-
city of Nara was built in C.E 743, when Buddhism son can pass through this hole, he or she is said to be
was the Japanese state religion and Nara was the res- a candidate for heaven.
idential capital of the Japanese emperor and his Since the temple was built, the Daibatsu has
court. The temple building and its statue are mod- been repaired several times after damage caused by
eled on the art and architecture of contemporary earthquakes; its head has fallen off at least once.
Tang China (C.E. 618–907). The temple was built to While the base of the statue dates to the eighth cen-
symbolically unify the Japanese elite and all the Bud- tury, the upper portion, including the head, was re-
dhist temples that were spread throughout Japan cast in the late twelfth century. The Todaiji temple
under the centralized political and spiritual leader- that remains today was rebuilt in 1709, after the ex-
ship of the Japanese emperor Shomu (r. C.E. isting wooden building burned in a late sixteenth-
724–749). Japanese legend records that 2,600,000 century fire. Following that fire the Buddha statue
people participated in its construction. had remained uncovered for more than a century.
The Todaiji temple contains the massive Dai- The Buddha is seated in a meditation posture ap-
butsu (“Great Buddha”) statue, which stands 49 feet (15 propriate to the Daibutsu Buddha, who in Buddhist
m) in height and is the world’s largest cast bronze tradition is the source of truth and knowledge. The
Buddha. The giant Buddha statue is housed in a “Cosmic” Buddha sits on his lotus throne (symbolic
wooden building, which at 157 feet (48 m) high is the of purity and the foundation for the “flowering” of
world’s tallest wooden building. The statue’s ears are knowledge), presiding over the various levels of the
8.25 feet (2.5 m) long; its hands can hold 20 people. universe. The Buddha’s outstretched hands symbol-
It weighs 500 tons (455 m tons). Great thick wooden ize his willingness to offer truth and knowledge to
pillars hold up the structure. One of these in the his faithful devotees.
rear of the temple has a hole through it, said to be

The notable architectural remains of the Mauryan on the flag of India is taken from one of the Sarnath
era include large hemispherical earthen mounds, or columns. It represents Asoka’s 24-spoke chakra, a
stupas. Dating as early as about 461 B.C.E., these traditional Sanskrit symbol that denoted Asoka’s
mounds are associated with events in the life of “wheel of energy.”
Buddhism’s founder, Siddhartha Gautama (563–483
B.C.E.), known as the Buddha or “Enlightened One.” Additional Influences
One of the most significant mounds is located at the India’s further architectural evolution resulted
Mahabodhi temple complex at Bodhgaya (near from the introduction of religious iconography
modern-day Varanasi in northern-central India), the in the second century B.C.E. At this time, statues
site where the Buddha is said to have achieved en- representing Buddhist spiritual concepts became
lightenment. According to tradition, Asoka founded common and inspired Hindu artists to create their
the Mahabodhi temple complex. A large stupa at own divine statuary and temples. The new popular-
nearby Sarnath, where the Buddha preached his first ity of statuary was influenced by the Macedonian
sermon, predates Asoka but benefited from his pat- king Alexander III, the Great, who invaded north-
ronage. It is also the site of one of his pillars, which west India in 327–326 B.C.E. After Alexander’s death
was once topped by a lion capital. The central image four years later, some of his generals established
 ART AND ARCHITECTURE | 17

their own domains in India’s borderlands, and their spired by the oral and textual traditions of the
Greek culture influenced regional art. temple’s focal divine prepared the worshipper to
Indian statuary of this time represents an adap- embrace the Lord in his inner sanctum.
tation of the Greek tradition, which realistically por-
trayed gods and goddesses in contemporary human EARLY INDIAN ARTISTIC
form and dress. This tradition is represented in the LEGACY IN ASIA
second- and third-century B.C.E. Gandharan and Ku- India’s art and architecture inspired artisans
shana icon art produced on India’s northwestern in Sri Lanka, where Buddhist art and architecture
frontier. The most interesting remaining statuary reached new heights. The great Buddhist stupa at
from this period portrays the Buddha as ethnically Anuradhapura (built about 249 B.C.E.) is said to
Western and in traditional Greek dress. have been built initially after Buddhist monks sent
India’s new art and architecture also drew inspi- by the Mauryan king Asoka converted Sri Lanka. In
ration from new forms of religious devotion that de- its final twelfth-century form, the stupa is taller
veloped in the second century B.C.E. The Bhakti de- than all of the ancient Egyptian pyramids except for
votional tradition in Hinduism and the Mahayana the Great Pyramid at Giza.
Buddhist tradition in Buddhism advocated the From the third century C.E., artisans in the new
devotee’s potential to embrace the divine through monarchies of Southeast Asia also redefined and
personal devotion and moral commitment, ex- modified Indian temple art to fit their own cultural
pressed by gifts, prayer, and ritual performance. needs. Among the initial ritual complexes, the ninth-
The earliest Indian temples were third century C.E. century C.E. Borobudur in central Java set the stan-
Buddhist and Hindu meditation sites excavated into dard. The worshiper symbolically enters the Borob-
the faces of mountains in northwest India, where the udur as a pilgrim, who physically and spiritually
monastic compounds consisted of one or more chap- moves from the material secular world to the ab-
els for worship. The oldest chapels contain represen- stract realm of the divine. The pilgrim encounters
tations of the Buddha in abstract, as a focal stupa elaborate stone relief depictions of the Indian
crafted out of solid stone. Later depictions of the Bud- Buddhist texts at the Borobudur’s base, moves
dha and the Hindu gods Visnu and Siva take the form through intermediate terraces of Mahayana Bud-
of statuary, accompanied by images of Mahayana dhist statuary, and finally reaches a large culminat-
Buddhist and Hindu divinities. Buddhist and Hindu ing stupa at its top. Cambodia’s twelfth-century C.E.
texts were also depicted in carved stone and in paint- Angkor Wat, dedicated to the Hindu god Visnu, and
ings on shrine walls. Five hundred years later, free- the Mahayana Buddhist Angkor Thom Bayon are
standing Buddhist shrines and Hindu temples the most impressive among the subsequent temple
across India adopted and adapted the art and archi- sites. These and other temples of that era in main-
tecture portrayed in these early mountain temples. land Southeast Asia and Java still drew their inspira-
In northern India, a fluted melon-shaped cush- tion from the Indian architectural tradition, but
ion called an amalaka crowned most Hindu tem- prominently incorporated local variations that were
ples; in south India, rounded stupi topped the consistent with local cultural heritage.
spires. These decorations reflected an adaptation of Indian statuary and temple art also spread to
earlier temple art that culminated in a depiction of China in the first century C.E., following the Silk
the linga (the male phallus), a symbol of the Hindu Road from northwest India across central Asia. This
god Siva, the lord of fertility. Hindu temples usually pathway to China was marked by Buddhist pilgrim-
included the image of such a divine being, with a age and monastic sites, and accompanying statuary
spire above the image pointing to the god’s celestial art and wall murals. Among these was Bamiyan, Af-
home, and a hall in front of the image for worship- ghanistan, which had two massive early sixth-
pers. Preliminary iconography, stone and cast- century stone Buddhas, one standing 180 feet (55 m)
metal (normally bronze) icons, and wall murals in- and the second 121 feet (37 m). The fifth-century
18 | ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Longmen Grotto complex in China’s northwest FURTHER READING

Henan Province consists of more than 100,000 Craven, Roy C. Indian Art. London: Thames and
statuary images in a series of caves and temples. Hudson, 1997.
Here, the Indian Buddhist stupa had transitioned Rawson, Philip S. Art of Southeast Asia. London:
into pagodas, or multitiered towers, which would Thames and Hudson, 1990.
become the distinctive element in Buddhist tem- Stanley-Baker, Joan. Japanese Art. London: Thames
ples throughout eastern Asia. and Hudson, 2000.
Watson, William. The Arts of China to AD 900. New
See also: Angkor Wat; Buddhism; China; Culture Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995.
and Traditions; Hinduism; India; Japan; Java; Watson, William. The Arts of China 900–1620. New
Korea; Language and Writing; Society. Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.

Australia
Island continent located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, first settled by humans between
50,000 and 40,000 B.C.E. Two major geographical and climatic changes significantly shaped
prehistoric Australia. The first was the continent’s physical separation from Asia about 10,000
B.C.E. The second took place between 3000 and 1000 B.C.E., with the drying of swamplands, vast

lakes, and forested zones that once covered substantial areas of Australia’s interior. This left
Australia covered largely by semiarid grasslands and a marginally productive, dry interior known
as the Outback. Aboriginal adjustments to this changed habitat became the basis of early
Australian culture.

EARLY POPULATIONS tinct groups, with different linguistic traditions.

The earliest aboriginal Australians likely migrated The Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically related to
from Southeast Asia across a land bridge that once Papuan people of Melanesian heritage in New
joined Australia and the Asian continent before the Guinea, whereas genetic evidence suggests ethnic
most recent ice age, which ended about 10,000 ties between Aboriginal Australians and other abo-
B.C.E. The earliest archeological remains of human riginal populations distributed across Asia. Despite
settlement in Australia date from 50,000 B.C.E. in these distinctions, long-term contact between the
northwestern Australia (the Kimberley Range); two Australian groups, as well as isolation from out-
from 40,000 B.C.E. in the Lake Mungo area of side cultural influences, led them to develop broad
southwestern Australia; and from 30,000 to cultural similarities.
20,000 B.C.E. in several regions of northern and
southern Australia (Kenniff Cave, Koonalda Cave, Economic Practices
Puritjaira, and Cave Bay), inhabited by an early abo- Prior to contact with Europeans in the eighteenth
riginal civilization collectively called “Gracile.” century C.E., most indigenous Australians were
These earliest aborigines were joined after seminomadic, following seasonal sources of
10,000 B.C.E. by Torres Strait fishing populations, food over a fairly defined territory; none practiced
many of whom made the relatively short voyage to settled agriculture. Indigenous Australians hunted
Australia across the Timor Sea from New Guinea. animals of all sizes, from relatively large game,
Anthropologists generally consider aboriginal Aus- such as kangaroos and emus, to smaller prey, such
tralians and the Torres Strait Islanders as two dis- as snakes, birds, turtles, and even insects. Despite
 AUSTRALIA | 19

Some aboriginal rock paintings found in Australia, such as the one shown here in Kakadu National Park in the Northern
Territory, date back as early as 50,000–40,000 B.C.E. The paintings often represent significant figures or events in the mythical
aboriginal past, called the “Dreaming” or “Dreamtime.” (Ira Block/National Geographic/Getty Images)

the popular image of the boomerang as the weapon time, Australians also domesticated the dingo, a
of choice, indigenous Australians relied mainly on wild dog used to assist in tracking and hunting
the spear for hunting. Indigenous hunters devel- game.
oped the woomera, or spear-thrower, to launch
spears with greater force. Ancient Australians who Cultural, Religious, and Artistic
lived in coastal areas and along rivers became ex- Practices
pert fisherman; one community near the present- Indigenous Australian societies featured complex
day city of Victoria even practiced eel farming. kinship relations, and marriages were especially
A period of rapid social and cultural change ap- subject to strict rules. In central Australia, for ex-
pears to have occurred in Australia between 3000 ample, men were required to marry women who
and 1000 B.C.E., about the same time as severe en- were their distant cousins. Men and women who
vironmental changes. This period was marked by were eligible for marriage would gather annually
greater human intervention in the environment, at a festival (corroborees) at which goods were
accelerated population growth, increased trade traded, news exchanged, and marriages arranged.
between indigenous groups, and the development These practices were designed to ensure that indi-
of more sophisticated stone tools. During this viduals married outside of their own family group,
20 | AUSTRALIA

LINK TO PLACE

Fossils: Australia and the Americas

Australia’s oldest and most famous fossil remains, from North America to form the ancient continent
dating to 110 million years ago, are the jawbones of called Gondwanaland, a process that was completed
two mammals that were monotremes, or egg-laying between 550 and 500 million years ago. At that time,
mammals related to the platypus. Fossil evidence in- Australia and South America had similar animal
dicates that in North America at about the same populations. Roughly 40 million years ago, South
time, 95 million years ago, marsupials, mammals America, Australia, and Antarctica separated into in-
with pouches that were early relatives of the Ameri- dividual continents. In South and North America,
can possum, were dominant. The first fossil evi- placental, or live-bearing, mammals became domi-
dence of marsupials in Australia dates only to 55 mil- nant over the other mammalian species, while in
lion years ago, leading scholars to conclude that the Australia marsupials such as kangaroos, koalas, Tas-
kangaroo was not native to Australia. Instead, it manian devils, and wombats won out, perhaps be-
likely evolved from early marsupials that migrated to cause of significant geological and environmental
Australia at a time when it was joined to the conti- changes to which the marsupials were better able to
nents of North and South America. Other fossil re- adapt. These changes included a shifting climate
mains that have been found on all three continents, and falling temperatures in Antarctica and the lower
for example the remains of an early hoofed mammal regions of South America, and a decrease in the
known as the condylarth, support this conclusion. number and types of predators in South America
Scholars assume that at some point in time Aus- and Australia.
tralia, South America, and Antarctica broke away

thus increasing the genetic health and diversity of Nyungar people of western Australia believe that a
the population. high ridge known as the Darling Scarp represents
Indigenous Australian society did not feature in- the body of a snakelike creature, called a wagyl, that
dividual ownership of land, but did recognize group created the rivers and land formations in the region
use rights, in which one group recognized the right during the Dreamtime. It is said that the wagyl’s
of another to territory that was marked by natural tracks formed the sand dunes and its body the river
geographic boundaries, such as rivers, lakes, and beds, and where it stopped to rest it left bays and
mountains. Elders passed this knowledge of the lakes. As it periodically moved from under to above
group’s boundaries down to the next generation the earth’s surface it formed the rocks into hills, and
through song, dance, art, and storytelling. its scales fell off to create forests and wooded areas.
Storytelling and art were also used to preserve Rock carvings and paintings discovered in the
indigenous traditions of the people regarding the Bradshaw Cave in the Australian Northern Territory
origins, history, and relationship to the natural depict a wide variety of subjects. The earliest im-
world. Indigenous Australians call the beginning, ages, which date to as early as 50,000 to 40,000
or creation, of their world the “Dreaming” or B.C.E., include images of hunters or warriors; ani-
“Dreamtime.” At this time, they believe, “ancestors” mals such as wallabies, turtles, and fish; and even
rose from below the earth to form various parts of the skeletons of animals and humans. Later im-
nature, including animals, natural formations, and ages, made after European contact, show pigtailed
the sky. Humans and nature are thus one and the European visitors, sailing ships, and individuals
same; rock formations and rivers are ancestor spir- carrying firearms. These images at first carried reli-
its that remain spiritually alive. For example, the gious significance, and also represented important
 AUSTRALIA | 21

MIGRATORY ROUTES OF ABORIGINAL PEOPLES TO AUSTRALIA AND PACIFIC MIGRATIONS

The earliest aboriginal peoples likely mainland and Tasmania between 50,000 not establish settlements there until the late
migrated from the Eurasian continent and 40,000 B.C.E. The Europeans first 1700s, and the first British settlement was
across a land bridge into the Australian discovered Australia in the 1600s but did established in 1788.

events in the lives and history of these people. They claim of Australia for England in 1770, followed by
told stories about Dreamland, marked territorial the first British settlement of Australia, at Botany
land use rights, and served as reference points for Bay, in 1788. Archeologists estimate that the indige-
those traveling across the Australian landscape. nous Australian population in the late eighteenth
century was between 300,000 and 1 million people.
EUROPEAN ARRIVAL Over time, the Europeans absorbed the indigenous
AND IMPACT people into their newly created Western Euro-
Although Dutch navigators charted the coasts of pean–style communities, killed them, or drove the
Australia during the seventeenth century C.E., the local populations from the more productive coastal
first significant contact between Europeans and areas. As Europeans began to explore and settle the
Australians occurred after Captain James Cook’s inland grasslands, the indigenous peoples were
22 | AUSTRALIA

RISE OF AUSTRALIA

CA . 55,000 B.C.E. Earliest evidence of marsupials CA .3000–1000 B.C.E. Prehistoric Lake Mungo
in Australia dries up; the natural environment begins to sta-
bilize; domestication of the dingo
CA . 50,000–40,000 B.C.E. First evidence of
settlement by humans C.E. 1606 First Dutch contact with Australia;
continuing periodic coastal trade between
CA . 40,000 B.C.E. Evidence of earliest settlement
Australian aborigines and the Dutch East
of southern Australia
India Company
CA . 30,000–20,000 B.C.E. First evidence of
C.E. 1770 Captain James Cook claims Australia
“Gracile” populations, ancestors of the
for England
Australian Aborigines
C.E.1788 First English settlement at Botany
CA . 23,000 B.C.E. Earliest evidence of a human
Bay
cremation in Lake Mungo region

CA . 10,000 B.C.E. Migration of Torres Strait

fishing population to Australia

pushed out of those productive lands as well. The FURTHER READING

remaining indigenous peoples were forced onto Mulvaney, John, and Johan Kamminga. Prehistory of
marginal lands considered by Europeans to be Australia. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institu-
uninhabitable, such as the Great Sandy Desert, lo- tion Press, 1999.
cated in the northwestern Australian state of West- Nile, Richard. Australian Aborigines. New York: Steck-
ern Australia. Vaughn, 1993.
Smith, W. Ramsay. Myths and Legends of the Austra-
See also: Aboriginal Peoples; Myths and Epics. lian Aborigines. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2003.

Buddhism
Religion, widespread throughout Asia by the fourteenth century C.E., based on the teachings of a
sixth-century B.C.E. Indian prince, Siddhartha Gautama, who renounced a life of comfort and
power to seek truth. Ultimately, he claimed to achieve nirvana (Sanskrit for enlightenment),
an understanding of the universal order and of humankind’s relationship to it, and was
thereafter called the Buddha, or the “Enlightened One.”
Forsaking his own immediate salvation (a order, or sangha, which spread the faith through-
spiritual escape from the realm of human exis- out India.
tence to a realm beyond), the Buddha taught 45
years until his death, or parinirvana (complete INITIAL SPREAD
enlightenment). Following his death in ca. 483 Buddhist monks spread the Buddha’s “Middle
B . C . E ., his disciples formed a Buddhist monastic Way,” which preached the moral reform of existing
 BUDDHISM | 23

Buddhism originated in northern

India during the fifth century B.C.E.
and eventually spread throughout
southern and southeastern Asia,
China, Japan, and into what is now
Indonesia. Chiang Rai, Thailand, is
home to the contemporary statue of
the Buddha shown here. (Dennie
Cody/Taxi/Getty Images)

society and humanity’s imperfect religious prac- The early caravan towns, such as Sogdiana
tices. Monks sent by the Mauryan ruler Asoka (r. ca. (modern-day Bukhara in Uzbekistan) supported
273–232 B.C.E.) had converted Sri Lanka’s elite by Buddhist temples and pilgrimage centers, where an
249 B.C.E., the initial date of the Great Buddha tem- international community of monks traveling the
ple at the Sri Lankan capital of Anuradhapura. route periodically studied.
With the opening of the overland Silk Road trade Buddhism gained a foothold in Han-era north-
route between India and China (138–126 B.C.E.), ern China (206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220), and, in a time of
many sojourning traders and residents along the turmoil, gained numbers of converts after the Han
central Asian caravan route converted to Buddhism. dynasty fell in the early third century C.E. At that
24 | BUDDHISM

time the Chinese city of Luoyang, located at the end The Buddha’s teachings and early Buddhist prac-
of the Silk Road, became a noted center of Buddhist tices were compiled in a series of texts. The most
learning. There, scriptures transported overland important of these is called the Three Collections
from India were translated into Chinese. At roughly (Pitakas), which contain the Buddha’s teaching
this same time, local Kushana rulers at the western (sutra), the laws of the sangha (vinaya), and Bud-
end of the Silk Road constructed a 180-foot-tall (55- dhist philosophies (abhi-dharma). The three collec-
meter-tall) Buddha statue at Bamiyan in what is tions, together with the later “three practical educa-
now central Afghanistan. tions”—ethics (sila), meditation (samadhi), and
Buddhist pilgrims traveling the maritime scientific wisdom (prajna)—comprise the basic doc-
trade route between India and China in the third trines of Buddhism.
century introduced Buddhism to Southeast Asia, A Buddhist must accept the Four Noble Truths:
where several rulers converted to the faith. Leaders (1) the world is filled with suffering; (2) suffering is
of early states in Sumatra and Java supported pil- caused by greed (craving or attachment); (3) to elim-
grimage centers for Buddhist monks traveling inate greed is to eliminate suffering; and (4) greed
between major Buddhist monastic centers in China and consequent suffering is avoided by following a
and southern Asia. By the fifth century C.E., Na- path of moral behavior and thought, known as the
landa, near modern-day Patna in northern India, Eightfold Way. The Eightfold Way includes the ele-
had become the foremost international center of ments of Right (meaning “spiritually pure”) View,
Buddhist scholarship. It would remain so until the Right Intent, Right Speech, Right Action, Right
twelfth century, at which time the decline of Bud- Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and
dhism in India forced a relocation of the center of Right Concentration.
the Theravada Buddhist church (a conservative, tra- Buddhism prescribes a lifestyle accompanied by
ditional style of Buddhism that teaches meditation meditation. Although Buddhist monasteries and
for creating good karma) to Sri Lanka. Similarly, monastic activities lie at the core of the religion,
Mahayana Buddhist scholarship (a more liberal, in- anyone can follow the Eightfold Way. Meditation
novative style of Buddhism that teaches that people under the guidance of a senior monk, however,
are already enlightened beings but do not realize it) helps to train the mind’s powers of concentration.
moved from India to China, which was the home of An individual with a properly trained mind can dis-
several pan-Asian Buddhist sects. Among these cover the true nature of his or her desire for earthly
China-based Buddhist schools was the Chan Bud- pleasures and eliminate them. This includes reject-
dhist meditation sect, which was founded in China ing purely intellectual attachments such as philo-
between C.E. 420 and 479, and then became the fa- sophical or religious beliefs. By eliminating desire,
vored Buddhist sect, known as Zen Buddhism, it is believed that humans can achieve nirvana and
among Japan’s samurai, warrior, elite from the late release themselves from the cycle of death and rein-
twelfth century. carnation in which one repeatedly experiences mor-
tal suffering.
DOCTRINE
Buddhism offers spiritual refuge from the imper- INFLUENCE
fection and subsequent chaos of everyday existence The Buddha’s teachings were revolutionary within
in the Three Jewels: the Buddha, his teachings, and India because they rejected the assumptions of the
the sangha. Buddhists consider these to be alternate existing Hindu social hierarchy. Buddhism denied
paths to the elimination of human suffering. The the sacred authority of the Hindu religious texts
Buddhist devotee might seek the mercy and inter- whose teachings dominated ancient Indian society.
vention of the Buddha himself, immerse him- or It also was antagonistic to the elaborate rituals that
herself in the study of and mediation on his teach- were the cornerstone of the Hindu partnership
ings, or commit to the counsel of the learned Bud- between priests and aristocrats. The Buddha did not
dhist monkhood. so much challenge as ignore the special role of
 BUDDHISM | 25

GREAT LIVES

The Buddha
In 563 B.C.E., according to Buddhist tradition, the spent the next six years attempting to conquer his
historical Siddhartha Gautama was born to the worldly attachments, such as the desire for food, sex,
queen and king of a small clan state in northern and comfort. He sought out and studied under the
India. At birth, it is said, Siddhartha Gautama ap- greatest religious teachers of his age, and tried all the
peared fully formed and immediately took seven rituals and disciplined yogic exercises prescribed by
steps, a sign that he would become either a great the developing Hindu religion—to no avail.
king or a great religious teacher. Finally, in frustration, he sat under a Bodhi tree
At age 19, Siddhartha Gautama married the Prin- (“tree of wisdom”) near the modern-day Indian city of
cess Yasodhara; ten years later, she gave birth to a Varanasi. For 49 days and nights he meditated in si-
son. Having fulfilled his family obligation to provide lence, enduring temptations from the evil spirit
a male heir, Siddhartha Gautama began to wander Mara. At sunrise on the fiftieth day he woke as the
outside the palace compound, where he confronted Buddha, the “enlightened one.” He then rose and set
images of sickness, poverty, and death. These im- out to teach humanity his enlightened “Middle Way,”
ages distressed Gautama, who began to see the a moral life without extremes, based on the notion
world as a place filled with evil and misfortune. He that a lifetime of sorrow could be negated by elimi-
also saw a wandering holy man with no material nating human greed. The Buddha spent the next 45
possessions who nevertheless seemed filled with years spreading his message throughout northeast-
inner peace. ern India, accompanied by a band of monk disciples
Impressed by the holy man’s demeanor, Gau- who continued to preach the Middle Way following
tama determined to follow in his footsteps. Com- his death in about 483 B.C.E.
pletely abandoning material possessions, Gautama

priests in this system as the holders of the keys to themselves become a new religious elite, little dif-
salvation, as well as the privileged religious and so- ferent from Hinduism’s Brahmin priesthood. The
cial status of those claiming aristocratic de- reformist monks formed the rival Mahayana (“Uni-
scent. In contrast to Hindu society, Buddhism was versal or Greater Vehicle”) Buddhist sangha, calling
inclusive of all social strata and promoted a com- the coexisting older monastic Buddhism Hinayana
munal lifestyle that violated the prevailing practice (“Lesser or Individual Vehicle”). The Mahayana
of occupational and gender separation. monks took their missionary activities beyond the
Debate about whether or not it was necessary to walls of the monastic compound to work directly in
follow a monastic life in order to achieve enlighten- lay communities.
ment was a major issue in early Buddhism. It was Over time, followers of the Mahayana tradition
also the basis of an eventual split between Thera- began to worship the Buddha himself, who might
vada Buddhists, who said that one had to be a monk be asked to grant divine favors. In these Mahayana
to attain full enlightenment, and Mahayana Bud- teachings, the Buddha had five states of existence
dhists, who argued that the path to enlightenment (the five Tathagata): the Historical Buddha Siddhar-
was equally open to laypeople. Initially, the Thera- tha Gautama, the Cosmic Buddha Dainichi, the
vada Buddhist sangha had assumed the major lead- Amitabha or Amida Celestial Buddha, the Bhai-
ership role in the development of the Buddhist sajyagu Healing Buddha, and the Maitreya Future
Church. By the second century B.C.E., however, Buddha. These are all central figures of worship in
some monks felt that the Buddhist sangha had Chinese, Japanese, and Tibetan Buddhism.
26 | BUDDHISM

Mahayana followers believe that the Buddha was use of tantra techniques. Despite these differ-
assisted by bodhisattvas, or male and female ences, Vajrayana Buddhists believe that Theravada
“saints.” Like the Buddha, the bodhisattvas had and Mahayana doctrines form the basis of Vajray-
achieved nirvana in this lifetime but had chosen to ana practice and that they are all legitimate paths
remain temporarily earthbound to assist humanity to enlightenment.
in their quest for salvation. At death, the bodhisatt-
vas became divine assistants to the Buddha. Gods of See also: Angkor Wat; Art and Architecture; China;
other religious traditions, such as the Shinto spirits Culture and Traditions; Hinduism; India; Japan; Java;
in Japan, were incorporated into Buddhism as Religion; Silk Road; Society; Sri Lanka; Vietnam.
lower-ranking bodhisattvas.
Vajrayana Buddhism offers an alternative path FURTHER READING
to enlightenment through the use of special tech- Gombrich, Richard F. How Buddhism Began: The
niques, chants, and rituals known collectively as Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Lon-
tantra. Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists believe don: Routledge, 2006.
that it takes many lifetimes to reach nirvana, but Robinson, R.H., and W.L. Johnson. The Buddhist Re-
Vajrayana followers claim that a person can achieve ligion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1988.
full enlightenment in a single lifetime through the

China
The dominant force in shaping eastern Asian civilization culturally, politically, and economically
in the premodern era. From about 4000 B.C.E., prehistoric settled farming communities
developed in northern and central China, in the Yellow and Chang River basins. At first these
took the form of tribal and regional clan states; around 2200 B.C.E., they emerged as Asia’s
earliest imperial government.
Early Chinese learned to cultivate dry rice (millet), dynasty (1766–1122/1027 B.C.E.), which reigned
sorghum (grain-bearing grass), and wheat sometime over the northern Yellow and Chang River basins,
after 4000 B.C.E., and these grains became their die- eventually settling in its sixth imperial capital at
tary staples. They also built a network of dikes to pro- Yin, modern Anyang. Shang farmers cultivated dry
tect their crops from the devastating annual flooding rice and wheat and raised domesticated livestock,
of the Yellow River plain. Many historians believe while the aggressive Shang warriors expanded the
that the magnitude of coordinating the construction borders of their empire by attacking neighbors to
and maintenance of these Yellow River dikes necessi- acquire land, resources, and slaves. The Shang dy-
tated the emergence of China’s earliest imperial nasty was especially noted for the development of
government, the legendary Xia dynasty (ca. bronze technology and the use of elaborate bronze
2200–1766 B.C.E.). The events of this era are por- vessels in religious and state rituals.
trayed in numerous Chinese folktales that relate the
mythical accomplishments of China’s first emper- Clan States
ors, the importance of ancestor worship and animis- The subsequent era of the Zhou dynasty (1122/
tic forces in the everyday lives of the Chinese people, 1027–403 B.C.E.) began with the overthrow of the
and the development of regionally powerful clans. Shang rulers by one of several militant regional
clans. From their imperial capital near modern
FROM TRIBE TO EMPIRE Xian, Shang rulers reigned over a network of semi-
Recorded Chinese history begins with the Shang autonomous regional clan states. Chinese historians
 CHINA | 27

MILESTONES IN ANCIENT CHINESE HISTORY

CA .4000 B.C.E. Settled farming communities de- C.E.581–618 Sui dynasty restores imperial
velop in the Yellow and Chang River basins authority

CA .2200–1766 B.C.E. Legendary Xia dynasty C.E. 618–907 Tang dynasty; era of Chinese
establishes China’s first imperial openness to new ideas and cultural
government innovations

1766–1122/1027 B.C.E. Shang dynasty marks C.E.907–960 Regional states establish autonomy
beginning of recorded Chinese history during Period of Five Dynasties and Ten King-
doms that follows fall of Tang dynasty
1122/1027–403 B.C.E. Zhou dynasty estab-
lishes imperial authority over a network C.E. 960–1279 Song dynasty, especially
of subordinate regional states noted for artistic achievements in litera-
ture, painting, dance, and drama, as well
CA .500S B.C.E. Origins of Confucian philosophi-
as technological innovations such as gun-
cal tradition and Daoist religion, doctrines cen-
powder and moveable type printing
tral to subsequent Chinese secular and sacred
tradition C.E.1252–1279 Mongol lord Kublai Khan wages
prolonged war against the Song, ultimately con-
403–222 B.C.E. Era of Warring States follows
quering China and founding the Yuan dynasty
collapse of Zhou authority; six powerful
warlord states vie for control over China C.E. 1279–1368 Mongol Yuan dynasty aggres-
sively attempts to expand Chinese territory into
222 B.C.E. Qin state emerges victorious over its ri-
what are now Myanmar and Vietnam and
vals and establishes ruling dynasty
launches failed amphibious invasions of Java
206 B.C.E. Han Gazou leads overthrow of and Japan
Qin state; establishes Han dynasty
C.E. 1368–1644 Ming dynasty marks return to
206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220 Han dynasty; China annexes ethnic Chinese rule; policy of commercial and
Mongolia and Korea and opens Silk Road trade cultural exchange leads to period of economic
route to the West prosperity and social stability

C.E.220–581 China undergoes extended

period of disorder following collapse of
Han dynasty

characterize this as a network of city-states, em- Chinese intellectual inquiry. Both the Confucian
phasizing the emergence of important regional philosophical tradition and Daoist religion origi-
urban centers. Western historians often describe nated in the sixth century B.C.E. Confucianism and
them as “feudal states,” because the Zhou dynasty Daoism proposed alternate paths to human fulfill-
created a network of subordinate regional states ment. While Confucianism advocated commitment
under a landed aristocracy, comparable to the to a hierarchical secular social order, Daoism
socioeconomic organization of Europe during the emphasized that humans should withdraw from
Middle Ages. the affairs of everyday life to celebrate the ultimate
The Zhou era was also the classical age of reality and preeminence of nature.
28 | CHINA

TURNING POINT .

Chinese Civil Service

Chinese civil service examinations were recorded as only about 5 percent of those who took the exams
early as 165 B.C.E. The resulting appointments filled passed them and received government posts.
vacant government positions on the six imperial bu- The civil service and examination systems were
reaucratic government boards: personnel, rites, pub- also the critical means by which the Chinese govern-
lic works, war (provisioning the military rather than ment maintained the loyalty of the elite classes, or
commanding it), revenue, and justice. Appointees shih. Only those who had passed the exams, whether
served at one of three levels of government: local, or not they received government positions, were al-
provincial, and the imperial court. Applicants under- lowed to communicate directly with the government.
went written examinations; passing each of three Thus, non-shih had to secure the services of non-
exams qualified the candidate for successively officeholding shih in order to have dealings with the
higher government appointments. government. Shih businessmen frequently received
In theory, the Chinese civil service was open to profitable government contracts and commissions
any adult male, regardless of wealth or social status. not available to non-shih.
In practice, however, preparing for the exams was The system, however, often produced too many
costly and time consuming. Because China lacked expectant shih, who believed they were entitled to re-
public schools, candidates had to study under the di- ceive benefits as the government’s local agents. In
rection of a private tutor. As a result, most successful fact, many shih depended on commissions as a valu-
candidates came from a hereditary class of wealthy able supplement to the family’s land-derived in-
landholding gentry, who had the resources to afford come. Dynastic decline normally coincided with the
private education. Aristocrats had an additional in- court having too few rewards to distribute in order to
centive to fill the posts: at least one family member retain the loyalty of the shih. As the opportunities for
from each generation was required to pass the appointments or rewards diminished, the elite
exams in order for a family to maintain their aristo- began to think in terms of their self-interest rather
cratic status. However, passing the exams was no guar- than remaining loyal to the imperial court, hasten-
antee of personal success. Because there were not ing the dynasty’s fall from power.
enough positions to employ all qualified applicants,

In the late fifth century B.C.E., the Zhou confed- hereditary family clans. Three state officials
eracy collapsed, leading to the Era of the Warring supervised each province—one to administer the
States (403–222 B.C.E.), when six regionally power- civil administration (for example, justice, police af-
ful warlord states competed in a series of battles fairs, public works, record-keeping), a second to
and began to annex their smaller neighbors. In manage provincial finances (collecting and redis-
the late third century, the Qin state’s forces tributing taxes), and a third who was in charge of
emerged victorious under the leadership of the gen- provincial troops. Each official was encouraged to re-
eral Qin Shihuangdi (r. 221–210 B.C.E.), who be- port the activities of the others to the emperor, which
came the first Qin emperor. in effect created a system of checks and balances.
This system of provincial appointments became the
Qin China basis of China’s imperial bureaucracy, which was in-
Qin Shihuangdi organized the former clan states itially filled with candidates favored by the emperor.
into new territorial provinces, in part to break up The Qin state minister Li Si (280–208 B.C.E.)
the longstanding regional associations of the played a significant role in imperial administration,
 CHINA | 29

The ancient Chinese were great technological innovators, creating engineering marvels such as the Great Wall of China and the
Grand Canal, pictured here. Begun in the fifth century B.C.E., the canal at one time reached a length of 1,500 miles (2,400 km)
and connected six Chinese river systems. (Yann Layma/The Image Bank/Getty Images)

attempting to standardize not only Chinese weights sors (the Han dynasty ruled from 206 B.C.E. to C.E.
and measures, but also life in general. His adminis- 220) initially moderated the Qin centralization by
trative innovations were based in the school schol- temporarily allowing the old clan-based gentry to
ars call Confucian Legalism, which advocated a administer the new territorial divisions. Han rulers,
strong interventionist state rather than a disen- however, gradually reintroduced the Qin adminis-
gaged imperial authority that ruled by moral exam- trative innovations, which they saw as the only logi-
ple. To ensure a singular and unchallenged Qin au- cal means to administer their vast domain.
thority, Li Si banned and ordered the burning of
books that expressed dissenting political views. HAN, TANG, AND SONG CHINA
When Shihuangdi died, Li Si tried to assume power, The high point of the Han dynasty is associated
but because the Chinese had turned against the Qin with the emperor Han Wudi (r. ca. 141–87 B.C.E.),
policies that Li Si had worked so hard to support in who built on his predecessors’ successful consolida-
the past, Li Si’s efforts failed. The aristocracy were tions. He annexed Mongolia and Korea, and suc-
unwilling to entrust power to someone who held cessfully stabilized China’s western border. A series
the now unpopular Qin views. of military victories resulted in a peace settlement
Han Gazou (r. 206–195 B.C.E.), a man of peasant with the central Asian steppe tribesmen who threat-
birth, led the armies composed of disaffected Qin ened China’s western borders. This settlement also
subjects that deposed the Qin and established a allowed the opening of the Silk Road trade route, as
new dynasty. The new Han emperor and his succes- the tribesmen agreed to protect travelers on the
30 | CHINA

overland passageway that connected China to India, tocracy south of the Chang River helped to spread
Persia, and the Roman West. Buddhism beyond northern China at this time. It
Han Wudi modified the Qin Confucian state, in- also resulted in the spread of Han culture into
stituting a three-part national government consist- southeastern China, which previously had been
ing of the bureaucracy, the imperial court, and a under Han political authority but had retained most
professional military. The main qualifications for of its local culture. Denied access to the central
appointment included demonstrated ability and Asian Silk Road, the Han elite were forced to find a
meritorious service; social class or status played no new way to satisfy their desire for imported luxury
role in the selection process. Under Han Wudi, the goods. This led directly to the development of the
state controlled and regulated commerce, notably to Indian Ocean maritime trade.
ensure that grains and other basic commodities
such as salt were available at a reasonable price in Return to Imperial Order
the marketplace, that merchants conducted their Dynastic stability returned under the Sui (C.E.
business fairly, and that the government would 581–618), whose military victories allowed them to
have access to iron for its military needs. He also consolidate their authority over northern and cen-
implemented Confucian historical analysis, tral China. The Sui, like the Qin, were aggressive in
which looked upon the past, especially historical reestablishing dynastic order. The most noteworthy
figures, as the source of lessons for the present. achievement of the Sui was the construction of the
Han emperors faced periodic rebellions, includ- Grand Canal, which linked the productive eastern
ing an uprising led by the peasant Wang Mang that Chang basin to Beijing in the north. This allowed
temporarily overthrew Han rule (ca. C.E. 9–23). The surplus wet-rice production from southern China
victorious peasant armies, however, were unable to to reach needy consumers in northern China. In-
establish stable leadership, and Han forces restored creasing the volume of accessible rice in the north
the dynasty. However, the emperor’s relatives, stabilized the price, ensuring that consumers
landed elites, Confucian bureaucrats, and the pal- throughout the realm could afford to buy rice.
ace corps of eunuch imperial guards all periodically The Sui ultimately overextended, committing vast
plotted to control the court’s policies. This internal human and financial resources in their resurrection
intrigue toppled the Han dynasty in C.E. 220; a se- of the Han realm and incurring heavy military ex-
ries of smaller states run by warlords replaced the penses to secure China’s western frontier. Popular
centralized empire. revolts, assassinations, and internal disloyalty pro-
vided the opportunity for the Sui regional governor
Disorder, Displacement, and Change Li Yuan (C.E. 566–635) to seize authority and restore
With the fall of the Han dynasty, northern China order under the new Tang dynasty (C.E. 618–907).
faced 400 years of periodic raids by warriors The Tang dynasty is frequently referred to as
(among these eastern Hun seminomadic tribes- China’s “Cosmopolitan Age” because of its openness
men from the steppe grasslands of central Asia), to new ideas and cultural options. People of diverse
and warfare among the powerful regional warlords. ethnicity flowed into the capital city of Changan
Buddhism spread from India to China, offering (modern Xian) by way of the reopened Silk Road.
many Chinese a more satisfying religious solution The Tang state institutionalized the Confucian exam-
to the generalized disorder than did local beliefs. ination system to secure qualified candidates for
For example, Buddhism offered the promise of an public office. In contrast to the Han-era exams,
afterlife that Daoism did not. Traditional Chinese which tested the candidate’s memorization, the new
Confucianism strongly promoted involvement in neo-Confucian examinations forced candidates to
secular affairs, but this focus was inconsistent apply what they had learned by writing essays that
with an age in which the secular realm was seen as addressed difficult situations they might face. This
particularly corrupt. would demonstrate their ability to resolve real prob-
A large-scale exodus of the old Confucian aris- lems once they received political appointments.
 CHINA | 31

CHINESE DYNASTIES, 1122 B.C.E.–C.E. 1365

Early Chinese history is marked by the another, especially as seen in the changing dynasties were centered in the north. China
transitions from one imperial dynasty to borders of China’s empires. The earliest reached its height during the Yuan dynasty.

Like the Sui, the Tang ultimately collapsed due military rebellion against the Tang in 755–757, later
to the financial drain of funding troops needed to Tang emperors became overly dependent on the
defend China’s northwestern borders. After the support of regional governors. Tang authority col-
dissident An Lushan led a temporarily successful lapsed in 907, as the regional governors established
32 | CHINA

their own autonomy in what is known as the Period ployed its Confucian bureaucrats, and accepted its
of Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. Ultimately cultural practices, the Chinese concluded that their
one of these, the Song, renewed dynastic authority civilization must be the best in the world. Such cul-
in 960. tural arrogance would prove a long-term liability as
The Song dynasty (960–1279) applied the later Chinese dynasties turned inward, shutting off
broadly based neo-Confucian logic that human the country from outside influences and innovations.
creativity stimulates human intelligence to con- The Yuan were aggressively expansionist. Fol-
structive activity. During the Song era, such con- lowing his conquest of China in 1279, Kublai Khan
structive activities included developing new tech- sent his troops south to fight in what are now Myan-
nologies, among them printing with moveable type, mar and Vietnam. The Mongol fleet also carried
gunpowder weapons, and improvements in naviga- troops to attack Vietnam and Java. All of these at-
tion. The Song era is especially known for its artistic tempts to extend Yuan power were costly failures,
achievements, notably its literature, poetry, paint- especially Kublai Khan’s disastrous invasions of
ings, and contributions to the development of Chi- Japan in 1274 and 1281. Kublai Khan’s successors
nese classical dance and drama. It was an age in found themselves weakened by his debts and in-
which the traditional classes and genders more creasingly isolated as the Mongol realm fragmented
openly mixed, as merchants and gentry in particu- into regional kingdoms in the fourteenth century.
lar shared in literary conversations at popular tea- These developments, paired with general Chinese
house cafes. Urban residential districts became dislike for their alien rulers, left the Yuan vulner-
open to cross-class residence based on wealth able to overthrow by resurgent Chinese forces led
rather than on birthright. Indeed, retrospective Chi- by Ming generals.
nese accounts of the Song criticized the dynastic The Ming dynasty (C.E. 1368–1644) was intent
leadership for being overly “relaxed,” thus making on reestablishing the pre-Yuan Confucian bureau-
China vulnerable to foreign invasion. cratic system. The Ming emperors attempted to re-
store the Tang system instead of maintaining the
CONQUEST AND more “relaxed” policies of the Song, whom they
RESTORATION held accountable for the fall of China to the Mon-
The Mongol conquest of 1279 shocked the Chinese, gols. The Ming also followed in the footsteps of the
who never before had been subject to rule by non- Yuan in their early foreign initiatives. In 1405–1433,
Chinese. The Mongols were warriors from the Ming rulers sent General Zheng He (1371–1433) and
steppes of northern central Asia, whose forces con- his fleet of more than 300 warships into the Indian
quered and temporarily controlled almost the entire Ocean as a declaration of China’s interests beyond
Asian continent by the late thirteenth century. The its borders. After Zheng He’s death these voyages
Mongol lord Kublai Khan waged a prolonged war ceased. In part this was because conservative Con-
against the Song from 1252, finally completing his fucian political factions convinced the Ming emper-
conquest in 1279 and founding the Yuan dynasty ors that such internationalism was too expensive
(C.E. 1279–1368). and unnecessary. Some also argued that it was det-
The Yuan rulers, who were marginally literate rimental to China’s military priority, which was de-
warriors, recognized that they needed help from fending its northern borders from barbarian inva-
Chinese bureaucrats to rule successfully over sions. Thereafter, Ming military investments
China’s vast non-Mongol population. They were focused on rebuilding the Great Wall and preparing
suspicious of the Chinese Confucian gentry, how- for an invasion from the central Asian steppes.
ever, so they frequently recruited foreigners from In 1500, Ming China had the resources and
among their other realms to assume top-level ad- productivity to provide for its society’s basic needs.
ministrative posts. Seeing how readily the Yuan Rather than retreating into isolation, it maintained
adopted China’s existing governmental system, em- diplomatic and commercial contacts with its
 CONFUCIANISM | 33

neighbors. It openly solicited imported luxuries, Buddhism; Confucianism; Culture and Traditions;
not just in satisfying the desires of Chinese consu- Huns; Indian Ocean Trade; Pax Sinica; Silk Road;
mers, but also because overseas trade was a major Society; Technology and Inventions; Tools and
source of the Chinese government’s tax revenue. Weapons.
Ming China was the source of products such as por-
celain, silk, and tea that the remainder of the world FURTHER READING
desired. The international demand for these prod- De Bary, William Theodore, and Irene Bloom, com-
ucts benefited Chinese producers and merchants, pilers. Sources of Chinese Tradition. 2nd ed. New
as well as the Chinese government. This commer- York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
cial prosperity, paired with China’s broad range of Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. China: A Cultural, Social, and
previous societal innovations, reinforced China’s Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006.
cultural self-confidence, creativity, and desire to Hucker, Charles O. China’s Imperial Past, An Intro-
avoid the costly wars of its past. duction to China’s History and Culture. Stanford,
CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.
See also: Agriculture; Archeological Discoveries;

Confucianism
A once-dominant ancient Chinese religion based on the teachings of the sage Confucius
(Kungfutzu, 551–479 B.C.E.). Unlike other teachers of the time, Confucius believed that it was
possible for all people, regardless of their station in life, to do right. He taught “right relations,”
which included benevolence, respect for superiors, and piety.

THE CONFUCIAN IDEAL of both is chaos and anarchy, or lawlessness, from

Confucianism is a set of ethical rules or a moral phi- which everyone suffers. Society then, through a set
losophy rather than a formal religion. It avoids dis- of laws, must evolve its own balance between indi-
cussion of a divine being and is vague in its views of vidual actions and the need to protect the group.
the afterlife and otherworldly matters. The Confu- Confucius believed that a formal legal code and
cian ideal is a ranked or hierarchical social and the threat of punishment are no guarantee of indi-
political order that is made up of status groups and vidual virtue or social harmony. He also believed
graded roles, from the ruler at the top through offi- that, in a properly run society, rules and punish-
cials and gentry (a landed and educated elite) to the ments are ineffective and unnecessary. In the ideal
family head. According to Confucian philosophy, Confucian order, people want to do right, which is
the key to effective authority is setting a good exam- achieved only by making the Confucian ethical code
ple through “right relationships” in order to ensure of correct social relationships a part of one’s own
“virtuous behavior.” thinking. Violence is only a last resort, when the so-
In Confucian doctrine, the individual is like a cial system has broken down.
stray nail sticking up that needs to be pounded down
in order to protect the group’s common interests. TWO SCHOOLS OF BELIEF
Confucianism encourages the subjection of the indi- Early Confucianism, as popularized in the writings
vidual to the greater good of the family and society. of the scholar Mencius (Meng Tzu, ca. 371–289
Individualism and freedom are seen as the conse- B.C.E.) presents a highly optimistic view of humanity
quence of selfishness and a lack of rules. The result and society. Later Confucian scholars, collectively
34 | CONFUCIANISM

GREAT LIVES

Confucius
According to tradition, the Chinese sage Confucius After leaving Lu, Confucius traveled to a number of
was born about 551 B.C.E. in the feudal state of Lu in states in northern and central China, hoping to inter-
what is today Shandong province. His father, who est rulers in implementing his ideas. Although he was
was 70 when Confucius was born, died when the unsuccessful in gaining official recognition, Confu-
child was three, and Confucius’s mother brought cius attracted a large number of adherents among
the boy up in poverty. Although details of his life are China’s intellectual classes, many of whom occupied
shrouded in uncertainty, he appears to have worked influential government positions. His disciples pro-
a variety of jobs as a young man, including a shep- moted and spread his ideas and later compiled the An-
herd, a cowherd, and a bookkeeper. He eventually alects, a collection of sayings and short dialogues that
obtained a government position as an administra- form the primary source for information about Confu-
tive manager in the state of Lu, and at age 53 he was cius and his philosophy. Confucius died in about 479
appointed the state’s Justice Minister. He left that B.C.E., and it would take another 300 years for his ideas

position for reasons that are unclear, but that may to be widely adopted in China. His teachings continue
have been related to the enthusiasm with which he to influence Chinese society today and have also
promoted his beliefs to his superiors. spread to Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

known as “legalists,” had a very different perspec- the reign of the Han emperor Wudi (r. ca. 141–87
tive. They argued that humans drift naturally to- B.C.E.), with officials selected from among the edu-
ward chaos and thus require an intervening force, cated classes. The result was a system that was, in
or the threat of force. Confucian legalists believed theory, open to candidates of any social class or rank.
that people need a formalized code of law to achieve Because China had no public schools, however, only
and maintain universal social harmony. the wealthy were able to afford the education needed
Both traditions, however, affirmed peoples’ right to pass the exams. The gentry thus dominated the
to rebel against immoral or unjust rulers, leaders examination system and the Chinese bureaucracy.
who had forfeited the “Mandate of Heaven” by their The entry of upwardly mobile lower-class individu-
own lapse from virtue. While loyalty to superiors als, although not impossible, was extremely rare.
was the basic commandment of Confucianism, Confucianism taught followers to honor hard
commitment to moral principle could prevail, espe- work, achievement, material prosperity, and the en-
cially in times of corrupt leadership. This situation, joyments that “self-cultivation” produced. Confu-
however, presented individuals with a severe di- cians especially revered bearing children and attain-
lemma—loyalty to leader versus commitment to ing an old age of leisure surrounded by one’s
moral principle. Consequently, civil disobedience successful descendents. According to Confucian-
was extremely rare, and, however unjust, author- ism, the natural world was the orderly model for the
ities (from the emperor at the top to one’s parents human world. Nature was thought to be a nurturing
on the bottom) were rarely challenged. power, not a hostile one, to be admired and pre-
served, and to which people should adjust rather
POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND than attempt to conquer. Natural calamities, such as
RITUAL TRADITIONS floods, droughts, or earthquakes, were commonly
Confucian ethics were eventually incorporated in taken as the consequence of heaven’s displeasure at
the Chinese imperial examination system during the lack of virtue among China’s rulers.
 CONFUCIANISM | 35

In the Confucian view, time was cyclical, and contemporary elders to those who had gone before,
there was a repetitive rhythm to both natural and as the ancestors became valued models, and ances-
human existence. For example, Confucianism rec- tral rituals at small household and community
ognized the inevitability of the fall of a dynasty shrines kept their memory alive. It was the duty of
due to what the Chinese referred to as the “fat cat” the eldest son to perform rituals on the death of his
syndrome. According to this syndrome, China’s vir- father, through successive generations, keeping the
tuous leadership should maintain order and antici- ancestral chain intact and thus ensuring family con-
pate natural disasters, for example, by initiating in- tinuity. Maintaining the family line was so impor-
novative public works projects and storing surplus tant that the greatest sin under Confucianism was
production in prosperous times. Instead, rulers to have no descendants (specifically male offspring
often chose to use public funds to pay for their luxu- because women left their parental family at mar-
rious lifestyle. Confucians argued that such nonvir- riage and became members of their husband’s fam-
tuous leaders were destined to fall. ily). This attitude has perpetually favored sons and
Confucianism was also China’s “state religion,” has encouraged couples to conceive as many chil-
in which the emperor presided over rituals at the dren as necessary to produce a male child.
imperial capital. These rituals were to intercede The ancient teachings of Confucius have defined
with heaven or to commemorate imperial ancestors traditional values and the ideas of proper behavior
to secure general public welfare: good harvests; in modern China. Although once out of favor in the
rain; and the end to floods, epidemics, famine, and People’s Republic of China, Confucian practices
civil chaos. Sometimes the rituals were designed to have become more visible in the past two decades,
acknowledge the inappropriate or unethical behav- and live on in modern Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Viet-
ior among the ruling elite in the hopes of persuad- nam, and the overseas Chinese communities resi-
ing heaven to restore society’s prosperity. dent in Southeast Asia.
The Confucian assertion that heaven is an im-
personal force superior to humankind did not ade- See also: Art and Architecture; China; Culture and
quately explain spiritual existence, so many people Traditions; Japan; Korea; Society; Vietnam.
turned to other religions, while continuing to
maintain their Confucian beliefs and ritual prac- FURTHER READING
tices. For example, many people embraced the Ebrey, Patricia. Confucian and Family Ritual in Impe-
Daoist naturalist philosophy and the Buddhist ex- rial China. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
planation of the afterlife. Daoism and Buddhism Press, 1992.
both depend on a formal priesthood and sets of Elman, B. A Cultural History of Civil Examinations
universal rituals. Daoist and Buddhist temple wor- in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of
ship encouraged Confucians to build their own California Press, 2000.
temples, where illustrious figures of the local past Mann, S., and Y. Chang. Under Confucian Eyes:
were granted imperial recognition and were even- Writings on Gender in Chinese History. Berkeley:
tually worshipped as the community’s imperially University of California Press, 2001.
sanctioned guardian deities. Chinese folk reli- Miyazaki, Ichisada. China’s Examination Hell: Civil
gions, which invoked divine intervention through Service Exams of Imperial China. Translated by
offerings to local spirits or deceased ancestors, also Conrad Schirokauer. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
claimed many adherents. versity Press, 1981.
Popular Confucianism extended respect for the
36 | CULTURE AND TRADITIONS

Culture and Traditions

Before C.E. 1500, local innovation and adaptations of the advanced cultural forms found in India
and China characterized Asian society. The northern Indian Hindu-Buddhist culture of Gupta
India spread to southern India in the sixth century B.C.E. and then to Southeast Asia. A century
later, Korea and Japan adopted many aspects of the Chinese civilization of Tang China and
adapted them to local life.
These diverse ancient societies were marked by hierarchy. Mothers were involved in the selection
increasing political, economic, and societal central- of marriage partners for their children and in the
ization, often the result of military conquest. Rulers use of family income as this directly related to their
of the Mauryan dynasty in India (founded about children’s marriage prospects.
400 B.C.E.) and the Qin dynasty in China (founded Wealthy families could afford to keep their wives
about 221 B.C.E.) were the first Asian leaders to take and daughters at home, while the less economically
the title of emperor rather than king, considering advantaged could not. In early China and India, it
themselves entitled to this lofty title as a consequence was not unusual for women to outlive their hus-
of their military victories and annexations of bands, because women commonly married older
rival kingdoms. men. Although both societies frowned on remar-
In the aftermath of these dynasties, Chinese and riage, widow remarriage was not unusual when the
Indian cultures took different courses. Indian cul- woman’s surviving family was not able to support
ture was dominated by Hindu and Buddhist tradi- her and her children or did not have a male of suffi-
tions and therefore became centered in temples cient age to insure the family’s future.
rather than the royal court beginning in the Gupta Chinese women who had married a prosperous
era (ca. C.E. 320–550). Chinese culture, on the husband faced the likelihood that their husband
other hand, remained controlled by the monarch would take at least one concubine. According to
and his court, and therefore, from the Tang era (C.E. Chinese tradition, the wife should not be jealous
618–907) on, was dominated by secular ideals because her family rank and that of her children
rather than religious customs. were always above that of the concubine and her
children. In practice, an attractive and younger
GENDER AND FAMILY LIFE concubine might have more influence on the hus-
Official Indian and Chinese government texts band than did the wife, despite the concubine’s
drew a portrait of societies in which men were ac- lower rank.
tive in the realm outside the house and the women Having married children ensured a woman’s fu-
prisoners in it. Popular stories, legal documents, ture. Daughters-in-law were obliged to do most of
and other local accounts, however, demonstrate the cooking and housekeeping, allowing the grand-
that there was not such a clear division of labor. mothers to enjoy their grandchildren. Many elite
Asian women were often economically active in women were literate and served as their grandchil-
the marketplace, profiting as matchmakers and dren’s first teachers, and also composed poetry and
serving as midwives delivering babies. Girls could carried on correspondence with other women using
learn to read and write from their educated fathers a secret “woman’s language,” a kind of coded adap-
and brothers. tation of standard Chinese understandable only to
Chinese and Indian women often exercised sub- those familiar with the code.
stantial power within the family political arena, de- During the Song dynasty (C.E. 960–1279), foot
pending on their position in the extended family’s binding became popular, as Chinese men of the
 CULTURE AND TRADITIONS | 37

Ceremonies that mark important life transitions, such as marriages and funerals, typically feature traditional social customs and
rituals. This Hindu bride-to-be in Bombay, India, follows the ancient practice of decorating her hands with henna, a reddish-
orange plant dye. (Roger Ressmeyer/Louie Psihoyos/Science Faction/Getty Images)

time considered small feet on women to be particu- LEGAL CULTURE

larly attractive. Over time, however, the practice be- Classical Chinese law was shaped largely by the
came a mark of social distinction, elegance, and Confucian legalistic tradition that advocated a rigid
beauty that eventually spread among all classes. written legal code to maintain political power and
Mothers bound their daughters’ feet between the social control. In contrast to the Chinese tradition
ages of five and eight, using long strips of cloth to of civil law, countries in southern Asia and most of
keep their feet from growing, and to bend the four neighboring Hindu-Buddhist Southeast Asia based
smaller toes under to make the feet narrow and their legal codes on the Dharmasastra Hindu texts
arched. An aristocrat’s feet were bound so that developed between 600 B.C.E. and C.E. 500. The
tightly that she could barely walk and had to depend Dharmasastra texts defined universal obligations
on servants. The feet of lower status women were and penalties, but these were always subject to local
bound less tightly, because they needed to work in caste and religious codes that defined proper moral-
the household and perform farming chores, despite ity, duty, and obligations.
their handicap. The practice of binding typically re-
sulted in physical deformity and often led to degen- Chinese Legal Culture
erative diseases of the feet. The Chinese legal system tended more toward a
38 | CULTURE AND TRADITIONS

“rule by law” rather than a “rule of law.” This re- corruption and wrongful verdicts, the Chinese state
quired severe penalties that would discourage dis- held the magistrate absolutely responsible for mis-
obedience: public humiliation, hard labor, physical takes of law or fact, regardless of good intentions or
mutilation, banishment, slavery, or death. absence of malice. To protect themselves from repri-
The Confucian moral code advocated continu- sals, magistrates tried to avoid accepting formal
ous self-cultivation and the performance of one’s complaints and instead devoted most of their efforts
proper social role in a hierarchically structured to the mediation of settlements rather than formal
society. Aggressive selfish behavior was unaccept- litigations inside their courtrooms.
able. Because criminal activity was considered the The Chinese legal system made allowances for
byproduct of improper family management of its or penalized criminals according to the extenuating
individual members, the relatives of a convicted reasons for a crime. Among these was the failure to
criminal could also be punished. avoid inauspicious days in taking an action, im-
Most labor penalties lasted from one to six years; properly sacrificing to and burying the dead, and in
mutilation could include shaving the offenders’ marrying—all of which allowed the demons and
beard or head, branding, cutting off a nose or foot, maligned spirits to work their will. An individual’s
or castration. The sentence of death could take sev- crime might also be blamed on another family
eral forms, including being torn apart by horse- member who was negligent in his or her ritual ac-
drawn chariots, although decapitation and hanging tions, thus making the guilty relative unknowingly
were the usual norms. Penal labor was the usual vulnerable to a maligned spirit’s reprisal.
penalty for theft or other civil crimes. Even those By the Tang Dynasty era (C.E. 618–907), under
who were required to pay fines might have to work the Tang Code with Commentaries (624), there were
off the sentence over a stipulated term of servitude. three mandatory automatic reviews of a sentence of
Those with servants or wealth could receive credit death before an execution could take place. Family
for work performed by others in their place. Males members could appeal any conviction all the way to
might redeem their relatives by performing services the emperor, but they were subject to the risk of
on their behalf. punishment if their appeal was ruled to lack merit.
Laws were intended not only to regulate com-
mon people but also to constrain officials. There Indian Legal Culture
were rules for keeping accounts, supervising subor- In the Dharmasastra religious tradition, there was
dinates, managing penal labor, conducting investi- no hierarchy among the caste tribunals, and village
gations, and appropriately dealing with the public. and marketplace councils had overlapping legal ju-
Officeholders who violated this code of conduct risdictions. Every social group was allowed to for-
were fined, lost their official positions, might be re- mulate and apply its own customs and conventions.
assigned to a bureaucratic post on a distant frontier, Law was not rigid but could be changed according
or, in extreme cases, could be executed. to fluctuating local needs and to achieve the best
The Chinese legal system depended on magis- interests of the local community. Ultimately, Indian
trates who were state bureaucrats rather than ap- courts made decisions consistent with the interests
pointees who had local roots. Private lawyers were of the most powerful among the community’s
prohibited, because they were considered to be so- members, whose prominence rested on a combi-
cial parasites whose involvement was more likely to nation of their political, economic, religious, and
result in further disputes than in a peaceful resolu- hereditary stature. Most local legal decisions re-
tion. The government magistrate was both the judge sulted in expulsions and boycotts rather than the
and prosecutor (Chinese law thought the accused fines or the severe physical penalties that were typi-
was guilty until proven innocent), but he was ex- cal of the Chinese court system. In theory, only a
pected to thoroughly investigate a case and to im- royal court could impose a death sentence.
pose a fair sentence. A case could be reopened if one A royal court of justice consisted of a king or em-
party claimed to be the victim of injustice. To negate peror or his designated agent assisted by learned
 CULTURE AND TRADITIONS | 39

Hindu and Buddhist clerics. Local justice could be literature and traditional classics. The newly afflu-
appealed to royal courts, where kings made practi- ent also patronized artists who, in the Chinese artis-
cal legal decisions based on their sense of common tic tradition, created landscape paintings, scroll art,
usage rather than a written code of law. For a case to and portraits for eastern Asian consumers; and in
go all the way to the royal court was highly unusual the southern Asian artistic tradition, local artists
and put the community at risk because the king’s produced religious and heroic art that was modeled
justice would not necessarily conform with the on that of neighboring Persia.
community’s interests. While the king was sup- Asian culture in C.E. 1500 was thus marked by
posed to pass judgments consistent with the Dhar- wider consistency among increasingly integrated
masastra and local traditions, ultimately kings made societies, as previously isolated regions and their
legal decisions based on their own best interests. populations linked into “national” cultures. There
Thus, it was likely that a community would choose was also wider cross-cultural linkage between
to reach a local resolution rather than having the China and its neighbors in Korea, Japan, and Viet-
outcome dictated by the king. nam. Similarly, the populations in southern and
Southeast Asia commonly shared in the Hindu and
MATERIAL CULTURE Buddhist traditions, and those in maritime
By C.E. 1500, mainstream Asian cultures had Southeast Asia were beginning to accept Islamic
adapted either the Indian or Chinese traditions, or cultural alternatives.
mixtures thereof. As Asian societies became more
centralized and commercialized, larger numbers of See also: China; Confucianism; Hinduism; India;
the local population were producing for the market, Japan; Korea; Language and Writing; Slavery;
allowing Asians to enjoy a higher standard of living. Society.
Residents of the new urban centers as well as their
networked rural hinterlands began to expect access FURTHER READING
to a wide variety of foods and material products. Chamberlayne, Y., II. China and Its Religious Tradi-
Among the consumables in high demand were In- tion. London: Allen and Unwin, 1993.
dian cotton and Chinese silk; Chinese, Thai, and Cohn, Bernard S. India: The Social Anthropology of a
Vietnamese porcelain ceramics; and Southeast Asian Civilization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
spices and exotic scented woods that had a variety of 1971.
culinary, medicinal, and ritual uses. Ebrey, Patricia B. China: A Cultural, Social, and Po-
Asians at this time expected to dress and eat bet- litical History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006.
ter, and to enjoy some degree of luxury that had pre- Hall, Kenneth R. Maritime Trade and State Develop-
viously been available only to societal elite. A higher ment in Early Southeast Asia. Honolulu: Univer-
percentage of public literacy, combined with the de- sity of Hawaii Press, 1985.
velopment of the Asian printing industry, made af- Varley, H. Paul. Japanese Culture. Honolulu: Univer-
fordable publications available to the general pub- sity of Hawaii Press, 2000.
lic, who were able to enjoy a wide range of popular
 G–K

Genghis Khan See China; Mongols.

Golden Horde
Western regions of the Mongol imperial confederacy that once connected the Middle East to China,
established by the conquests of the Mongolian conqueror Genghis Khan (r. C.E. 1206–1227). The
Golden Horde, which consisted of the Caspian steppes, the Crimea, the northern Caucasus, and
the Ural basin in what became western Russia, was home to a collection of seminomadic
tribesmen, farmers, and townspeople. This confederacy was financed by collecting taxes from
farmers and townspeople along the Silk Road across central Asia, which since the first century
B.C.E. had served as the overland trade connection between Europe and eastern Asia.

In contrast to the Mongols, who eventually Despite regular succession crises and the late
assimilated into the urban Chinese and Persian fourteenth-century victories of Samarkand-based
civilizations they conquered, the Turkish tribesmen Tamerlane (d. 1405), a Turkik-Mongol who claimed
who founded the Horde retained their semino- authority as the rightful descendent of Genghis
madic culture. Mongol chieftains (khans) ruled the Khan, the Horde remained in power until the reign
Horde indirectly, employing subservient native of Akhmar Khan (r. 1465–1481). In 1471–1472,
princes to carry out their orders. Mongol residents Prince Ivan III of Muscovy defeated Akhmar’s
(baskaks) and, later, nonresident representatives (po- troops, and Akhmar himself failed to recapture
soly) supervised the activities of the khans. Moscow in 1480. The last remnants of the Mongol
The Golden Horde reached the height of its realm collapsed in 1502, when Ivan allied with the
power under Allah Khan Ozbeg (r. 1313–1341). Dur- Crimean khan Mengli Girei to crush the Horde’s re-
ing his reign, the Mongol khans, baskaks, and po- maining centers of power.
soly converted to the Islamic religion, in part to The Golden Horde left a mixed legacy. It is often
strengthen their ties with their powerful Islamic portrayed as the “barbarous horde” in the tradition
Mamluk Egypt-based neighbors to the southwest. of Tamerlane, who collected 70,000 enemy heads
However, they remained tolerant of their Roman when he conquered the Persian city of Isfahan in
and Orthodox Christian residents rather than forc- 1387, and constructed towers made from the skulls
ing them to convert as well. of those he conquered on many other occasions.

40
 HINDUISM | 41

Although not gifted statesmen, the Golden Horde See also: China; Islam, Spread of; Mongols; Silk
khans provided leadership and united diverse tribes Road.
and multiethnic societies. Despite the end of Mon-
gol rule in China in 1368, the Horde maintained the FURTHER READING
Silk Road connection between the West and China Halpern, Charles. Russia and the Golden Horde: The
until 1453, when Constantinople, modern-day Istan- Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History.
bul in Turkey, fell to the Ottoman Turks. The Horde Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987.
were religiously and culturally tolerant, in contrast Ostrowski, Donald. Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-
to their Christian neighbors in the contemporary Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier,
West, who regularly persecuted Jews, Muslims, and 1304–1589. Cambridge: Cambridge University
sects considered heretical by the Catholic Church. Press, 1998.

Great Wall of China See Archeological Discoveries; Art and

Architecture; China.

Hinduism
Religious and societal tradition that originated in southern Asia about 1600 B.C.E. but did not
reach its inclusive form until the fourth century C.E., during the reign of the Gupta dynasty in
northern India (ca. C.E. 320–550). This evolution of Hinduism paralleled the development of
early Indian society from its seminomadic origins to its culmination in the Gupta age.

VEDIC ERA : RITUAL AND arms the Ksatriya class (warriors and rulers), his
SOCIAL ORDER thighs the Vaisya (economic specialists such as trad-
Hinduism began with the entry of Indo-Aryan semi- ers, landholders, and those who owned livestock),
nomads into northwestern India (modern-day Paki- and his feet the Sudra servants (those who labored
stan) from central Asia’s steppe grasslands around on behalf of the top three social ranks).
1600 B.C.E. The Indo-Aryans imposed their sacrifi- The Aryan varna, or class, structure became the
cial religion on previous temple-based fertility cults. basis of the later Indian caste system, which catego-
Aryans worshipped their family ancestors at rized the occupational subgroups appropriate to the
household altars and held large-scale public cele- four varnas. This hierarchical social model was
brations of celestial divinities, especially the war detailed in later teachings as compiled in the Hindu
god Indra. Aryan religion is described in the Vedas, codebooks, the Dharmasastras and Dharmasutras.
four texts that contain sacred hymns, the details of rit- These legal texts defined the dharma, or duties and
ual performances, and the essential Aryan beliefs that behavior, appropriate to each occupational rank.
would become the foundation of Hindu orthodoxy. In the initial Vedic era (ca. 1600–1200 B.C.E.)
The Rig Veda (ca. 1800–1300 B.C.E.) not only pro- the king represented divinity and sponsored the
vides the earliest Aryan hymns but also describes great sacrifices that ensured his society’s success.
the multiethnic agricultural society that formed As Vedic-era society became more settled (ca.
after the Aryan invasions. According to its hymns, 1200–800 B.C.E.), the ritual functions performed by
the original male (known as Parusa) was dismem- the king and the heads of prominent extended fam-
bered in a celestial sacrifice. His mouth became the ilies became the duties of a professional Brahmin
Brahmin class (priests and religious teachers), his priesthood. The Brahmin’s duties were detailed in
42 | HINDUISM

ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF HINDUISM

CA . 1800–1300 B.C.E. Composition of Rig Veda, 1000–600 B.C.E. Composition of the Upanishads;
early Aryan hymns describing basic religious spread of ideas of reincarnation, karma, and
concepts yogic asceticism; acquisition of knowledge as an
alternative focus to Brahmanical ritual; formal-
1600 B.C.E. Aryans migrate to India from central
ization of early caste system
Asia; Hinduism originates from mixture
of existing Aryan and Indian beliefs 500 B.C.E.–C.E. 200 Composition of the
Bhagavad Gita, which becomes basis of
CA .1600–1200 B.C.E. Early Vedic era; Aryan
Hindu bhakti devotional tradition
Hindu kings rule over what is now India
CA . C.E.320–550 Gupta dynasty rules northern
1200–CA. 800 B.C.E. Professional Brahmin
India; Hinduism achieves modern form
priesthood assumes ritual functions once
performed by India’s Hindu kings and family heads

sacred texts, which described the ever more elab- of as a source of creative energy rather than as a di-
orate ceremonies necessary to ensure the success of vine being. Later Hindu art sometimes depicted
Hindu society. The kings were now the potentially Brahman as a cosmic egg, from which comes life.
forceful upholders of dharma (dutiful behavior) From Brahman come the individual souls (atman)
and, in partnership with the priesthood, were the that take living form as humans or animals. Accord-
guardians of the social and sacred order. ing to the divine plan, each soul enters the realm of
Subsequent religious texts debated the appropri- humanity with a duty (dharma) that is appropriate
ate behavior of a king. The Dharmasastras (“the laws to its place in the hierarchy of existence. Thus, a la-
of dutiful behavior”) suggested that the best kings borer should not perform the duties of a priest; nor
provided leadership by awe-inspiring moral exam- should a priest perform the daily tasks of the la-
ple rather than by directly engaging in public activi- borer. The point is that an individual should fulfill
ties. In contrast, the Arthasastra (“the laws of self- one’s appropriate dharma; not to do so would jeop-
preservation”) argued that successful kings needed ardize universal (divinely ordained) order. Actions
to be more aggressive, leading their troops to con- are supposed to be those appropriate to one’s
quer new territories, defending against invaders, dharma, but ignorance and illusion lead to im-
and directly policing the social order. proper behavior, or sin.
Because of this moral pollution, the initially pure
THE UPANISHADS: soul is no longer able to return to the purity of
KNOWLEDGE AND SALVATION Brahman, and thus the self (the soul) is plunged
The literate, landed aristocracy that emerged into a series of rebirths. Moral and immoral acts
between 1000 and 600 B.C.E. asserted its capacity thus have consequences, resulting in a series of re-
for religious activity rather than depending on the births. The soul moves from one unfulfilled rebirth
ritual services of the Brahmin priest. The Upani- to another, in either human or animal form, as a re-
shad sacred texts presented their case, proposing sult of merit or demerit accumulated in prior exis-
that knowledge was an alternative to ritual as one tences. Death is not tragically final but marks the
pursued ultimate liberation from the realm of hu- passage of the soul from one temporary form of ex-
manity. In the Upanishads, the universe had its ori- istence to another in its ongoing quest for purity
gin in a creative force, Brahman, which was thought and, therefore, salvation.
 HINDUISM | 43

The Hindu religion has its roots

in the animistic beliefs of
ancient India and central Asia.
Many of the gods in the Hindu
pantheon have counterparts
among the nature spirits
revered in other animistic
traditions. (Harvey Lloyd/
Taxi/Getty Images)

The Upanishads provide philosophical justifica- Later Hindu texts (The Laws of Manu, the Yoga
tion for caste and mandatory acceptance of one’s Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita) that elaborate on the
place in the social hierarchy. They also provide a Upanishads portray knowledge as an instrument for
conceptual hierarchy that includes nonhumans. liberation from the cycles of rebirth. The conse-
This explains why Hindus are frequently vegetar- quence of liberation is the soul’s return to Brahman.
ians; to kill and eat animals, which may possess Knowledge is achieved by devoted physical and
the soul of an ancestor, is considered murder and mental exercise (yoga) to eliminate the material and
cannibalism. intellectual attachments that lead to illusion.
44 | HINDUISM

Only members of the three upper classes might moral action is the ultimate pathway of devotion
achieve salvation at the conclusion of this lifetime to Krisna alone as God.
by successfully passing through the four stages of The Gita episodes became the basis of the Hindu
life: student, householder, hermit, and ascetic. The bhakti devotional tradition. Followers of this tradi-
ideal ascetic is the meditating intellectual who has tion had an obligation to fulfill their dharma, but
withdrawn totally from society. By returning to the they did so through a commitment to moral behav-
universal essence of Brahman, the permanent self ior rather than being consumed in the service of
ceases to exist and once again becomes part of the self or, even worse, taking excessive pleasure in
energy mass from which new souls will come. one’s actions. Rather than ritual or asceticism, the
bhakti worshipper committed to moral behavior,
THE BHAGAVAD GITA AND devoted service to God, and a loving relationship in
BHAKTI DEVOTIONALISM which pure love of God wipes out all bad karma (the
In contrast to the ornate ritual traditions of the force generated by a worshipper’s actions).
Vedas and Brahmanas, and the high-level intellectu- Bhakti devotional movements focused on the di-
alism of the Upanishads, Hinduism developed a vine Siva (the “destroyer” and lord of fertility) and
popular alternative. This alternative way is repre- Visnu, the “preserver,” who, with Brahma, the god
sented in the Bhagavad Gita, a subtext of the evolv- of “creation” (a personification of the Upanishadic
ing Mahabharata epic tale that had its origin in the Brahman cosmic force), form the Hindu divine
Vedic age. This epic poem, which tells the tale of the trinity (Trimurti). Each has avataras (male, female,
battle between two groups of Aryan warriors, was and animal personas) and their subordinate divine
composed between 500 B.C.E. and C.E. 200. In it, the (for example, Ganesa, Siva’s elephant-headed son).
warrior hero Arjuna anguishes over his duty to kill. Bhakti tradition does not conceptualize salvation as
Lord Krisna intervenes, coming to earth as the di- the achievement of nonexistence, or a passage to a
vine persona of Visnu, one of the three supreme heaven, but as a release in which the devotee be-
Hindu divinities, and assuming human form as comes absolutely One-with-the-Lord, through an in-
Arjuna’s charioteer and spiritual guide. tense love in which two become one.
The Gita is a dialogue in which Krisna provides
spiritual and philosophical guidance to the trou- See also: Culture and Traditions; India; Java;
bled Arjuna. The focal theme is unselfish action Religion; Society.
(or service), or disciplined action, in the perfor-
mance of one’s duty without expectation of re- FURTHER READING
ward. In the Gita, Krisna advises Arjuna to fight Klostermeier, Klaus, K. A Survey of Hinduism. 2nd ed.
in the battle in performance of his duty as a war- Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
rior but to remain detached from the conse- Lipner, J.J. Hindus. New York: Routledge, 1993.
quences. The practice of karma yoga in daily life Michaels, Axel. Hinduism. Translated by Barbara
makes the individual fit through action (in Harshav. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
contrast to ascetic nonaction and meditation); Press, 2003.

Huns
Nomadic pastoral populations that, in the fourth century C.E., moved from the central Asian
steppe grasslands into northern Iran and modern-day Afghanistan. Called Xiongnu by the
Chinese, Chionites by the Greeks, and Hunas by Indians, the Huns launched a series of attacks in
the fifth and sixth centuries C.E. against the settled agrarian societies of the Roman West,
Persia, and Gupta India.
 HUNS | 45

This image depicts Attila the Hun (ca. C.E. 406–453), known as
the “Scourge of God,” whose nomadic mounted warriors
devastated eastern Europe and reached the gates of Rome in
the mid-fourth century C.E. According to tradition, Pope Leo I
(d. C.E. 461) convinced Attila to spare Rome and abandon his
invasion of Italy. (HIP/Art Resource, NY)

GREAT LIVES

Attila the Hun—“Scourge of God”?

Western history and tradition refers to Attila (ca. visited Attila’s camp in 448 on a diplomatic mission
C.E. 406–453), the fearsome leader of seminomadic accompanying the Byzantine emperor Theodosius
steppe warriors known as Huns, as the “Scourge of II, left a record that is filled with admiration for At-
God.” His name is associated with cruelty and sav- tila. He praises Attila’s personal stature and accom-
age barbarism. Some of this negative portrayal, plishments as an able general who had united the
however, results from the biased writings of con- various Germanic tribes and led them to impressive
temporary Romans who were subject to his con- victories over the previously invincible Romans.
quests, and those who held him accountable for Priscus also reports meeting with an eastern Roman
the destruction of Roman civilization. Later writers captive resident in Attila’s stockade residence, who
conflated Attila with other steppe warlords such as had become content to live among the multiethnic
Genghis Khan (r. C.E. 1206–1227), who also had a residents of Attila’s base and had no desire to return
reputation for savagery and bloodlust. to the Roman realm.
By contrast, the Roman historian Priscus, who
46 | HUNS

The most famous of the Hun leaders was Attila straight sword and compound bow, and the strange
(ca. C.E. 406–453), who led the western Hun hordes, custom of artificially elongating their skulls upward,
then based in Eastern Europe, to victories against which is depicted in their coinage portraits.
the Roman Empire. After his death, large segments Hun warriors were expert horsemen; each kept
of the Hun horde settled in Pannonia, east of the several small, tough horses. Warriors in battle
Danube River in modern eastern Austria and Hun- would make quick cavalry charges, shooting arrows
gary. Shortly after settling in this region, the Hun at their enemies, then retreating to mount a new
Empire fell apart as better-organized and militaris- horse. Using his string of horses, a Hun warrior
tic steppe peoples, including early Bulgarians from could continue charging indefinitely. Opponents
the East, moved into the region. feared the Huns so much that many paid tribute
In Asia, several waves of eastern Hun invasions to avoid being the target of Hun attacks. Until the
were defeated by the Persian Sassanid Empire in time of the Mongols, most Eurasian populations
the early fourth century. In 392, another Hun horde saw the Huns as the ultimate symbol of ferocious
seized the regions of Bactria and Gandhara on the barbarian cruelty and deceit.
northwestern border of India. From there, they Tributary payments by their neighbors, use and
launched regular attacks against the Gupta rulers sales of war captive slaves, and the collection of ran-
on India’s northwestern frontier from the mid-fifth som on war prisoners subsidized a comfortable life-
to the mid-sixth centuries. The Gupta kings suc- style. Huns lived most of their lives in tents, some
cessfully prevented Hun armies from entering the quite large, that were lavishly furnished. They
Ganges River plain, but the continuing effort traded horses and furs for grain, weapons, and lux-
drained the Gupta realm’s resources and led to the uries such as Chinese silk.
end of the dynasty by about 550.
The original language of the Huns has been lost; See also: India.
following their invasions, Huns absorbed the lan-
guages of the regions they conquered or settled. The FURTHER READING
eastern Huns used the Bactrian script and language, Grousset, Rene. The Empire of the Steppes: A History
which was a mixture of the Greek and Persian lan- of Central Asia. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
guages. They also imitated Persian coinage, and fol- University Press, 1988.
lowed several of their predecessors’ cultural prac- Thompson, E.A. The Huns. Cambridge, MA: Black-
tices, including cremation of the dead, use of the well, 1999.

India
A country that is a critical center in the development of Asian civilization, India has served as a
cultural innovator, a recipient of external culture, and the source of cultural inspiration for other
countries of the region and the world.
Before C.E. 1500, a series of invasions and migra- Geographical and climatic differences between
tions by seminomadic outsiders from central Asia northern India and the remainder of the subconti-
and neighboring Persia into the Indian subcontinent nent influenced India’s early history. Northern
played a significant role in laying the foundation of India’s broad river plains, drained by the Indus,
modern Indian society. By 1500, these indigenous Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers, supported the
and foreign groups had intermixed to produce an In- concentrated settlement of farming populations,
dian society characterized by wide regional variation who provided a stable economic base to sustain
in ethnic, cultural, and linguistic traditions. India’s early empires, the Mauryans (ca. 400–180
 INDIA | 47

MILESTONES IN ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

CA . 2500–1800 B.C.E. Early urban centers arise as state religious tradition; Gupta rule consid-
in Indus Valley ered the “classical age” of ancient Indian culture

CA . 1600 B.C.E. Seminomadic Aryans from C.E. 550–606 Repeated invasion attempts by
southern Russia migrate to India and impose seminomadic Huns leads to fall of Gupta
authority over existing populations empire and period of political disorder

CA . 1600–600 B.C.E. Mixing of Aryan and Indian C.E. 606–647 Military leader Harsa briefly rees-
cultures produces foundations of Hindu reli- tablishes central authority in India
gious beliefs and caste system of social stratifi-
C.E. 647–1010 North India reverts to period of
cation
regional rule by states controlled by military
CA . 600 B.C.E. Regional kingdoms begin to leaders; now south Indian states emerge
emerge in northern India’s Ganges River
C.E. 1010–1206 India comes under the rule of a
plain
series of early Muslim rulers
CA . 400–180 B.C.E. Mauryan regional clan con-
C.E.1206 First dynasty of the powerful Delhi
quers its competitors to establish rule over India
Sultanate established by Qutb-ud-din Aibak
326 B.C.E. Macedonian king Alexander III,
C.E.1206–1290 Slave dynasty, successors of
the Great, invades Pakistan and western
Qutb-ud-din Aibak, rules India
India; his survivors establish Indo-Greek
states in the northwest region C.E. 1290–1320 Reign of the Khilji Turks

CA . 273–232 B.C.E. Mauryan Empire reaches it C.E. 1320–1413 Reign of the Tughlaq Turks
height under Asoka, who adopts Buddhism as
C.E.1336–1565 Powerful Vijayanagara Hindu
the favored religious tradition of the state
military monarchy in south India
CA . 180 B.C.E.–C.E. 320 Mauryan Empire
C.E. 1414–1451 Reign of the Sayyid Turks
collapses; India enters prolonged period
of division and rule by competing C.E. 1451–1526 Reign of the Lodi Turks
regional kingdoms
C.E. 1526 Afghan leader Babur overthrows the
CA . C.E. 320–550 Gupta kings establish control Delhi Sultanate and establishes Mughal dynasty
over north Indian Empire and adopt Hinduism (1526–1857)

B.C.E.)and the Guptas (ca. C.E. 320–550). The rivers entered India through the Hindu Kush mountain
fostered economic and social exchanges, ensuring a passes. They imposed their authority over India’s
more or less common culture among those who settled agriculturalists, the remnants of a net-
lived within the river system. worked urbanized society in northwestern India’s
Indus Valley (2500–1800 B.C.E.). During the next
ARYANS, VEDIC S, AND 1,200 years, the nomads mixed with India’s indig-
MAURYANS enous peoples, as settled agricultural society gradu-
Around 1600 B.C.E., migrating seminomadic ally spread from west to east in the Ganges River
Aryans from southern Russia’s steppe grasslands plain of northern India.
48 | INDIA

Linguistically, the Aryan’s Sanskrit language tolerant of social diversity than was the rigid caste-
displaced the previous use of Dravidian languages based order advocated in the Dharmasastra texts, and
in northern India, but preexisting Dravidian cultures allowed Asoka to culturally unite the diverse popula-
remained in widespread use in southern India. Reli- tions that were now included in his vast domain.
giously, Aryan worship of male celestial divinities During his reign, Asoka supported the develop-
mixed with local worship of female fertility deities; ment of Mauryan cities and promoted trade, imple-
these female divinities became the wives and female mented a universal law code and a realmwide judi-
companions of the Aryan gods. The cultural mix of cial system, and initiated a partnership with the
Aryan culture with local culture, a process called Buddhist church. Asoka sent Buddhist monks as
Sanskritization, also resulted in the Aryan religion’s his personal agents throughout north India, to min-
inclusion of assorted local animistic spirits: ances- ister to local populations while tending to the state’s
tors, animals (cattle, birds, snakes), and various natu- business. Monks also served as his international en-
ral forces (wind, water, fire). The end product was voys to neighboring realms. Asoka was widely ideal-
the variety of divine beings that are still worshiped ized throughout Asia following his death as the cak-
as the diverse personalities, incarnations, and subor- ravartin, the universal monarch whose personal
dinate deities of Visnu, Siva, and the Buddha. achievements and high ethical standards were the
Socially, the mixing of populations resulted in model for other kings.
the Indian caste system, which developed from the
hierarchical ordering of Aryan society. Priests NEW INVASIONS, THE GUPTAS,
and religious teachers were Brahmins; kings and AND THE DELHI SULTANATE
their elite warriors were Ksatriya; commercial spe- After the Mauryan Empire split into regional king-
cialists, landholding elite, those who controlled live- doms around 180 B.C.E., India was subject to new
stock were Vaisya; and the supportive worker/labor- invasion attempts, migrations, and cultural infu-
ers were Sudra. sions from the northwest until C.E. 320. This era
By about 600 B.C.E., regional kingdoms began to resulted in the mixture of newly arrived and exist-
emerge in northern India’s Ganges River plain. ing cultures on its modern-day Pakistan frontier.
These were dominated by landholding family clans Among those who had an impact were the rem-
that had appropriated the new mixed culture. By nants of the armies of Alexander III, the Great, col-
400 B.C.E., the Mauryan clan had conquered its lectively called the Indo-Greeks (180 B.C.E.–C.E. 10).
competitors, ruling from the urban center they They had remained behind as rulers of Greek colo-
called Pataliputra (present-day Patna). Their realm nies on India’s northwestern frontier after
was located in the strategic central Ganges River Alexander’s 326 B.C.E. victory against Mauryan
plain, where its rulers could control communica- forces in what is now Pakistan. The Indo-Greeks in-
tion networks throughout the subcontinent. itially competed for influence with the central
Mauryan India reached its peak under the em- Asia–based Scythians, then with the Iran-based Par-
peror Asoka (r. ca. 273–232 B.C.E.), a great military thians to the first century C.E., and later with the
conqueror and social innovator. Asoka initially Afghanistan-based Kushana, who held parts of the
fought against the regions bordering his realm, northern Ganges River plain from C.E. 105–250.
notably in 265–264 B.C.E. against the Kalinga During this transitional era, Greek and Persian
realm on India’s eastern coast, south of the Ganges religious and artistic heritage influenced India’s
River mouth. He annexed Kalinga after what his evolving Buddhist and Hindu traditions. This was
inscriptions estimate to be 100,000 Kalinga deaths, especially the case as Greek tradition reinforced
then resettled Kalinga’s remaining populations in his local adoption and adaptation of icon worship, evi-
territorial core. Asoka’s inscriptions indicate that he dent in the earliest statuary representations of the
converted to Buddhism shortly after his victory, and Buddha in India’s Gandharan art. It portrays the
that he successfully promoted the faith’s socially in- Buddha in Greek dress and with Greek physique,
clusive religious doctrines. Buddhism was more featuring long, dark hair and a mustache.
 INDIAN OCEAN TRADE | 49

The origins of the Gupta Empire (ca. C.E. 320–550) ways. Between 1010 and 1525, a series of Muslim
are vague, although historical research suggests dynasties rose and fell. In 1206, the Ghurid war-
that the Gupta kings originated in the Bengal region. rior Qutb-ud-din Aibak (r. 1206–1210) took Delhi
They established their empire by conquering the old and founded the first of several dynasties known
Magadha political center of the Mauryan kings in the as the Dehli Sultanate. Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s suc-
central Ganges River plain region. The Gupta kings, cessors, collectively known as the Slave dynasty,
who claimed to be the heirs to the Mauryans, restored reigned from 1206 to 1290. In turn, the Khilji
centralized authority, once again centered at the Turks reigned from 1290 to 1320, followed by the
Mauryan capital city of Pataliputra. Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Sayyid (1414–1451), and
Marking a break with the ultimately failed Maur- the Lodi Turkish rulers (1451–1526). Finally, in
yan past, Gupta kings patronized Hinduism. By the 1526, the Afghanistan-based Babur, an Afghan heir
early fourth century C.E., Hinduism had developed to the Mongols, defeated the Lodi armies and in-
as an inclusive mix of traditional Brahmanical ritual itiated the Mughal dynasty (1526–1857).
and scholarship and popular devotional worship of Some scholars characterize the Delhi Sultanate
Hindu divinities. Gupta India is considered India’s as a succession of Turkish dynasties that ruled
classical age, marked by its rulers’ patronage of over largely Hindu subject populations in north-
Hinduism and its religious and literary accomplish- ern India, exacting taxes in return for protection.
ments. The Gupta age witnessed the composition of Despite this seeming separation between ruler
the highest quality Sanskrit language poetry, litera- and ruled, Muslims and Hindus began a produc-
ture, drama, and religious texts. tive intercultural dialogue typical of the earlier
Gupta rule ended around C.E. 550, as a result of eras of cultural integration. The key difference is
the more than 100-year drain of public resources that the Muslim rulers allowed Hindus greater op-
for the defense of India’s northwestern frontier portunity to retain their cultural traditions, as long
against the repeated invasion attempts by semino- as they submitted to Islamic sovereignty.
madic eastern Huns. There was a brief renewal of
centralized authority under the military leader See also: Archeological Discoveries; Buddhism;
Harsa in the early seventh century (r. C.E. 606– Hinduism; Huns; Islam to Asia, Spread of;
647). Harsa claimed that he had restored the Monsoons; Society.
Gupta realm, but his was a military rather than a
civilian administration. After his death, north FURTHER READING
India once again lapsed into regional states domi- Basham, A.L. The WonderThat Was India. New York:
nated by similar martial kings or chiefs. Grove Press, 1959.
At the turn of the millennium, north India faced Keay, John. India: A History. New York: Grove Press,
a new onslaught from the northwest by Muslim in- 2000.
vaders. Most of these were Turks from central Asia Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York:
who entered India via India’s northwestern passage- Oxford University Press, 2005.

Indian Ocean Trade

Commercial contact that linked the cultures along the coast of maritime Asia (India, Southeast
Asia, China, Korea, and Japan) long before the arrival of Europeans in the middle of the second
millennium C.E. By the first century B.C.E., the peoples and cultures of the Indian Ocean and the
adjacent regions to its east were linked in a trade network that extended from the port cities of
the eastern coast of the African continent all the way to Japan and Korea.
50 | INDIAN OCEAN TRADE

INTERNATIONAL TRADE ROUTES OF THE PEOPLES OF ASIA, CA. C.E. 1500

The multiethnic trade centers of Southeast great integrated trade network rooted in the Road, which connected China to northern
Asia and the coastal regions of China, Indian Ocean. The alternative east-west India, Persia, and the Arab capital at
Korea, and Japan functioned as part of a overland route was known as the Silk Baghdad.

Initially, the greatest volume of maritime trade silk, incense, and spices, also made their way to
took place between the Middle East and India, as Rome and other locations in the West.
China’s trade with the West depended more on the China’s earliest interactions with India inten-
overland Silk Road until the early third century C.E. sified after the fall of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.–
Maritime traders brought India’s pepper, cotton C.E. 220). At this time the China’s elites, many of
textiles, and bronze statuary as far west as the whom had relocated to southern China to avoid the
Roman Empire. Indian statuary was even made to chaos of the north, sought an alternative trade route
the specifications of Roman consumers. Exotic to the West after the collapse of the Han dynasty
products from Southeast Asia and China, such as rendered the central Asian Silk Road unsafe. They
 INDIAN OCEAN TRADE | 51

also sought to gain direct access to the homeland of a single year. Traders would sell their goods to local
Buddhism as the source of religious texts, religious intermediaries at their destination ports, who
artifacts, and ritual objects, and as a pilgrimage would then hold and resell them to merchants ar-
center where Chinese monks could study at the riving later from other regional markets. For exam-
foremost centers of Buddhist scholarship. Later ple, local intermediaries traded Middle Eastern
Tang (C.E. 618–907) and Song (C.E. 960–1279) glassware and Indian cotton textiles supplied by
governments took greater interest in commercial southern Asia–based seafarers for ceramics, silk,
rather than religious exchanges with the regions to and spices brought by Chinese and Southeast
China’s south. This interest stemmed from peri- Asian merchants.
odic insecurities along the old Silk Road across cen- In the early fifteenth century C.E., the new Ming
tral Asia. Unsafe traveling conditions resulted in emperors, who had come to power in China in 1368,
regular market shortages that left Chinese mer- sent the eunuch admiral Zheng He and his fleet of
chants unable to satisfy the aristocracy’s continu- Chinese battleships to assert China’s interests
ing demand for Western products. across the entire maritime network (1405–1433).
The eleventh century witnessed a surge in the Zheng He eliminated pirates and promised military
volume of Indian Ocean trade, thanks largely to the assistance and continued Chinese support for local
regional stability established over the Middle East political regimes that guaranteed the regular flow of
by Muslim Abbasid caliphs (until 1258) and Seljuk international products to China’s ports. He also
Turks (1037–1219). Middle Eastern merchants reinstated the Chinese tributary trade system,
flooded the Indian Ocean, seeking Asian goods in wherein Indian Ocean countries sent periodic em-
exchange for their own. This, combined with a bassies to China’s courts to present diplomatic
stable China market, resulted in southern India and “gifts” of their prize marketplace commodities. In
Sri Lanka becoming new international commercial return, the Chinese emperor bestowed honorific
hubs, filling roles as strategic intermediaries in the material symbols and official proclamations that
trade between the Middle East and Southeast Asia. confirmed the local rulers’ authority. Partly in re-
In Southeast Asia, Java became prominent because sponse to these Ming initiatives, the fifteenth cen-
of its central role in providing international access to tury in Asia witnessed substantial increases in trade
the spices of the eastern Indonesia archipelago, volume, participants, and the diversity of traded
then known as the Spice Islands. commodities. This prosperity attracted the attention
By this time, regional centers began to function of Europeans, whose desire to acquire Asia’s exotic
as part of one great, integrated Indian Ocean trade commodities resulted in Europe’s sixteenth century
network. The increased volume of trade attracted a “Age of Discovery.”
multiethnic community of trade specialists that in-
cluded assorted Middle Easterners, Indians, South- See also: Buddhism; China; Java; Melaka;
east Asians, and Chinese. All the sojourning trad- Monsoons; Silk Road; Spice Trade; Zheng He.
ers made seasonal voyages using the Asian
monsoon winds, which blew from southeast to FURTHER READING
northwest in June through August and then re- Abu-Lughod, Janet. Before European Hegemony: The
versed, blowing from northwest to southeast in De- World System 1250–1350. New York: Oxford Uni-
cember through March. versity Press, 1991.
Rather than navigate the entire length of the Sen, Tansen. Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The
trade route, which might take two to three years, Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400.
merchants specialized in shorter voyages in one Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2003.
segment, sailing to and from an adjacent region in
52 | ISLAM, SPREAD OF

Islam, Spread of
The introduction of Islamic religion and culture from the Middle East, which profoundly affected
the development of Asian civilizations from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries C.E. While
military conquest brought Islam to India, trade spread the faith throughout the rest of Asia.
Asian merchants and rulers initially adopted Ocean maritime route. They established small
Islam because of the commercial advantage it residential communities in major Chinese cities
brought in dealing with Muslim traders. Only later throughout the Tang and Song (C.E. 960–1279) dy-
did Asian rulers oblige their subjects to convert to nasties. They became especially prominent under
Islam. In some states, Islamic law and ritual also the Mongol Yuan dynasty (C.E. 1279–1368), al-
validated a society’s break with a discredited Hindu though Yuan Muslims remained a small percentage
or Buddhist past. Islam also served to legitimize of China’s overall population. While the Yuan offi-
and unify new states arising among tribal societies, cially supported the Buddhist religion, their ruling
such as the Mongols, which had no prior tradition elite included many Muslims with central Asian
of central authority. and Middle Eastern roots.
In the early fourteenth century, factions of the
CONVERSIONS Mongol alliance based in central Asia established
The initial Asian conversions to Islam took place an autonomous Islamic confederacy known as
following the Umayyad Arab conquest of Persia in the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde’s conversion
C.E. 651, after which most Persians converted from to Islam reinforced its independence from other
Zoroastrianism to Islam. Persian merchants and Mongol tribes and established the foundation for
missionaries traveling the central Asian Silk Road an alliance with the Mamluk Turks, who bordered
trade route through Afghanistan found resident the Horde to the southwest.
Turkish tribesmen receptive to the new faith, in part As in China and India, small numbers of
because of the political and economic advantages urban-based Southeast Asian rulers, elite, and
that conversion provided relative to their Islamic commercial specialists converted to Islam. Local
neighbors: politically, those who shared the Islamic populations were slower to accept Islam because
faith were likely to negotiate and form alliances of their strong traditional loyalties to Hinduism,
rather than wage war on each other, and to offer a Buddhism, and local animistic faiths. Although
mutual defense against non-Muslims, and Islamic Muslim traders from the Middle East, southern
law forbade those who shared in the faith from tak- Asia, and China traded actively in Southeast Asia
ing advantage of a fellow Muslim in economic by the eighth century C.E., the first Southeast
transactions, which was reassuring to long-distance Asian coastal state to convert to Islam was
sojourners trading with strangers. By 661, the cen- Samudra-Pasai in northeastern Sumatra, in 1267.
tral Asian caravan hub of Samarkand was already a Brunei in northeastern Borneo followed suit in
noted center of Islamic scholarship, and soon other 1365, as did Melaka on the southwestern Malay Pe-
Islamic retreats appeared at major stopovers on the ninsula (1415) and Demak in northwestern Java
overland trade route between the Islamic Middle (1475). In each of these port-states, Muslim rulers
East and China. reigned over non-Muslim societies, and likely con-
Multiethnic Muslim traders first reached China verted to Islam to encourage sojourning Muslim
during the Tang dynasty (C.E. 618–907), arriving traders to transact their business in their port of
either by the overland Silk Road or the Indian trade rather than in that of a non-Muslim competi-
 ISLAM, SPREAD OF | 53

tor. However, conversion may have also been due their most valued societal practices and continued
to genuine commitment. their worship of traditional spirits, which they be-
In the early eleventh century, meanwhile, Mus- lieved were subordinate to the supreme Islamic di-
lim tribesmen from the central Asian steppes in- vine being, Allah.
vaded India and established Islamic rule there; in The Islamic dietary restrictions against eating
1206, Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the first dynasty pork were especially troubling in China and
of the Delhi Sultanate, which lasted, under succes- Southeast Asia, where pork was a dietary staple.
sive Islamic dynasties, until 1526. This succession In southern Asia and China, Muslim cultural prac-
of Turkish dynasties ruled over largely Hindu sub- tices regarding women reinforced preexisting lim-
ject populations in northern India from massive itations on women’s activities outside the home—
walled fortresses. Both Muslim and Hindu commu- and went even further by suggesting that women
nities in India adapted the Islamic artistic traditions should be veiled as well as secluded. Islamic doc-
of Persia, most notably in the development of “Per- trine was used to legitimize the subordination of
sian miniature” religious and secular art. women, to assert that a woman’s primary duty was
to marry and raise children (especially boys), and
CULTURAL CHANGE to assert that a woman’s principal spiritual duty
There is no single Asian Islamic tradition. was subservience to her husband. At the same
Throughout the continent, Islamic thought, prac- time, however, Islam brought a new emphasis on
tice, and ritual adapted to local circumstances and the equality of all before God, which had previ-
cultures. Asian Islamic societies did not develop in ously been advocated by Buddhists and in
isolation, however, as Asia-based clerics regularly Hinduism’s bhakti tradition. Islam’s orthodox re-
participated in the theological debates among lead- strictions were not usually applied in Southeast
ing Islamic scholars in Mecca and other major reli- Asia, where women regularly participated in the
gious centers of the Middle East. Initially, conver- marketplace.
sion to Islam may have been a token gesture Moreover, the influence of Islam in Asia to the
undertaken for economic, political, or social bene- sixteenth century remained uneven. Northern
fit. In addition to the noted ruling elite, the other India’s majority Hindu population was subject to
major initial conversions took place among people the authority of the Delhi Sultanate ruling elite.
of previously low social stature, who viewed their Central Asia’s steppe populations had widely con-
conversion to be a means to enhance their opportu- verted to forms of Islam that allowed them to retain
nities for personal gain. most of their previous cultural practices. China had
The earliest Islamic scholars who traveled to cen- small Muslim communities that were largely com-
tral Asia, India, and Southeast Asia found the mys- posed of Islamic merchants and artisans who
tical traditions of Islam especially compatible with lived in most of its major urban centers. Southeast
existing religious values, and thus promoted a mod- Asia had several conversions among elite members
ified version of Islam known as Sufism. The Sufi of its most prominent maritime trade centers, but
tradition blended Islamic and local values to win as yet Islam had few nonelite followers there.
converts, rather than promote the more legalistic Nevertheless, Islam was having a cultural impact
versions of Islam (Sunni and Shi’a). In Java, for ex- on Asia, including the rise of new Islamic states,
ample, the form of Islam that took root placed less the importance of Islamic law as it reinforced
emphasis on Islamic doctrine, but instead Asian trade, and local interest in Islam as a new
stressed the role of divinely empowered saints who monotheistic alternative to the existing Asian
allied with Java’s new Islamic sovereigns to unite religious faiths.
the natural and supernatural worlds. Java’s Islam
focused on rulers and clerics performing magical See also: Golden Horde; India; Java; Religion; Silk
court-based Islamic ritual. Local converts retained Road; Spice Trade.
54 | ISLAM, SPREAD OF

FURTHER READING History of Central Asia 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700. New
Eaton, Richard M., ed. India’s Islamic Tradition, York: DaCapo Press, 2001.
711–1750. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, Ricklefs, M.C. Mystic Synthesis in Java: A History of Is-
2003. lamization from the Fourteenth to the Early Nineteenth
Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the Steppe: A Military Centuries. Norwalk, CT: EastBridge Press, 2006.

Japan
East Asian island nation that evolved from a primitive hunting-and-gathering culture into a
regional political and economic power between 1000 B.C.E. and C.E 1500. Japan’s earliest history
was influenced by extensive trade and cultural interactions with Korea, which was Japan’s point
of contact with the more advanced civilization in China.

YAYOI CIVILIZATION tion, and incorporation of clan heads as government

Diverse and widely dispersed Japanese hunting, ministers. The ruling Yamato clan subordinated the
gathering, and fishing societies are collectively re- other uji and claimed ultimate authority based on its
ferred to as Jomon culture. Named for their distinc- direct descent from the sun goddess Amaterasu.
tive cord-marked pottery, these societies date from Early Japanese emperors served as supreme priests,
roughly 10,000 B.C.E. to 300 B.C.E. The Yayoi period who recognized and ranked the local shrines that
(300 B.C.E.–ca. C.E. 300), named for the town near were subordinate to the imperial shrine.
modern-day Tokyo where archeologists first Following a war over imperial succession in 587,
discovered distinctive pottery of that era, wit- the Soga uji clan took over the day-to-day affairs of
nessed the introduction of Korean sawah (wet rice), the early state. The Yamato emperors became fig-
bronze, and iron cultures into Japan. During the ureheads who spent most of their time performing
Kofun period (ca. C.E. 300–538), elite tribal clans, state Shinto rituals, while the uji clans were as-
known as uji, achieved dominance over rural rice- signed specific tasks in the new imperial adminis-
cultivating peasants. The period is named for dis- tration, for example, revenue management, rituals,
tinctive keyhole-shaped raised Kofun tombs, some and warfare.
as large as 440 yards (400 m) in length, located on
the eastern Kinai plain on the Japanese island of YAMATO JAPAN
Honshu, between the modern-day cities of Osaka Prince Shotoku (r. C.E. 593–621) promoted the
and Nagoya. spread of Buddhism in Japan as a superior new
The uji clans legitimized their supremacy by magic that was successful in contemporary China.
claiming that they were the sole intermediaries During the period and following, the Chinese Sui
between humans and powerful spirits known as (C.E. 581–618) and Tang (C.E. 618–907) courts were
kami. The Shinto religion, which evolved during this blending Buddhism with the Confucian tradition.
time, ascribed great power to the kami, which in- They successfully reconstructed their Chinese state,
cluded the spirits of departed relatives and divine which had not had an emperor since the fall of the
spirits that animated natural forces. The uji claimed Han dynasty in C.E. 220.
that only they could influence these spiritual forces Shotoku felt that Buddhism played a key role in
to protect their communities. By about C.E. 400, the the renewed Chinese Confucian social order that
Yamato clan, centered in the region surrounding the promoted the centralization of political power. With
modern city of Nara, forged a network among local Shotoku’s encouragement, clan leaders in Japan
uji clans through a combination of conquest, absorp- competed with one another to erect lavish local
 JAPAN | 55

MILESTONES IN ANCIENT JAPANESE HISTORY

CA .10,000–300 B.C.E. Early hunting-and- C.E.784 Capital moved to Kyoto to distance

gathering culture known as Jomon inhabits government from influence of Nara-based Bud-
Japan dhist sects

CA .300 B.C.E.–C.E. 300 Yayoi culture marks C.E. 794–1185 Kyoto imperial era; imperial
transition to settled agriculture in Japan government becomes increasingly
isolated from affairs in the countryside,
CA . C.E.300–538 Kofun period; elite tribal clans
leading to rise of local military leaders
achieve dominance over rural rice-cultivating
known as shoguns
peasants; Shinto religion originates during this
time; named after the mound-shaped tombs C.E. 1185–1333 Kamakura Shogunate wields
that were built for the elite class at this time ultimate power; exercises authority through re-
gional samurai, or warrior lords
CA . C.E.400 Yamato clan establishes authority
over rival clans and forms first Japanese C.E. 1274 AND 1281 Mongol invasions twice
empire thwarted due to unexpected typhoons,
which were dubbed kamikaze, or “divine
C.E.593–621 Reign of Prince Shotoku, who pro-
wind,” by the Japanese
motes spread of Buddhism in Japan
C.E. 1338–1467 Ashikaga Shogunate fuses Japa-
C.E. 645 Regional clans revolt, establish new
nese imperial court traditions with samurai cul-
imperial authority under the Fujiwara
ture, fostering notable achievements in art,
family
architecture, drama, and literature
C.E. 710 Nara is declared permanent imperial cap-
C.E.1467–1568 Era of civil wars between
ital, breaking the tradition of moving the capital
competing samurai armies
upon the death of the emperor
C.E. 1603–1868 Tokugawa Shogunate restores
C.E. 710–784 Nara-era court patronizes
central authority; retrains samurai warriors as
Buddhism, whose growing influence over
scholar-bureaucrats; Japan becomes interna-
the state becomes a concern for many
tional political power and develops new
Japanese
urbanized culture under Tokugawa rule

shrines dedicated to the main Buddhist sects, ment, which promoted a mixture of Buddhism,
whose central temple complexes in Japan were lo- Confucianism, and the Chinese model, replaced
cated in the imperial capital at Nara. Nara temples traditional hereditary ranks with new Chinese-
served as centers from which the competing sects style designations of senior, junior, upper, and
spread their influence among the clans. lower grades. Buddhist priests and uji elite accepted
The uji families retained a large measure of their proper place in the new Yamato political and
power under Yamato rule by negotiating a partner- religious order.
ship with the emperor and the Buddhist clergy to In C.E. 645, the succession of a new emperor co-
oversee various aspects of the state’s ritual, military, incided with a revolt staged by several powerful uji
and administrative affairs. The foundation for this clans. The uprising was led by the Nakatomi clan
new order was the “Seventeen Article Constitution” head Kamatari, who subsequently established a
issued by Prince Shotoku in C.E. 604. This docu- partnership with the new emperor, Tenchi. As the
56 | JAPAN

head of the retitled Fujiwara family, Kamatari im- only two Kyoto-based Buddhist sects were officially
plemented the new Taika (“great change”), reforms recognized, and women were no longer allowed to
that were intended to eliminate what remained of hold the imperial throne. Kyoto imperial authority
Japan’s old decentralized government. He also es- reached its height in the tenth century C.E., when
tablished a new capital at Naniwa (now within the the Fujiwara clan exclusively managed the affairs of
modern city of Osaka), which was modeled on the the court on the emperor’s behalf. Under the Fuji-
contemporary Tang capital at Changan, now called wara, which continued to dominate imperial
Xian. The Taiho Code (710), issued by Kamatari’s government until C.E. 1160, the court became more
Fujiwara successors, further codified the new Japa- and more insulated from the affairs of the country-
nese political order, formalizing the Yamato state side, which finally slipped from the direct authority
structure that had emerged gradually over the previ- of the court.
ous century. The decentralization of Japanese political au-
thority was based in the shoen, or regional estates of
IMPERIAL RULE IN NARA AND the court elite. Lay officials managed the estates,
KYOTO which were intended to finance the needs of the
Nara became the new imperial capital in C.E. 710 court aristocracy as well as maintain order in the
following the death of the emperor Tenchi. Prior to countryside. Military authority also decentralized to
this time, the Yamato court moved whenever an professional warriors called samurai, who formed
emperor died to avoid ritual pollution associated military regiments led by a shogun (“military guar-
with the deceased ruler. This once-common prac- dian against barbarian peoples”). The samurai pro-
tice was abolished under the new Taiho Code, tected Japan’s core agricultural region from the pe-
which proclaimed that Nara was to become the per- riodic attacks of bandits who lived on the frontier.
manent capital. When the court finally collapsed in 1185, local civic
Nara was the site of the realm’s greatest Bud- officials, religious orders, large landowners, and
dhist temples, such as the stunning Todaiji Eastern Buddhist temples became the new centers of Japa-
Great Temple and its Great Statue of the Buddha. nese authority. They partnered with a new warrior
The monks of six Nara-based sects competed for the elite, confirming the reordering of Japanese society
patronage of the emperor and his elite but too often that had emerged over the past century.
took this competition into the streets of Nara, where
they regularly fought with one another. The revela- THE KAMAKURA AND
tion of a romantic affair between a Buddhist priest ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATES
and an empress in the C.E. 750s reinforced public After C.E. 1185, a series of shoguns wielded ultimate
fears that Buddhism had become a threat to the civil political authority in Japan. The shogun received his
order. When the priest and the empress attempted authority from the emperor after winning battles
to overthrow the Fujiwara family, the imperial mili- against armed opponents. In theory, the emperor
tary intervened to occupy the Nara temples and to delegated to the shogun responsibility for running
place the Nara priests under “house arrest.” With the Japanese imperial state. In practice, the local
the death of the empress, the new emperor Kammu “stewards” (jito) and “constables” (shugo) who had
(r. C.E. 781–806) and his Fujiwara advisers decided managed the aristocratic estates during the im-
in C.E. 784 to move the Japanese capital out of Nara, perial period assumed the day-to-day affairs of what
leaving behind the tarnished reputation of the Nara- remained of the Japanese state. The now-hereditary
era court and the once-powerful Nara-based Bud- samurai military elite, ultimately bound by service
dhist sects. Nagaokakyo served as the capital for 10 contracts to the shogun, imposed local order.
years before the court relocated to Heian (modern The shogunate system depended on the
Kyoto) in 794. shogun’s willingness to acknowledge the local terri-
During the Kyoto imperial era (C.E. 794–1185), torial rights of the samurai lords. For example, under
 JAPAN | 57

TURNING POINT .

The Divine Wind

The kamikaze, or “divine wind,” is in recent times as- Seven years later, Kublai invaded Japan again,
sociated with Japanese pilots who flew suicide mis- this time with a force of 140,000 Mongols, Chinese,
sions against American ships during World War II. and Koreans, carried in the largest fleet of ships ever
The name, which refers to two of the most significant assembled. Since the last attack, however, the Japa-
events in ancient Japanese history, represented to the nese had built a stone wall along the shoreline at the
Japanese the possibility of victory even in the darkest Mongol landing site at Hakata. They had also re-
hour of impending defeat. The roots of the expression trained their forces to fight in the group style of the
lie in the attempted Mongol invasions of Japan during Mongols rather than in the individual combat fa-
the thirteenth century. vored by the samurai. The Japanese defenders kept
In C.E. 1266, Kublai Khan (ca. C.E. 1215–1294), the Mongols contained on a narrow beachhead,
ruler of the Mongol Empire, demanded Japan’s sub- while Japanese boats successfully raided the Chi-
mission to his newly established Yuan court. When nese supply ships. Two months after the landing a
Japan’s Kamakura Shogunate (C.E. 1185–1333) re- typhoon struck, destroying most of the Chinese fleet
fused, Kublai Khan launched an invasion force of and forcing the remainder of the Mongol forces to
30,000 Mongol and Korean warriors. In 1274, the withdraw in defeat.
Yuan army landed on the west coast of the island of To the Japanese, this “divine wind” was no acci-
Kyushu at Hakata (modern-day Fukuoka). The Yuan dent. It confirmed the Japanese belief that they were
military not only outnumbered the Japanese samu- favored by the gods, who would always protect Japan
rai, but also possessed superior tactics and weapons. against any outside threat. Interior threats, however,
However, severe weather wrecked many of the in- were another matter. Despite the Japanese victory,
vading Chinese ships and threatened to isolate the the Mongol war had bankrupted the Kamakura
Yuan troops from their supply lines. The Mongols Shogunate, which subsequently fell to the Ashikaga
ultimately were forced to retreat to southern Korea. shoguns (C.E. 1338–1467).

the Kamakura Shogunate (C.E. 1185–1333), regional fense against potential Mongol invasions under-
samurai lords were submissive to the Kamakura mined the Kamakura Shogunate. After defeating
shoguns, but were also allowed to maintain their the Kamakura clan in C.E. 1338, the Kyoto-based Ash-
own armies. The Kamakura Shogunate, based in ikaga Shogunate (C.E. 1338–1467) took power.
Kamakura, southeast of modern Tokyo, was notable The Ashikaga era was marked by further decen-
for its successful institution of the decentralized tralization of authority, but is especially noteworthy
shogunate system. Under this system, educated for its fusion of imperial court traditions with
samurai became hereditary administrators who samurai culture. Japanese artists made notable
managed the affairs of the Kamakura court. They achievements in landscaping and gardening, the
served as a key source of contact between the sho- evolution of the tea ceremony (and teahouses), Noh
gun and his regional subordinates. drama (marked by the performers’ attempts to
The Kamakura shoguns repelled Mongol inva- strictly control their expressions), and new forms of
sions of Japan in 1274 and 1281, with considerable samurai-inspired literature. The Ashikaga era
help from the kamikaze (“divine winds”), or severe ended with a century of civil wars (C.E. 1467–1568)
typhoons that destroyed the invading Mongol fleets. among rival samurai armies loyal to regional
However, the expense of maintaining a strong de- daimyo warlords intent on consolidating power.
58 | JAPAN

Japanese religious practice often

blends elements of Buddhism,
Shinto, and traditional animistic
beliefs. Each of the five levels in the
Tosho-gu Shrine on Japan’s Honshu
Island (shown here) represents a
different element of the natural
world. (Demetrio Carrasco/Dorling
Kindersley/Getty Images)

The new Tokugawa Shogunate ( C . E . 1603– tralized military order to a recentralized politi-
1868) that emerged from the wars restored the cal, economic, and social system was the foun-
strong central authority that had eroded since dation for the rapid transformation of Japan into
the fall of the imperial court in C . E . 1185. It ac- an international power in the late nineteenth
complished this reunification by retraining the century.
hereditary samurai warriors to become educated
scholar-bureaucrats, based in a network of new See also: Archeological Discoveries; Buddhism;
urban administrative and commercial centers. Confucianism; Culture and Traditions; Language
This successful transformation from a decen- and Writing; Myths and Epics; Shinto; Society.
 JAVA | 59

FURTHER READING Duus, Peter. Feudalism in Japan. New York: McGraw

Brown, Delmer, John W. Hall, and Kozo Yamamura, Hill, 1993.
eds. The Cambridge History of Japan. Vols. 1–3. Schirokauer, Conrad, David Lurie, and Suzanne
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992– Gay. A Brief History of Japanese Civilization. Bos-
1999. ton: Wadsworth, 2005.

Java
Island in what is now Indonesia that served as the center of maritime Southeast Asian cultural
development starting in the fifth century C.E. Among Java’s cultural artifacts are some of
Asia’s most impressive Hindu and Buddhist temples, which date from C.E. 600 to 1500.

EARLY BUDDHIST AND HINDU the east also allowed Javanese monarchs to exploit
CIVILIZATION a strategic position adjacent to the international
Sanjaya (r. ca. C.E. 732–760), a patron of the Hindu maritime trade route to eastern Indonesia’s Spice
god Siva, was the first significant Javanese monarch. Islands.
He built his court and the first of Java’s sprawling The Javanese monarchy split into competing
temple complexes on the sacred Dieng Plateau in factions following Airlangga’s death, with kings
northern central Java. Sanjaya was succeeded by a se- identified by their association with two rival courts.
ries of Sailendra monarchs (ca. C.E. 760–860), who One regional dynasty ruled from Kediri on the
followed his lead and built several major Mahayana southwestern edge of the eastern Java river plain,
Buddhist temples in central Java near modern-day and the other at Singosari to the southeast on the
Yogyakarta. These efforts culminated in the early Malang Plateau.
ninth century with the Borobudur temple complex
on the western edge of the Kedu Plain. MAJAPAHIT JAVA AND THE
In the late ninth century, central Java–based TRANSITION TO ISLAM
Hindu kings defeated the Buddhist Sailendras and The Majapahit state (C.E. 1293–1528), based on the
proclaimed their sovereignty over what they called edge of the Brantas River delta west of present-day
the Mataram state (ca. C.E. 860–1000). These kings Surabaya, was the high point in the development
constructed their own impressive central temple of the Hindu-Buddhist civilization in the islands
complex dedicated to Lord Siva at Prambanan, north of Southeast Asia. Its kings came to possess a de-
of Yogyakarta, near the volcanic Mount Merapi. gree of direct administrative control over their
A devastating eruption of Mount Merapi in the subordinate regions in eastern Java that went be-
tenth century temporarily made the central Java yond that of previous courts. They also established
plains uninhabitable. This shifted the center of authority over the remainder of Java and claimed
Javanese civilization east to the basins of the Bran- an overseas empire that included all of the islands
tas and Solo rivers. For a time, temples assumed that are now part of modern Indonesia, which they
less importance as statements of royal authority. called Nusantara.
Instead, kings through the reign of Airlangga (r. Local societies appropriated Majapahit’s refined
ca. C.E. 1016–1045) encouraged the spread of wet- culture. The most notable of these was neighboring
rice agriculture in eastern Java, initiating the con- Bali, which still practices the Hindu religious tradi-
struction of new water management projects and tions it inherited from Majapahit. Although the
mountainside wet-rice terraces to support the de- other eastern Indonesian archipelago islands
velopment of new village societies. The move to did eventually convert to Islam, their ritual practices
60 | JAVA

were still heavily mixed with a continuing worship most of the cultural characteristics of Java’s previ-
of local spiritual forces, and their material culture ous Hindu-Buddhist age.
(their dress, food, and court traditions) derived
from those of Majapahit-era Java. See also: Agriculture; Buddhism; Hinduism;
During the fifteenth century, Majapahit faced Islam, Spread of; Language and Writing; Melaka;
aggressive competition from the newly Islamic Spice Trade.
ports on Java’s northern coast. In 1528, the court fi-
nally fell to a military coalition among these Is- FURTHER READING
lamic ports led by the Demak port-states. Thereaf- Kinney, Ann R. Worshipping Siva and Buddha: The
ter, the Javanese gradually converted to Islam and Temple Art of East Java. Honolulu: University of
shifted their political loyalties to the new Mataram Hawaii Press, 2003.
Islamic court (ca. C.E. 1570–1755) that was based in Tarling, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge History of
the old central Javanese heartland. While out- Southeast Asia. Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Cam-
wardly Islamic, this new Mataram court retained bridge University Press, 2000.

Junk See Technology and Inventions.

Khmer Empire
Ancient Southeast Asian kingdom (C.E. 802–1432), based in what is now Cambodia, that once
included the adjacent regions of Thailand and Laos. Historians use the name Angkor (“city”) to
refer to both the ancient capital city and the ancient kingdom. The boundaries of the realm were
never clearly defined, and Angkor is best understood as a confederation of populations willing to
submit to a central authority.
Angkor was the successor to previous Khmer re- the realm’s continuing capital under Yasovarman
gional states centered in the upper Mekong River I (r. C.E. 889–900), and was named Yasodhara-
basin, which began to leave inscriptions in the pura in his honor. Suryavarman I (r. C.E. 1002–
sixth century C.E. In contrast, Angkor was centered 1049) extended Angkor’s territory in all directions
on the northern edge of Cambodia’s Great Lake, and consolidated its political authority. Suryavar-
Tonle Sap. Its productive wet-rice agriculture man II (r. C.E. 1113–ca. 1150) defended Angkor
depended on the annual monsoon season that against its Cham neighbors in central Vietnam,
flooded Khmer fields. Several rulers constructed and also sponsored the construction of the
enormous reservoirs and a network of canals Angkor Wat temple complex, dedicated to the
around the capital city to provide a more secure Hindu god Visnu.
source of irrigation for the rice paddies, and to rein- In 1177, forces from neighboring Champa raided
force the ritual symbolism of their capital. Angkor, desecrated its temples, and carried off the
The Angkor state was founded by King Jayavar- state’s wealth and significant numbers of its popu-
man II (r. C.E. 802–835), who established the state lation. Jayavarman VII (r. C.E. 1181–ca. 1218) re-
Devaraja (“god-king”) cult, which celebrated the stored order through a series of military victories
unity of the Khmer people under the favor of the against regional opponents, then successfully de-
Hindu god Siva. Jayavarman’s capital was at Hari- fended his realm against the Chams. He also built a
haralaya, southeast of Angkor. Angkor became new capital city adjacent to Angkor Wat at Angkor
 KOREA | 61

RISE AND DECLINE OF THE KHMER EMPIRE

C.E.550–800 Pre-Angkor regional states arise in means “city monastery”) dedicated to the Hindu
upper Mekong River basin deity Visnu

C.E. 802–835 Rule of Jayavarman II; founds C.E.1177 Cham invasion devastates the
the Khmer Empire and initiates the royal Khmer realm
Devaraja Siva cult at Hariharalaya
C.E. 1181–CA. 1218 Rule of Jayavarman VII; re-
C.E.889–900 Rule of Yasovarman I; founds stores order and Khmer power; builds Angkor
Khmer capital of Angkor Thom (which means “Angkor the Great”) and its
Bayon Mahayana Buddhist temple complex
C.E. 1002–1049 Rule of Suryavarman I;
extends the Khmer realm, especially to C.E. 1431 sacking of Angkor by Ayudhya
the north and west forces from Thailand

C.E.1113–CA. 1150 Rule of Suryavarman II; C.E.1432 Khmer political center shifts to Phnom
builds temple complex at Angkor Wat (which Penh, after which Angkor is deserted

Thom, which he centered on the Bayon Mahayana capital, where it remains to this day as the symbolic
Buddhist shrine. source of Thai political authority. In 1432, Cambo-
Following the death of Jayavarman VII, the dian rulers, who also claimed to be Angkor’s legiti-
Angkor state gradually declined, evidenced by the mate successors, established a new Khmer capital
decreased number of inscriptions recording state at Phnom Penh on the Mekong River.
activities. When the Chinese envoy Zhou Dagua
visited Angkor in 1295–1296, he described it as a See also: Agriculture; Angkor Wat; Sukhotai and
royal city in decay, which he attributed to a series of Ayudhya; Vietnam.
exhausting wars against Thai armies.
The armies of the region of Ayudhya (in Thai- FURTHER READING
land), based in the former north and west Angkor Higham, Charles. Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley:
territories, sacked the Angkor capital in 1431 and University of California Press, 2002.
brought an end to the Angkor-based Khmer realm. Snellgrove, David. Angkor: Before and After: Cultural
They carried Angkor’s royal regalia back to the Thai History of the Khmers. Boston: Weatherhill, 2004.

Korea
Peninsula in northeastern Asia, first settled by migrating populations from Mongolia and Siberia
from 7000–5000 B.C.E., and frequently thereafter ruled or influenced by neighboring dynasties
in China. The first centralized states appeared in Korea by about 400 B.C.E. These states fought
among themselves for control of the peninsula before uniting under the control of the Chinese
Han dynasty in 108 B.C.E. During the next 2,000 years, a series of Buddhist and Confucian
dynasties would rule the region.
62 | KOREA

ORIGINS for a new civil administration, and experimented

The legendary first Korean state was Old Choson, with a formal examination system to fill the civil
from an old name for Korea. (“Old Choson” distin- service with qualified candidates. The resulting
guishes this legendary Korean civilization, asso- political system depended on hwarang (flower
ciated with the fourth century B.C.E., from the later knights), a paramilitary youth organization that
Choson state that began in 194 B.C.E.) This realm, in trained and educated the sons of the Silla elite.
the northern Liao and Taedong River basins, strug- The hwarang instilled in their pupils the “bone-
gled to remain independent from its powerful Chi- rank” system, a societal hierarchy of warrior-
nese neighbor under the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.– aristocrats based on birth.
C.E. 220). By the 870s, powerful landholding regional clans
Around 194 B.C.E., an unsuccessful rebel against began to challenge the Silla dynasty’s central author-
the Han dynasty fled to Korea and established an in- ity. Regional autonomy and limited court authority
dependent state named Choson based at Pyon- characterized the last 40 years of the dynasty, known
gyang, the modern capital of North Korea. The Han as the Later Three Kingdoms era (878–918).
emperor Wudi (r. ca. 141–87 B.C.E.) conquered Cho- In 936, a former merchant named Wang Kon
son in 109–108 B.C.E., and thereafter established (877–943) rose to power, supported by regional Silla
several semi-independent military garrisons in landlord clans. Wang founded the new Kaesong-
northern Korea. The most powerful of these was the based Koryo dynasty (from which the name Korea is
military commandery of Lelang (108 B.C.E.–C.E. 313) derived). Koryo rulers abolished the Silla ranking
based at Pyongyang. Three Korean tribal warlord system and replaced it with their own set of status
confederations (Mahan, Pyonhan, and Chinhan) distinctions. A literate class of bureaucrats who had
occupied southern Korea, while rival alliances passed the state’s Confucian civil service examina-
claimed other portions of Korea. During the Three tions led Koryo society, in partnership with Bud-
Kingdoms Period (ca. C.E. 300–700), the southern dhist clergy who had qualified by a separate exam-
confederations evolved into the central Paekche ination. A privileged hereditary ruling class that
Kingdom, the northern Koguryo Federation, and included royalty, civil bureaucrats, military bureau-
the southeastern Silla Kingdom. crats, and the Buddhist priesthood controlled the
Koguryo, which consolidated its hold over the Koryo state’s administration.
north following the fall of the Han dynasty in 220, The Koryo civilian bureaucracy held authority
was the most powerful of these kingdoms. After until 1170, when the state’s generals, supported by a
reaching its height in the fifth century C.E., Koguryo network of military-bureaucrats, began a 20-year
declined in the mid-sixth century, caught between civil war in response to the increased concentration
the attacks of competing Chinese forces to its north of power in the court. Other state bureaucrats who
and the rise of Paekche to its south. Paekche seized opposed court absolutism joined their ranks, and
the Han River basin, but its success was short lived. from 1196–1258 the Choe family clan of military dic-
An alliance between the new Chinese Tang dynasty tators held power. The Mongols ended this period of
(C.E. 618–907) and the southern Silla kingdom con- military-bureaucratic partnership by invading Korea
quered Paekche in 668. in 1258 against limited opposition. They restored the
Koryo royal family, placing it under the watchful eye
SILLA , KORYO, AND YI of a Mongol overlord. The Mongols extracted heavy
DYNASTIES taxes, labor, and military services from Koreans, es-
By 668, Silla had consolidated its authority over pecially during the era of the Mongolian military
most of the Korean Peninsula. During the so- campaigns against Japan (1274–1281).
called Unified Silla era (C.E. 668–918), Silla rul- General Yi Song-gye defeated the remnants of
ers partnered with Korean Buddhists to adminis- Mongol authority in 1364, following the fall of the
ter their realm. They also established the Mongol dynasty in China during the 1350s. After 28
Confucian Academy to train scholar-bureaucrats years of civil war, he deposed the Koryo rulers in
 KOREA | 63

1392, founding the Yi dynasty (C.E. 1392–1910), that defined their Korean adaptation of Confucian
based at present-day Seoul, modern South Korea’s government. The new code ignored traditional clan-
capital. Yi Song-gye appeased the new Ming dynasty based territorial divisions and reorganized Korea
rulers of China (C.E. 1368–1644) by paying tribute into eight provinces and subordinate counties ad-
and accepting subordinate status to China. Subse- ministered by state bureaucrats rather than clan
quent Yi and Chinese rulers described the relation- landlords. In theory the Yi monarch was supreme,
ship as that between “younger brother and elder but in practice he and his officials were examined
brother.” by bureaucratic review boards (or censors) who had
Yi and his successors implemented a new Confu- the authority to charge any state official, even the
cian monarchy and reduced Buddhism to a secon- emperor, with misconduct or mismanagement. A
dary religion. He seized church lands, closed tem- guilty official was removed from office, his eco-
ples, and placed the supervision of restricted nomic resources were confiscated, and he might
Buddhist activities under the watchful eye of a newly even be imprisoned or put to death.
empowered landowning aristocracy known as The first centuries of Yi rule were highly innova-
yangban. He and subsequent Yi rulers stressed tive and productive. Over time, however, the Yi
Confucian ancestor worship and its rituals over system lapsed into aristocratic factionalism and
Buddhist traditions. They also implemented a administrative ineffectiveness, and it never fully re-
Confucian social code that discouraged social covered from an attempted Japanese invasion in
practices that had reinforced the autonomy of the 1592–1598. Despite this setback, the continuing
traditional family clans, such as taking multiple prosperity of the Korean economy also contributed
wives, widow remarriage, and marrying within the to the problems for the Yi rulers, as newly wealthy
family clan network. In return, the gentry were Korean farmers and a new Korean merchant class
granted the hereditary right to both civil and mili- began to buy yangban status.
tary appointments. Confucian examinations and
official appointments were only open to yangban See also: Archeological Discoveries; China; Japan;
candidates—in contrast to the Chinese Confucian Language and Writing.
examinations and bureaucracy that were in theory
open to anyone. FURTHER READING
Confucian art and literature replaced Buddhist Eckert, Carter J., et al. Korea Old and New. Cam-
art and culture in the early Yi era. However, the Yi bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990.
monarch Sejong (r. C.E. 1418–1450) sponsored the Holcombe, C. The Genesis of East Asia, 221 B.C. to A.D.
development of a more independent Korean cul- 907. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001.
ture, based in the creation of a new Korean alpha- Lee, Ki-Baik, et al. A New History of Korea. Cam-
bet, known as hangul, which replaced prior depen- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
dence on Chinese writing. Pai, H. Constructing Korean Origins. Cambridge,
In 1471, Yi monarchs adopted a national code MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
 L–N, P

Language and Writing

The frequent migrations of people and ideas throughout ancient Asia and the Pacific led to
cultural mixing that produced a diversity of linguistic and literary traditions. The linguistic
heritage in ancient China developed as a mixture of pictorial and symbolic representations of
concepts rather than sounds, a heritage that was adapted by China’s Korean and Japanese
neighbors. In India, early written forms gave way to an alphabet in which each character
represented a spoken sound. Indian and Southeast Asian writing traditions derived from early
India’s Hindu and Buddhist heritage. This was in sharp contrast to China and its neighbors,
where literature addressed the secular order of humanity rather than focusing on religious
concerns, reflecting China’s Confucian tradition.

EMERGENCE OF WRITTEN derived from the Tamil language, which developed

LANGUAGE a different script tradition from the same Brahmi
The earliest Asian literature was composed in Chi- linguistic base. Southeast Asians also developed
nese and in Sanskrit and Pali (a Prakrit, or local their own initial language scripts during the first
Indo-Aryan, language related to Sanskrit), the origi- millennium C.E. by adapting Brahmi script to their
nal languages of Hinduism and Buddhism. People own local needs.
in Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia later modified
the variety of Indian and Chinese scripts and texts Chinese Written Language
to meet their own cultural needs. Between 1500 and 1000 B.C.E., Chinese priests de-
veloped the earliest Chinese pictographic script.
South and Southeast Asian Scripts Modern Chinese script began to take shape as a
Written script in India was late to develop relative to more linear representation of the pictographs in
the rest of Asia. In the third century B.C.E., King xiaozhuan script around 700 B.C.E. The lishu script,
Asoka erected pillars containing inscriptions in which was better suited for rapid sketches because
Prakrit, written in Brahmi script, which later devel- it used fewer strokes, became common after 500
oped into the Devanagari script that is used today by B.C.E. The new script was more efficient for govern-
Sanskrit and Sanskrit-derived north Indian lan- ment bureaucrats in an era marked by significant
guages. South Indian languages, by contrast, increases in governmental authority.

64
 LANGUAGE AND WRITING | 65

LANGUAGE AND WRITING

CA .1500–1000 B.C.E. Chinese priests develop CA .300 B.C.E. (Li Sao) The Lament, China’s first
the earliest Chinese pictographic script extended epic poem, composed by Qu Yuan

CA .800–600 B.C.E. Brahmana religious CA .250 B.C.E. Indian king Asoka (r. ca.
textual manuals composed in India 273–ca. 232 B.C.E.) erects pillars
containing inscriptions in Prakrit script
CA .700 B.C.E. Linear xiaozhuan script develops
in China 100 Earliest Korean script, hanja, evolves
CA . C.E.

from Chinese characters

CA .600–200 B.C.E. Upanishads, philosophical
religious epics, composed in India CA . C.E.1000 World’s first novel, The Tale of
Genji, written by Japanese courtesan
500 B.C.E. Simplified lishu script evolves in
CA .
Murasaki Shikibu
China
CA . C.E.1200 Korean kugyol script develops from
500 B.C.E.–200 C.E. Indian epic the
CA .
earlier hanja script
Mahabharata committed to writing
1420 Korean king Sejong (r. C.E.
CA . C.E.
CA .400 B.C.E. The Arthasastra, early book of ad-
1418–1450) commissions the develop-
vice for rulers consolidating power, written in
ment of a new Korean script, hangul
India

The continuing evolution of Chinese script was culture, commissioned the development of a new
tied to the development of Chinese calligraphy, Korean script, hangul. Despite his attempts, Korean
which placed focus on disciplined and continuous literature was still almost exclusively composed in
brush strokes. Kaishu (“standard script”) appeared Chinese until Korea achieved independence in 1945
near the end of the Han dynasty (ca. 206 B.C.E.– and made hangul the official language. Prior to that
C.E. 220). Xingshu (“running script”), a cursive ver- time, where hangul appeared, it was paired side by
sion of kaishu appeared shortly thereafter. Caoshu side with Chinese.
(“grass script”) developed among calligraphers in Japanese writing and literature also derived
the fourth century C.E. as a continuous flowing from Chinese roots. In the fifth century C.E., the
brush script. Japanese used Chinese characters (kanji) in a
system called kanbun, “Chinese writing.” Kanbun
Korean and Japanese Scripts used Chinese characters to represent both ideas
Both the Korean and Japanese scripts developed and syllables. Although kanbun used Chinese
from Chinese script. The earliest Korean script characters, it employed Japanese rather than Chi-
(hanja), which came into existence in the first cen- nese grammar. Finally, a new writing system, kana,
tury C.E., adapted Chinese characters that combined developed that used kanji to represent things or
both sounds and meanings. In the thirteenth cen- ideas, and simplified versions of the characters to
tury, the kugyol script was introduced, in which represent sounds.
characters distinguished between sound and mean- Hiragana writing, in which characters represent
ing. At the time, classical Chinese was the preferred Japanese words, developed in the eighth century C.E.
language in Korean literary culture. King Sejong (r. Many literate Japanese continued to use the older
C.E. 1418–1450) of the Yi dynasty (C.E. 1392–1910), kanji system, while hiragana became associated with
in his attempt to reassert an independent Korean women’s compositions. The Tale of Genji, sometimes
66 | LANGUAGE AND WRITING

Several major Asian languages, including Chinese and Japanese, employ pictograms–characters that represent words or
concepts–rather than letters. The characters on the Japanese lanterns shown here indicate the names of sponsors of the temple
that contains the lanterns. (Karen Beard/Taxi Japan/Getty Images)

called the world’s first novel, was written in hiragana was associated with India’s Hindu and Buddhist tra-
by Murasaki Shikibu (ca. 1000), a resident of the ditions. In China, Confucian tradition favored philo-
Kyoto court (C.E. 784–1185). Katakana (“part kanji”), sophical texts that focused on human existence in
yet another option, used a Japanese script in which this world rather than speculating on an afterlife.
characters represented individual syllables. It was
originally developed in the ninth century to aid in Indian Literature
the pronunciation of Chinese Buddhist scriptures, India’s literary tradition began with oral composi-
but by the fourteenth century was in wider use. tions that by the fourth century B.C.E. were re-
corded as sacred Hindu texts composed in San-
LITE RATUR E skrit, Prakrit, and Pali. The earliest of these were
Philosophical, moral, and religious texts assumed the four Vedas, which recorded the mythology, ritu-
great importance in the Asian cultural tradition. Lit- als, ritual chants, and magical spells of Indian soci-
eracy and learning were widely respected; even ety from about 1600 to 1000 B.C.E. The Brahmana
Japan’s samurai warriors were literate and com- (800–600 B.C.E.), textual manuals for Brahmin
posed poetry. Despite the fact that women did not at- priests, provided further detail for elaborate reli-
tend regular schools, they sometimes acquired liter- gious rituals. In contrast, the Upanishads, com-
acy from family members. This was especially the posed between 600–200 B.C.E., were philosophical,
case in imperial Japan. In India, where religion was discussing the nature of the universe and the place
such a focal part of life, most of the early literature of humans in it.
 LANGUAGE AND WRITING | 67

The Upanishads were foundational to the devel- ture, and morality were intended for recitation and
opment of Hindu law, as they addressed good and performance, to bring an emotional response from
evil, human morality, and duty. These themes were their audience. Human emotions were personified
developed in contemporary and subsequent litera- in seasonal and day and night settings, as well as in
ture. The Buddha’s teachings and the early interpre- birds, beasts, and flowers.
tations of these by Buddhist monks (the Sangha)
provided a Middle Way between Vedic ritual and the Chinese Literature
philosophical meditations of the Upanishads, as col- China’s early literature focused on secular themes,
lected in the Buddhist Pitaka texts (ca. 500 B.C.E.). particularly the conditions required for successful
Early discourse on Hindu law developed in the governance. Earlier oral mythological and historical
Dharmasastras from roughly the same era. tradition was codified in the era of the Zhou dynasty
The issues that were being addressed in these (1122/1027–403 B.C.E.) in the works that are collec-
various religious texts were popularized in the Ma- tively referred to as the Confucian Classics, attrib-
habharata epic tale about a legendary battle between uted to the statesman and philosopher Confucius
two early Vedic-era tribes. The epic evolved as an (Kungfutzu, 551–479 B.C.E.). These include the Book
oral text from roughly 1600 B.C.E., and, with later of Songs (a collection of mythical folk ballads), The
additions, did not reach its final form until roughly Book of Changes (about magical spells), and the Book
C.E. 200. The Ramayana epic poem, which dates of Rituals. They also feature collections of historical
from roughly 300 B.C.E., is a symbolic story about documents; the histories of the Xia, Shang, and
rightful human conduct that offers a glimpse into early Zhou dynasties; and a collection of Confu-
divine involvement in human affairs. Much like the cius’s writings, The Analects, which were collated by
contemporary Bhagavad Gita subsection of the Ma- his students after his death. All of these writings in-
habharata epic poem, it supports Hinduism’s devel- fluenced the commentaries and philosophical writ-
oping Bhakti devotional tradition because it specu- ings of subsequent Confucian scholars in China,
lates on the human-divine relationship. Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
The Arthasastra, which is attributed to the Confucian tradition dictated that early Chinese
fourth century B.C.E. Mauryan statesman Kautilya, poetry conform to rigid standards and contain
critiqued the age of heroic chivalry that was por- some moral lesson. Li Sao (The Lament) by Qu
trayed in the Vedas and the Mahabharata. It also Yuan (ca. 340–278 B.C.E.) was China’s first ex-
provided an alternative to the proposal in the Dhar- tended lyric poem. It addresses the sorrows of an
masastras that kings should lead by moral example. exiled prince, who rides on dragons and serpents
Instead, it is a textbook for rulers consolidating in his travels from heaven to Earth. The poem in-
power into a new imperial regime, in the tradition corporates early Chinese legends and myths but
of the third-century B.C.E. Chinese text titled The above all explores the conflict between the individ-
Book of Lord Shang, by Li Si, the prime minister of ual and the group and ultimately asserts the hero’s
China’s Qin Dynasty (221–206 B.C.E.). The Artha- love for Chinese people.
sastra encourages rulers to seize, hold, and ma- The era of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220)
nipulate power, but it also advises that prolonged was notable for the development of Chinese govern-
tyranny ultimately leads to popular rebellion. The mental record keeping. These records initiated the
wise ruler thus cultivates his subjects’ respect by tradition of compiling official dynastic histories,
remaining directly involved in the affairs of state, which typically were written by the succeeding dy-
administering justice, and even showing compas- nasty. The first of these, The Record of the Historian, a
sion when it is to his advantage. Han-era history of the Qin dynasty, is attributed to
India’s early literary tradition culminated in the the court historian of emperor Han Wudi (r. ca. 141–
classical Sanskrit compositions of the Gupta era (ca. 87 B.C.E.), Sima Qian. In the Han age, yuefu, popular
C.E. 320–550), notably the kavya poetry and drama narrative and lyric (“folksong”) poetry, developed, as
of Gupta-era authors. These writings on love, na- best represented in the Flight of the Phoenix to the
68 | LANGUAGE AND WRITING

MAJOR LINGUISTIC GROUPS OF ANCIENT ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Asian language families are many and the Sanskrit, Hindi, and Pali of South the Indo-European and Ural-Altaic
diverse—from the languages spoken in the Asia, to the Sino-Tibetan and Austro- languages of central Asia.
Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia, to Asiatic languages of Southeast Asia, and

Southeast, a tragic tale of lovers under pressure that attempted to blend Confucian and Buddhist
from their parents and families. traditions. Buddhism advocated literary creativity as
Under the Tang (C.E. 618–907) and Song (C.E. an appropriate activity through which to explore the
960–1279) dynasties, Chinese literary expression limits of the human mind. Such an activity also
flowered in a wide range of neo-Confucian writings reinforced the traditional Confucian notion that hu-
 MANDATE OF HEAVEN | 69

mans should exercise the kind of self-discipline re- many add a fifth major composition, Golden Lotus
quired of a serious writer. The perfected individual (1610). In each of these stories, the lead heroic char-
might then be a more productive member of soci- acters all end as immortals or supernatural beings
ety. Scholars, popular writers, and poets debated with magical powers. The novels blend traditional
whether there should be a limit on government Chinese culture with Buddhism in their acceptance
leadership and stressed the need to believe once of the notion of reincarnation and karma (force gen-
again in the moral capacities of humanity. They erated by one’s actions) that leads to the fate of the
argued for a less regimented society as the means to individual. They offer a commentary on Yuan social
inspire human creativity. and religious conventions, often portraying the neg-
Tang and Song texts were printed using carved ative societal consequences of choosing individual-
woodblocks, which made written works widely ism over the commitment to uphold the Confucian
available among an increasingly literate Chinese traditions of the past.
urban public. Among these were popular accounts
of Buddhist pilgrims, printed encyclopedias, inter- See also: China; India; Japan; Java; Korea; Myths
pretive histories, and neo-Confucian philosophical and Epics.
essays. Tang-era writings still conformed largely to
Confucian models, but Song era authors fully em- FURTHER READING
braced creativity for its own sake. They even openly De Bary, William Theodore, et al., eds. Sources of
indulged in the subtle pleasures of life, which Con- Japanese Tradition. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia
fucian scholars regarded as dangerous to the wel- University Press, 2001.
fare of humanity. Embree, Ainslee, ed. Sources of Indian Tradition. 2nd
Chinese authors finally produced novels during ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.
the Yuan dynasty (C.E. 1279–1368), when two of Lee, Peter H., Yongho Ch’oe, and Hugh H. W.
China’s “Four Classic Novels,” Water Margin and Kang. Sources of Korean Tradition. New York: Co-
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, were published. lumbia University Press, 1996.
Monkey, Journey to the West (ca. 1590) and Dream of Mair, V., ed. Columbia History of Chinese Literature.
the Red Chamber (1792) are the other two, to which New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.

Mandate of Heaven
Political and social philosophy, or tian ming (“mandate” or “decree” of heaven), that served as the
ancient Chinese explanation for the success or failure of Chinese civilization. The Chinese
believed that a dynasty fell, or leaders failed, because they lost the moral right to authority that
was given by heaven alone. In this view, heaven was not a personal god but an all-pervading
cosmic power. Scholars of the Zhou dynasty (ca. 1122/1027–403 B.C.E.) developed this doctrine
to explain the Zhou conquest of the previous Shang dynasty (1766–1122/1027 B.C.E.) and to
legitimate their new dynasty.
Initially, this political theory argued that heaven long as they rule justly, fairly, and wisely. If a dy-
was committed to the welfare of humanity. For this nasty or ruler ceases to rule justly or wisely, and be-
reason, heaven established rulers who assumed re- gins to serve his or her own interests, heaven re-
sponsibility for the welfare of their human sub- vokes the mandate, and the ruler or dynasty falls.
jects. Heaven mandates that select people be in Heavenly authority then passes to another family-
charge and supports rulers and their dynasties as based network, which is obligated to revolt against
70 | MANDATE OF HEAVEN

and overthrow the failed dynasty. The mandate is moral order to the universe that paralleled the
not equivalent to blind fate or destiny. Instead, it physical order and promised that humankind ulti-
imposes a code of appropriate human behavior. mately would achieve social harmony. Attaining
Humans are free to rule justly or unjustly; they are proper human relationships (li) was thus the goal
even free to harm the people they rule. If they do of tian ming.
so, however, their rule will come to a swift end as Thus, human success was ultimately the conse-
heaven passes on its mandate to another family. quence of successful human actions that were re-
In contrast, the concept of ming, or destiny, im- spectful of and in balance with the heavenly and
plies that certain events are beyond human control. natural orders. Human failure was equally the re-
Things that happen in the physical world—earth- sult of inappropriate human actions that were ulti-
quakes, sickness, wealth, floods, famine, and other mately self-serving rather than sensitive to and fo-
hardships—are the direct result of heaven’s actions, cused on wider societal need.
and thus humans cannot affect them. Human mis-
conduct, however, such as human abuse of the See also: China; Confucianism.
physical environment, can create imbalances in the
physical world. FURTHER READING
During the sixth century B.C.E., Confucius ap- Hucker, Charles O. China’s Imperial Past, An Intro-
plied the concept of tian ming to human relations, duction to China’s History and Culture. Palo Alto,
insisting that each person was obligated to con- CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.
tribute to the welfare of others. According to Con- Schwartz, Benjamin I. World of Thought in Ancient
fucius, the Mandate of Heaven applied to all China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
human obligations and actions. It postulated a Press, 1985.

Melaka
Narrow, 500-mile-long (800-km-long) maritime passage separating the Malay Peninsula from
the island of Sumatra. The strait takes its name from the port-based Malay state of Melaka (or
Malacca). This state was founded in ca. 1390 by the Sumatra-based Malay prince Parameswara
(d. 1414) who shifted his court to Melaka from what is now Singapore.
The Melaka Strait became the major shipping wishing to trade in China’s ports were given special
route between India and China in the fifth century treatment if they first made stopovers in Melaka. In
C.E. At this time, Indian Ocean shipping shifted return, Melaka was obligated to keep the strait free
south from prior routes that involved stopovers and of piracy, thereby assuring the regular flow of West-
portages across the Malay Peninsula’s Kra Isthmus. ern luxuries into China. Zheng He (C.E. 1371–1433),
A maritime state, known to the Chinese as Srivi- a famous Ming maritime admiral, visited Melaka
jaya, dominated the strait from the fifth to four- several times between 1409 and the early 1430s
teenth centuries C.E., until the establishment of with his fleet of ships. His voyages were intended to
Parameswara’s realm. Less than 50 years later, Me- reinforce Melaka’s position as China’s favored
laka had become the wealthiest commercial port in Southeast Asian port of trade, as well as to ensure
Asia. It served as both the connecting hub in the the security of the strait.
trade from India to China and the international The Ming court ended its aggressive diplomatic
source of Indonesian spices. voyages into the region in the 1430s and subse-
Melaka’s initial success was a result of special quently began to restrict China’s overseas contacts.
diplomatic ties with China’s Ming court. Merchants This led Melaka’s ruler, Sri Maharaja (r. 1424–
 MICRONESIA | 71

1444), to convert to Islam (taking the name Mu- able commercial enterprise based in Melaka that
hammad Shah) in order to encourage the Muslim allowed them to dominate the flow of Southeast
merchants who dominated the Indian Ocean trade Asia’s spices to European marketplaces through
to use his port. His patronage of Islam also served the sixteenth century.
to legitimize and extend the Sultan’s control over
other ports in the region of the strait. See also: Indian Ocean Trade; Islam, Spread of;
The Portuguese seized Melaka in 1511, wrongly Spice Trade; Zheng He.
believing that by holding Melaka they could
monopolize Indian Ocean trade. As the Portuguese FURTHER READING
discovered, Melaka’s power was based not on its Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. A
military strength, but on its favor among the Asian History of Malaysia. Honolulu: University of Ha-
commercial community. It prospered because it waii Press, 2001.
provided a secure and neutral marketplace for its Hooker, Virginia Matheson. A Short History of Ma-
diverse international community of merchants to laysia. Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin,
exchange the profitable luxury goods demanded by 2003.
consumers in both the East and the West. Al- Wheatley, Paul, et al. Melaka: The Transformation of
though the Portuguese failed to develop a monop- a Malay Capital, c. 1400–1980. Kuala Lumpur,
oly over Indian Ocean trade, they did build a profit- Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Micronesia
Located in the western Pacific Ocean, an island chain settled by waves of Malayo-Polynesian and
Melanesian seafarers beginning in roughly 4000 B.C.E. Modern-day Micronesia consists of the
Marshall Islands, Guam, the North Mariana Islands, and the Caroline Islands, including Palau
and the Micronesian Federated States of Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae. The inhabitants of
these islands share similar ethnicity, but are culturally diverse because of their varying
geographical and historical circumstances.
Austronesian-speaking voyagers from the Philip- principle subsistence crop. Men and women had
pines settled Palau and the Marianas between 4000 separate but equally important economic chores
and 1500 B.C.E. Later waves of Oceanic-speaking that ensured local prosperity. Before the arrival of
Melanesians from the South Pacific arrived in Yap Europeans, around C.E. 1500, men spent most of
between 1300 and 200 B.C.E., followed between 500 their productive time collecting fish, sea turtles, and
B.C.E. and C.E. 1 by a third wave of Melanesian voyag- octopus; they also harvested coconut and breadfruit
ers who settled the Marshalls, Kosrae, and Pohnpei. trees, and hunted native animals, notably land
Ancestors of the voyagers who settled these latter is- snails and tropical birds. Women cultivated the land
lands later migrated to other parts of the Carolines. (for taro), gathered wild foods from the jungle,
fished inland ponds, and wove cloth and mats from
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC tree and plant fibers. Village houses were clustered
ORGANIZATION in clan groups; the houses of clan chiefs and other
The people in Micronesian societies commonly community elders were built on wooden platforms,
lived in villages on the lower slope of mountains on which also acted as community meetinghouses.
the edge of coastal plains, where they could plant Cross-family and clan social activities were based in
taro, a tuber, or rooted vegetable, that was their male and female clubs that were graded by age.
72 | MICRONESIA

POLITICAL SYSTEMS capital city at Nan Madol, on the southeastern shore

The traditional political systems of Micronesia var- of Temwen Island, off the coast of Pohnpei. The re-
ied greatly. The society on Yap, for example, never mains of this city consist of a coral reef of 92
had a strong, centralized authority. Order was con- human-made islets intersected by a network of arti-
centrated around a local chief who shared power ficially constructed canals and waterways, protected
with a council composed of the heads of the family by seawalls of loglike basalt stone that are up to 50
clans. Village societies were arranged in an island- feet (15 m) high and 20 feet (6 m) wide. The focal
wide ranking based on the debts owed by one vil- centers of this ancient city were the islet sites of
lage to others. elaborate funeral rituals, the residences of priests,
In contrast, the islands of Kosrae and Pohnpei and royal tombs, which were surrounded by the
were once ruled by supreme chiefs. Kosrae tradi- islet residences of state elite and marketplaces.
tionally had a head chief who ruled the entire is- Much of Micronesian society and culture signifi-
land, assisted by sectional chiefs. The head chief cantly changed after the 1525 arrival of the first Por-
was entitled to receive a share of all local production tuguese explorers in Yap. Early Portuguese and
(food or handicrafts) in payment for successfully Spanish contact provided Micronesian societies
leading the community. Pohnpei initially had sev- with their first access to iron and also introduced
eral roughly equal confederated chiefs who had domestic animals, such as goats, cows, and chick-
control over villagers in their region. They were as- ens, into the local economy.
sisted by “talking chiefs,” chosen from the second-
ranking family clan in each region, who acted as See also: Polynesia.
designated mediators if disputes arose between two
regions. As in Kosrae, the two elite clan lines re- FURTHER READING
ceived payment in the form of a share of local pro- Bellwood, Peter. Conquest of the Pacific: The Prehis-
duction from the local non-aristocratic clans. tory of Southeast Asia and Oceana. Oxford: Oxford
The Kosrae and Pohnpei supreme chief system University Press, 1979.
reached its height, perhaps as early as the eighth Quanchi, Max, and Ron Adams. Cultural Contact in
century C.E., under a mysterious line of kings known the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University
as the Saudeleurs. These kings built a spectacular Press, 1993.

Mongols
From the grassland regions (steppes) north of China, seminomadic population who, between
C.E. 1206 and 1481, conquered and ruled the largest land empire in history. The Mongol Empire

at its height stretched across Eurasia from China and Korea in the east to the Middle East and
eastern Europe in the west. These nomadic clans, previously known as Tartars (after the central
Asian tribe that had once controlled them), fostered cross-cultural exchanges between East and
West, by being culturally tolerant, providing the opportunity for secure transit across Mongol-
controlled territories, and recruiting non-Mongols into their administration.

CU LT U R E small food rations and supplies they needed in their

The Mongols’ success was based on their skills as saddlebags and, therefore, never having to pause to
warriors, and their great military advantages were wait for their supplies. They were the first to use
mobility and superior cavalry tactics. They could signal flags to coordinate their battlefield actions.
cover 100 miles (160 km) in a day, carrying whatever Their short, compound reflex bows allowed them to
 MONGOLS | 73

ANCIENT WEAPONS

The Mongolian Bow

Until the development of breach-loading (cartridge) normally about 5 feet (1.5 m) in length, and, when
firearms in the 1800s, the ancient Mongolian com- strung, it had a double curve, with the top and bot-
posite bow was the most effective long-range tool in tom of the bow bent away from the archer; this dou-
war and hunting. It was vastly superior to any mili- ble curve gave the bow its power.
tary technology in the medieval West, including the Compared to an English longbow that had a draw
famed English longbow. of about 70 to 80 pounds (32 to 36 kg), the Mongol
The Mongolian bow was made of three layers: an bow had a pull of 100 to 170 pounds (45 to 77 kg), de-
animal horn or pounded bone outer layer covered a pending on the strength of the archer. The English
wooden birch core, and a back made of layers of longbow could shoot up to 250 yards (230 m), but
sinew (animal gut) taken from deer, moose, or the Mongol bow could hit a target at 350 yards (320
mountain sheep. The bow was then wrapped with m) and well beyond. A thirteenth-century record of
boiled birch bark or fish skins to protect it from Mongol ruler Genghis Khan (r. C.E. 1206–1227) re-
moisture. These layers were secured using glue ports a shot made by one of his master archers that
made from boiled fish bladders, which was resilient reached 428 yards (390 m).
and highly moisture resistant. Alternatively, the Warriors, both male and female, always carried at
binding glue might be made from boiled animal least two bows, one for long-range shooting and an-
hides, but this method was less durable and ab- other for close-range combat. The Mongol bow was
sorbed moisture. shot from horseback by pulling the bow away from
After construction, the bow was wrapped in the string, rather than pulling the bowstring back.
ropes and placed in a form to dry and harden at Skilled archers timed shots to release when their
room temperature for a year or more. This made it horses’ hooves were in midair, to avoid distortion in
extremely strong and allowed it to keep its shape and aim when horse and rider hit the ground.
snap during years of shooting. The finished bow was

load and fire at full gallop. As a result, the Mongols HISTORY

lost few battles. The Mongol realm came into existence under Tem-
Local populations often chose to submit and uchin (C.E. 1155–1227), who was proclaimed Gen-
pay tribute to the Mongols rather than fight them ghis Khan, “universal sovereign” (r. C.E. 1206–
because of the Mongols’ reputation for cruelty to 1227), by an assembly of all Mongol chieftains. This
defeated foes. This aura of terror was promoted by assembly acknowledged Genghis’s conquests of
Mongol spies and agents, who spread horrific central Asia, the Near East, and eastern Europe, and
tales about their exploits. Nevertheless, the Mon- his initial victories in northern China. His success
gols actively recruited local allies. The thirteenth- was a result of his ability to unite the traditionally
century Mongol victory over China depended divided tribes living in modern-day Mongolia under
largely on the Chinese technicians, siege engi- his personal leadership and to reorganize them into
neers, gun founders, artillery experts, and naval 1,000-man fighting and administrative forces
specialists who helped them overcome China’s (minggan). To maintain order among his ranks, he
heavily fortified cities, defended by gunpowder introduced a code of law that provided examples of
weapons and explosives. The Mongol conquest of appropriate military and social behavior. The code
China marked the first widespread use of cannon emphasized loyalty to the Mongol military over fam-
in warfare. ily clans, promised reward for meritorious service
74 | MONGOLS

MONGOL EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT, CA. C.E. 1300

From the steppe populations on the north- ruled the largest land empire in history. Middle East and eastern Europe in the west.
ern border of China, the Mongols, a semi- Mongolian territory stretched across Eurasia Wherever they ruled, the Mongols adapted
nomadic people, eventually conquered and from China and Korea in the east to the to the culture and society they conquered.

rather than hereditary social standing, and pro- Horde in western Eurasia and Russia, the Ilkhans
moted ethnic and gender equality. Genghis’s realm in modern-day Iran and the Middle East, the Chaga-
had four regional divisions (khanates): the Golden tai in central Asia and Siberia, and what would
 MONGOLS | 75

eventually become the Yuan in China and eastern Central Asia and united the Turkestan regions
Eurasia. under his control in the 1380s. The Golden Horde
The unity of Genghis’s reign did not last long, finally fell to aggressive Moscow-based Russian
however, as the traditional Mongol tribal assembly forces in 1481.
system never had a clear succession policy. After
Genghis’s death, the Mongol chieftains divided the LEGACY
realm among his four sons, each of whom were Wherever they ruled, the Mongols adapted to the
based in one of the four regions. They proclaimed more culturally sophisticated societies they con-
Genghis’s third son Ogedei (C.E. 1186–1241) as his quered. Their administration depended on local of-
successor, now titled Mongol “emperor.” ficials, a few Mongols who became literate and
Ogedei, who reigned from his base in central adopted local cultural practices, and foreigners. Al-
Asia, continued to coordinate the successful mili- though they had previously worshiped a universal
tary conquests begun by his father. By the end of sky god as well as various ancestral and natural spir-
Ogedei’s lifetime, the Mongol realm had nearly its, Mongol rulers later converted to Buddhism,
reached its peak, annexing most of modern east- Islam, and Christianity in the lands they con-
ern Europe and the Turkish peninsula in the west. quered. They also entered profitable business part-
His successors, however, were too involved in fam- nerships, encouraged maritime trade initiatives,
ily feuds to continue the conquest of the West. and patronized artisans and artists, whose efforts
When Ogedei died, Mongol troops that were ad- provided an important source of tax revenue to fi-
vancing on Vienna in modern-day Austria withdrew nance the Mongol administration.
from eastern Europe. Above all, the Mongols insured the security of
In China, Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan the vital east-west Silk Road trade route across cen-
(r. C.E. 1260–1294) succeeded Ogedei as emperor, tral Asia, which became an important means for
but the other three regional khans largely ignored cultural exchange. Regular Mongol-sponsored in-
his authority. In C.E. 1279, Kublai completed the tellectual meetings between Persian and Chinese
Mongol conquest of China and Korea and founded scholars, scientists, physicians, and agricultural
China’s Yuan dynasty (C.E. 1279–1350). Kublai specialists promoted the spread of knowledge
failed in repeated attempts to take Japan (C.E. 1274, throughout the Mongol realm.
1281), Vietnam (C.E. 1281, 1283–1285), and Myanmar
(C.E. 1277, 1283, 1287). He also sent an ill-fated fleet See also: China; Golden Horde; Silk Road.
against Java in C.E. 1292. These unsuccessful mili-
tary expeditions drove the Yuan government into FURTHER READINGS
debt that Kublai’s successors were not able to over- Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the Steppe: A Military
come. A Chinese military alliance deposed the Yuan History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700. New
realm in 1350, ending Mongol rule in China. York: DaCapo Press, 2001.
Mongol rule of Persia (modern Iran) effectively Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Leg-
ended in C.E. 1335, with the death of the Ilkhan acy. Translated and edited by Thomas Nivison
monarch Abu Said (r. 1316–1335). Regional lead- Haining. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1992.
ers established independent authority until Timur Rossabi, Morris. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times.
(Tamerlane), a Turko-Mongol leader based in north- Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
ern Persian and Afghanistan, intervened from 1370 Soucek, Svatopluk. A History of Inner Asia. New
to 1405. Tamerlane also ended Mongol control over York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
76 | MONSOONS

Monsoons
Seasonal winds that bring heavy rain from the Indian Ocean to Southeast Asia and the Indian
subcontinent. The monsoons have dictated the yearly cycle of human existence in southern Asia
for millennia. They have encouraged or discouraged human habitation and contributed to social
organization and cultural innovation.
The term comes from the Arabic word mawsim, possible year-round. In other cases, depending on
meaning “season,” or “seasonal wind.” The region the proximity of the region to the equator, cultiva-
has two monsoonal seasons. The summer, or south- tion is possible during the dry winter season due to
western, monsoon season lasts from late spring the continuing flow of water from the summer
through August. The winter, or northeastern, mon- melting of snow in the Himalayas into the major
soon occurs between October and December. river systems of China (the Yellow, Chang, and the
In summer, the dry landmass of Eurasia heats multiple rivers of southern China) and southern
up and generates a mass of hot air. As this warm air Asia (the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra).
rises, it creates an area of low pressure that draws in Monsoons are necessary to support large popula-
cooler air from the Indian Ocean. Cool ocean tions in southern Asia, but they also can be extraor-
breezes blow over the continent from southwest to dinarily destructive. Monsoons often bring floods
northeast, mixing with the continental warm air that destroy crops and property and cause death
mass to produce heavy rain. from drowning, disease, or famine. The timing of
During late fall and winter, the central Asian the monsoons is uncertain, as is their duration and
landmass cools rapidly, producing cold, heavy air. the amount of rainfall they bring. One year may
The air pressure over the ocean decreases relative to bring floods while the next is marked by drought.
that over the land, drawing cool continental air The development of wet-rice agriculture, which
from the northeast back to the southwest. These led to Asia’s population boom, and the construction
winter winds are dry as they blow across the conti- of elaborate dike networks to hold back seasonal
nent, but pick up moisture as they pass over the monsoon floods are but two societal responses to
ocean. Upon encountering land, the moisture falls the monsoons.
as rain in coastal regions such as southeastern
India’s Coromandel Coast. See also: Agriculture; Culture and Traditions.
Parts of east Asia’s coastal regions, such as
southern China, are subject to both monsoon sea- FURTHER READING
sons, making them agriculturally productive year- McCurry, Steve. Monsoon. London: Thames and
round. Others, notably India’s southeastern coast Hudson, 1997.
and the Southeast Asian islands that lie south of the Parks, Peggy J. Monsoons. Farmington Hills, MI:
equator such as Indonesia, receive significant rain- KidHaven Press, 2006.
fall only during the winter monsoon. Farmers in Wang, Bin. The Asian Monsoon. New York: Springer-
southeastern India store rainwater from the win- Praxis, 2006.
ter monsoon in large tanks to make agriculture
 MYTHS AND EPICS | 77

Myths and Epics

Oral mythology told of the evolution of the earliest civilizations of Asia into settled agricultural
communities. Over time, some of these folk traditions became the basis of more formalized
spirit worship, as in, for example, Japan’s Shinto tradition. Others were incorporated into more
sophisticated narratives, as in India’s epic poems Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Myths and epics popularized the cultural values subordinates of a universal celestial divine. In
of a society in a form that was accessible to even the contrast, Japanese Shinto linked the early regional
uneducated commoner. They served to spread com- spirit cults to an animistic faith.
mon cultural values among both the aristocratic
and nonelite classes, as well as among both urban Shinto
and rural populations. Indian and Southeast Asian Japan’s folk deities were associated with the forces
kings and Chinese and Japanese emperors all of nature, which had the capacity to help or harm
claimed their authority as the legitimate heirs to the early Japanese rural society. Japanese mythology be-
mythic figures of the legendary past. The epics gins with the creation myths about a divine brother
might, as in the case of some sections of the Indian and sister, Izanagi and Izanami, who created the
Mahabharata, consist of sophisticated philosophical Japanese islands and gave birth to the sun goddess
discourse, but this was the exception rather than Amaterasu, the guardian deity of the Japanese peo-
the norm. ple, who lived in the “Land of the Rising Sun.”
The Japanese spirit realm is populated by Inari, a
FOLK DEITIES AND SPIRIT complex of divine spirits associated with the power
WORSHIP of abundance and food, especially rice. Inari are also
Early Asian myths were oral tales that typically cele- often associated with the symbolic masters of trans-
brated a culture’s ancestral heroes or spirits of na- formation, kitsune (foxes), tanuki, and tengu (moun-
ture. Most ancient Asian peoples saw these forces tain and forest goblins). These figures have a long-
as having powerful influence over their lives, and standing connection to traditional shaman magic
they created tales to explain and emphasize the role and the realm of ghosts, spirits, and demons. Male
of those forces in everyday life. Myths were origi- divinities are normally demons with flaming heads,
nally recited at public gatherings, perhaps around a fiery eyes, and swords. Female divinities often played
communal campfire as was the case with the tales more benevolent roles in human affairs. These in-
of ancestral heroes and gods featured in the Indian clude Kannon, the goddess of compassion and
Rig Veda. The Rig Veda myths, which were first mercy who might intervene on humanity’s behalf,
composed around 1800 B.C.E., focus on the spirits and Shoki, the demon slayer. Some female divinities
of the natural realm who are more or less subordi- were said to bring misfortune, such as Adachigahara,
nate to Indra, the supreme deified ancestor who is who was fond of killing unattended children.
the lord of war. These myths were also recited in
private and public rituals that were the foundations Chinese Folk Tradition
of Hindu religious tradition. China’s Confucian myths portray the early societal
Many societies incorporated traditional, local evolution of northern China in a series of tales
myths and spirit worship into Buddhist, Daoist, and about deified ancestors. These tales provided the
Confucian traditions, often adapting the ancient foundation for the concept known as “Mandate of
myths to reflect the beliefs and pantheon of the Heaven,” wherein successful Chinese emperors are
later religion. In such cases, the local spirits became believed to be backed by celestial forces. The myths
78 | MYTHS AND EPICS

LINK TO PLACE

Indian and Greek Epics

Greek and Indian epics both derive from an Indo- the Greek epics, who are no longer a living part of
Aryan heritage that had its roots in the steppe re- the Greek culture. Rather, Zeus, Hera, Achilles, and
gions of southern Russia. The Indian Mahabharata others are said to be representative of the classical
and Ramayana epics, which originated around transition from belief in divine intervention to ac-
1600–1200 B.C.E., and the Greek epics that came to ceptance of humankind’s accountability for its own
be known as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey (1100–800 successes and failures.
B.C.E.), were originally oral compositions in verse Both Vedic and Greek gods portrayed in the epics
form. In contrast to Homer’s texts, which were in are beneficent beings who bestow prosperity and
written form by 800 B.C.E., and despite the early de- good fortune on their human followers. When evil
velopment of Indian Sanskrit writing, the Mahab- occurs, it is not the work of the gods but the work of
harata and Ramayana epics remained oral “works in demons. The gods inevitably defeat the demons,
progress” into the Gupta era (ca. C.E. 320–550). whether in competitions that take place on earth or
They still exist today in several versions that devel- in the realms of the gods, and restore order to the
oped in both India and Southeast Asia. Thus, it is realm of humanity. The divine beings are also moral
not technically correct to speak of “the” Indian epics. and punish the sinful and wicked while rewarding
In India and Southeast Asia, Indic epics are still the pious and righteous. But more important than
vital, and their characters—Rama, Hanuman, being moral, they are mighty. They may do whatever
Krisna, and Bima—are still worshipped as being di- they wish, and have imperfections, but have power
vine. This is in contrast to the gods and heroes in over all creatures.

also served as examples and lessons on correct and the Jade Emperor, the supreme divinity in Chinese
incorrect human behavior. folk religion. The Jade Emperor rules heaven and
Chinese mythology begins with the Three Au- Earth assisted by a pantheon of divine civil ser-
gust Ones and the Five Emperors, who made soci- vants. The members of the pantheon were hu-
ety and culture possible. The August Ones, also mans who were made divine as a result of exem-
known as the Three Sovereigns, are the god-kings plary accomplishments during their lifetimes.
who founded Chinese civilization. The Five Emper- This myth reflected and reinforced the Chinese
ors are wise and morally perfect sages. They include practice of basing civil authority on merit, rather
the Heavenly Emperor Fuxi and his wife Nuwa, the than hereditary entitlement.
first ancestors of humanity; the Earthly King Zhu The Eight Immortals also achieved exalted status
Rong, who invented fire, which made the earth hab- by overcoming moral deficiencies such as drunken-
itable; and the Human King Shennong, who in- ness, dishonesty, and personal vanity during their
vented farming. The most prominent among the lifetimes. Although they could not become gods,
Five Emperors was the Yellow Emperor, Huang Di, they resided at the Jade Emperor’s court and could
who invented weapons that allowed him to defeat intervene on humanity’s behalf to resolve seem-
the war god Chi You. This tale represents the victory ingly lost causes.
of settled agricultural populations over neighboring The most prominent female divine in the Chi-
seminomads who regularly raided China’s earli- nese tradition is Guanyin, the goddess of compas-
est farming communities. sion and caring and a role model and patron deity
Another Chinese myth incorporated into Con- for Chinese women. Guanyin especially supports the
fucian, Daoist, and Buddhist traditions involves distressed and hungry, and gives comfort and aid to
 MYTHS AND EPICS | 79

The Tale of Genji, a mythical story from eleventh-century C.E. Japan, is often called the world’s first novel. The scene depicted
above shows Prince Genji, the story’s hero, leaving the palace of his lover, Lady Fugitsubo. (Art Resource, NY)

the downtrodden. She has the ability to transform Korea’s Samguksagi (“Chronicles of the Three
into any living creature to complete her task. She States”) and The Legend of Tangun (the history of the
can help make women fertile, and is also concerned founding of the ancient Choson state in the twelfth
with the care of infants, especially newborns, who century B.C.E.) are compilations of earlier tales. Like
are particularly vulnerable. Japan’s eighth-century Kojiki (Record of Ancient Mat-
ters) and Nihongi (“History of Japan”), they were in-
EPIC S tended to provide the ruling families of Korea and
Throughout Asia, early oral myths evolved into oral Japan with distinguished ancestral histories. The
epics that were eventually committed to writing. thirteenth-century Koreans went further in their
The most important of these stories describe the epic study of King Tongmyong (C.E. 1168–1241),
founding of the societies that produced them. As which reviews the founding of Koryo sovereignty.
such, early epics conformed to the values and inter- China’s earliest known epic was the fourteenth-
ests of the societal elite. century C.E. Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which
recounts the fall of China’s Han dynasty and the
Japan, China, and Korea period that followed (C.E. 150–280). The text is a
Two early Japanese epic tales offer views into an- window into the Chinese past, a commentary on
cient Japanese elite society. Japan’s Tale of Genji, Chinese political philosophy, and ultimately a re-
often considered the world’s first novel, captures flection on politics in the Yuan era (C.E. 1279–
the complexities of secluded court life in eleventh- 1368) during which it was written. All Chinese
century Japan. The Tales of Heike, written in the thir- knew the main characters of the tale. Cao Cao, the
teenth century C.E., provides a view of court society founder of the post-Han Wei regional state (C.E.
in decay with its history of the Taira (Heike) family’s 220–265) is the classic arch villain. The three early
fortunes in the Taira-Minamoto War of C.E. 1156– heroic champions of the rival Shu state (C.E. 221–
1185. This conflict marked the critical transfer of po- 265) are Liu Bei, who fights to uphold the tradi-
litical authority from Japan’s imperial court to the tions of the past, and his able and loyal generals
Kamakura Shogunate, a military dictatorship. Zhuge Liang, who defeats the evil Cao Cao, and
80 | MYTHS AND EPICS

LINK TO PLACE

Asian Creation Myths

Asian myths typically explain that humans came of yin and yang. Yin and yang fell from the egg, and
into existence by the actions of a god or gods that es- yin formed the earth and yang the sky. When the egg
tablished a continuing bond between the world of hatched, Pan Gu became the source of the third ele-
humanity and the world of the divine. They also indi- ment of the trinity of earth, sky, and humankind.
cate that the creator established a hierarchy in Japan’s origin myth, which appears in an eighth-
which humans exist below the gods and other super- century C.E. Japanese chronicle collection, differs
natural beings but above animals and plants. The so- from the Chinese myth in that the earth and sky are
cieties that created these myths applied this idea of deities of different sexes—male sky and female
order and hierarchy to human relations; most an- earth—which produce human offspring. Instead of
cient Asian cultures were marked by strict social yin and yang, the sea is said to be the creative source
stratification. of energy that made human existence possible. In
One of China’s several creations myths is repre- the Japanese creation myth, the god Izanagi and
sentative of those of other Asian civilizations in its goddess Izanami stir the waters of the earth to pro-
explanation of an original source of human exis- duce the island of Okonoro, from which they later
tence. In this tale, which was incorporated into Chi- create the Japanese islands. The divine couple then
nese writings by the sixth century B.C.E., Pan Gu was populates the islands with their many children, in-
the first living thing. He evolved from a giant nurtur- cluding the sun goddess Amaterasu, from whom de-
ing cosmic egg, which contained the opposing forces scended the emperors of Japan.

Guan Yu, who was deified as Guan Di, the Chinese on Rama, a prince who slew many demons that
god of war. had been attacking local villagers. To avenge his
fellow demons’ deaths, Ravana, the demon king of
India Lanka (Sri Lanka), kidnaps Rama’s wife, Sita.
India’s greatest epic is the Mahabharata, which tells Rama and his brother, Laksmana, ally with Su-
of a civil war that took place in the Vedic age (ca. griva, the king of the monkeys, and his general,
1600–800 B.C.E.). The Pandava brothers, who Hanuman, to find Sita. After tracking Sita to Ra-
emerge victorious over their rivals, the Kaurava, vana’s palace, Rama, Laksmana, Hanuman, and
represent the various personalities of humankind their army of monkeys kill Ravana and his follow-
and stand as models for appropriate human behav- ers and rescue Sita.
ior. One brother, Yadhisisthira, is pious, righteous, Although Ravana had not mistreated or even
and gentle, but a little negative in character. Bhima touched Sita, Hindu sacred law forced Rama to re-
is physically imposing, rough, and gluttonous, but fuse Sita as his wife, because she had lived with an-
very intelligent. Arjuna is the great warrior—princi- other man. In anguish, Sita threw herself on a fu-
pled, generous, and brave. Notable narrative epi- neral pyre (a fire built to burn the bodies of the
sodes tell legends of the Indian gods, as well as sto- dead, following Hindu custom). This act was ex-
ries that serve as commentaries on proper and pected of loyal wives, who sacrificed themselves to
improper behavior. join their deceased husbands in the afterlife. In
The Ramayana, a symbolic story about rightful Sita’s case, however, it was as an act of penance to
human conduct dating to about the third century cleanse herself of her perceived wrongdoing. The
B . C . E ., is just as significant to Indian epic litera- fire-god Agni, however, refused to accept her self-
ture as the Mahabarata. The Ramayana focuses sacrifice and Sita lived. Interpreting this as a sign of
 NEW ZEALAND | 81

Sita’s innocence, Rama and Sita renewed their mar- See also: China; Confucianism; Hinduism; India;
riage vows and returned to Ayodhya to righteously Japan; Java; Korea; Language and Literature;
rule as king and queen. The tale was written as a cri- Mandate of Heaven; Shinto.
tique of the unintended consequences of strict
Brahmanical law. FURTHER READING
The Mahabharata and Ramayana epics were Creese, Helen. Women of the Kakawin World: Mar-
models for other south Asian regional epic litera- riage and Sexuality in the Indic Courts of Java and
ture, as well as for the localization of these epics Bali. Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 2004.
into the language and cultural traditions of South- Davis, Edward L. Society and the Supernatural in
east Asia. The most notable of these local efforts are Song China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
the Javanese kakawin epic poems from the eleventh Press, 2001.
through the fifteenth centuries C.E., which retell the Tambiah, Stanley J. Magic, Science, Religion, and the
Indian classics in the Javanese language and a Java- Scope of Rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
nese setting. versity Press, 1990.

New Zealand
Southern Pacific islands located southwest of Australia that were settled between the twelfth and four-
teenth centuries C.E. by migrating populations from Polynesia known as Maori. New Zealand is known by
its native population as Aotearoa, literally “land of the long white cloud.”

EARLY SETTLEMENT that Kupe found the island uninhabited. The begin-
New Zealand’s earliest known settlements date to ning of the larger and more well-attested Maori mi-
the Archaic Maori era, which began around C.E. gration occurred during the twelfth century, led by the
750. At this time, Polynesian settlers of unknown legendary chief Whatonga and his grandfather Tai.
origin lived on New Zealand’s South Island. Arche- Archeological discoveries confirm kernels of truth
ological evidence and local legend suggest that in these legends, such as evidence of short-term
these earliest settlers depended on hunting the tenth-century Maori settlements in the Bay of Is-
moa, a now-extinct flightless bird that was as large lands on New Zealand’s northern tip, and evidence
as four feet (1.2 m) tall and grazed on the open of gardening at Urimatao on Moturua Island. How-
grasslands of South Island. The largest populations ever, other than these sites, there is little evidence of
of this moa-hunting people lived in camps along settlement on the North Island until the twelfth cen-
the eastern coast of the South Island. According to tury C.E. The best archeological evidence suggests
Maori legend, the earliest inhabitants of South Is- that the first group of voyaging Maori populations
land eventually killed off the moa bird population, arrived in the twelfth century and settled the Darga-
forcing the settlers to maintain their settlements ville area on the North Island’s western coast. From
close to the coast, depending primarily on the sea there they moved farther south, building fortified
for their survival. Later, as confirmed by archeologi- villages at Rawhiti and Manawaora.
cal evidence, other Archaic Maori became fisher- In this period, known as the Classic Maori age,
men on the North Island’s western coast around Maori left the coasts to settle the interior. New food
Mount Taranaki. crops were introduced, notably taro, yams, and
According to Maori mythology, the adventurer gourd, but especially kumara, a variety of sweet po-
Kupe led a tenth-century expedition to New Zealand tato and the only tropical plant to flourish in New
in double outrigger canoes from the Maori home- Zealand’s cool climate. According to local legend,
land, which most scholars identify as the Society Is- the Polynesians brought the kumara to New Zea-
lands of the southern-central Pacific. Legend holds land from their original island homeland.
82 | NEW ZEALAND

LINK IN TIME

Maori Culture: Ancient and Modern

The centerpiece of a Maori community is the marae, rules and prohibitions. By tradition, community
or meeting ground, where a range of activities takes members of lower rank may not touch the tapu ob-
place according to traditional practices. These cele- jects of those of higher rank, as those of higher birth
brations include funerals, weddings, tribal reunions, may not touch the tapu belongings of those in the
and an annual cycle of other rituals. The marae, lower ranks. If a person of low status touches the
which symbolizes group unity, normally consists of glass of a higher-ranking person, for example, the
an open grassy area in front of a large, carved wooden drinking vessel must be destroyed.
meetinghouse. Some objects, for example, a ritual basket, a
Community elders manage the marae, where water vessel, or a sacred axe, are so tapu that they are
they pass along group traditions and cultural prac- considered dangerous to all except qualified priests.
tices to the young by teaching oral folktales, songs, In previous times, failure to honor such an impor-
and the traditional arts of weaving and woodcarving. tant tapu would pollute the sacred object, place, or
Among the most important lessons taught at the person and was punishable by death. To not honor
marae is distinction between tapu, that which is sa- such tapu offended the gods and was sure to bring
cred, and noa, that which is held in common. A per- negative societal consequence. Noa, however, are
son, object, or place that is tapu may not be touched free of such prohibitions, and are available to all re-
or even approached except according to specific gardless of rank, as common community property.

As the new crops took hold, societies gave up their differences related to geographical isolation and the
nomadic camp culture and unfortified villages, and varied dates at which the settlers arrived. These dif-
began to build fortified settlements. They also devel- ferences find expression principally through the
oped an efficient underground storage system that distinction between northern and southern Maori
allowed them to harvest the fragile kumara tubers culture. For example, while there is a single Maori
before the first frost and allow them to ripen during language, there are separate northern and southern
the cold winter months. Stored crops fed the local Maori dialects, and nine known regional variations
population in the winter, and the surplus was re- of the northern dialect.
planted in the spring. Some successful groups began Maori community life centered on a yearly cycle
to live in unprotected villages, whereas others contin- of group performances and rituals held at local
ued to occupy strongly fortified villages. meeting grounds, which symbolically bonded indi-
The final settlers from Polynesia landed in the viduals to the local community. Community assem-
Bay of Islands area in the late fourteenth century, blies convened inside a large wooden hall adjacent
where they intermarried with the established Maori to the meeting grounds, where speeches, songs,
settlers. By the time the first Europeans arrived in recitations of Maori myth, and ritual processions
the late sixteenth century C.E., most Maori lived on took place. These proceedings frequently ended in
the tropical North Island’s northern coastline. Today, gift exchanges between the meeting hosts and their
most Maori live on the North Island, representing guests, acknowledged by a ceremonial touching of
14 percent of New Zealand’s total population. noses, and a concluding ceremonial sharing of food.
Maori religion is based on Polynesian myth, which
CU LT U R E explains that humans and every other aspect of nature
The great diversit1y among Maori ancestral arts, are descended from Sky Father and Earth Mother.
crafts, languages, and ways of life reflects cultural There was a subsequent competition between two of
 NEW ZEALAND | 83

Maori culture dominated New

Guinea before the arrival of
European settlers in the
eighteenth century C.E. and is
still evident today. The façade
on this church on the North
Island is carved and painted in
traditional Maori fashion.
(Robert Francis/Robert Harding
World Imagery/Getty Images)

their children, the fierce Tumatauenga (god of war), protection against their neighbors. Later arrivals, by
and his wise brother Tane Mahuta (god of the forest), contrast, lived in unfortified villages. Maori under-
who ultimately prevailed. Tane Mahuta’s son Maui stand this archeological evidence as demonstration
eventually “fished Aotearoa up” from the sea (a sym- that the earliest inhabitants were in agency with Tu-
bolic explanation for New Zealand’s volcanic origin). matauenga, the destructive god of war. In contrast,
Archeological evidence demonstrates that there the new arrivals were committed to the wise Tane
are elements of truth in the symbolic Maori creation Mahuta; they eventually prevailed and thereafter
myth. The Archaic Maori lived in fortified villages, as both groups of Maori learned to live in peace.
84 | NEW ZEALAND

See also: Polynesia. Nineteenth Century. Honolulu: University of Ha-

waii Press, 1996.
FURTHER READING Patterson, John. Exploring Maori Values. Auckland,
Belich, James. Making Peoples: A History of New Zea- Australia: Dunmore Press, 1992.
landers from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the

Pax Sinica
Political time, influential in pre-1500 Asia, when it was thought that the success and prosperity
of the Asian continent depended on the existence of a strong and stable Chinese ruling
dynasty. The rise of dynastic authority in China during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220)
coincided with increased prosperity throughout Asia. When Chinese dynasties fell, or during
extended periods without strong dynastic authority, Asia tended to experience local economic
difficulties and political strife.
Nineteenth-century Western scholars coined the order to encourage peace among his neighbors.
term Pax Sinica to compare the periods of stable Chi- China also expected regular trade with tributary
nese rule with the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”) es- states. Exotic foreign products such as spices, aro-
tablished in the early years (29 B.C.E.–C.E. 180) of the matic woods, cotton textiles, jungle birds, and
Roman Empire. During the Pax Romana, Roman medicinal items were important markers of status
law and civic culture spread throughout the empire, in China and thus the foreign trade supported the
helping to unify and pacify a diverse population of luxurious lifestyle of China’s elite. Just as impor-
conquered peoples. Similarly, scholars believed, the tantly, mandatory foreign trade occurring at Chinese
Han dynasty united the diverse regions of China ports provided a vital source of government revenue.
under its imperial rule, and used China’s powerful The fall of the Han dynasty brought a drop in
political and economic base to impose its will on its international trade, significant economic disrup-
neighbors. Like the Romans, the Chinese were able tion, and political destabilization to Asia. The re-
to maintain control with the threat of military force; turn of long-term Chinese dynastic authority under
subject populations were unwilling to challenge a the Tang (C.E. 618–907) and Song (C.E. 960–1279)
well-armed, well-trained army. This threat formed led to a prolonged period of economic and political
the basis of the Chinese Tributary System. growth throughout the region. The resumption and
Under this system, populations not directly sub- expansion of trade paved the way for development
ject to Chinese authority (such as those in Korea or of an international communication network that
Vietnam) were expected to send regular embassies brought the Buddhist faith to China. The newly
to present tributary gifts—samples of local products converted Chinese authorities made their realm a
that might be of interest to the Chinese—to the Chi- center of Buddhist worship and scholarship.
nese emperor. The emperor, in turn, presented the The era of the Pax Sinica also witnessed the
ambassador with a gift that symbolized Chinese ap- spread of Chinese Confucian culture to neighbor-
proval of the local ruler’s sovereignty. The ruler dis- ing Japan (C.E. 710), Korea (C.E. 935), and Vietnam
played the gift to his subjects as a public demonstra- (C.E. 960), where the Chinese political system be-
tion of the emperor’s support. came the basis for successful local monarchies.
Certain expectations accompanied imperial ap- Even the “barbarian” Mongol emperors during the
proval, notably that the ruler who gave tribute Yuan dynasty (C.E. 1279–1368) adopted established
would ensure peace and stability in his realm in Chinese political and cultural systems and success-
 POLYNESIA | 85

fully managed an empire that extended from China aggressive use of gunpowder to assert their economic
to the Mediterranean Sea. interests marked the final end of the Pax Sinica.
The rulers of the Ming dynasty (C.E. 1368–1644)
offered an even greater possibility of peace and See also: Indian Ocean Trade; Japan; Korea;
prosperity in the early fifteenth century. At this Melaka; Mongols; Silk Road; Spice Trade; Vietnam;
time, well-armed Ming fleets sailed to the Middle Zheng He.
East and Africa to eliminate piracy and other local
threats to the vital Indian Ocean maritime trade FURTHER READING
route. The Ming withdrew from these overseas voy- Chang, Chun-shu. The Rise of the Chinese Empire:
ages in the 1430s to refocus their military spending Frontier, Immigration, and Empire in Han China,
on securing their northern borders against the raids 129 B.C.–A.D. 107. Ann Arbor: University of Mich-
of threatening central Asian steppe populations. igan Press, 2006.
Thus, when cannon-bearing Portuguese and Span- Hardy, Grant, and Anne Behnke Kinney. The Estab-
ish ships entered Asian waters in the early sixteenth lishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China.
century they had no initial opposition, and their Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005.

Polynesia
Stretching from New Guinea east across the Pacific, a widely scattered group of islands that were
populated by seagoing people with roots in Southeast Asia. After migrating from mainland Asia
sometime before 10,000 B.C.E., some Polynesians left New Guinea around 1500 B.C.E. They
traveled first to the Solomon Island chain, then to the Banks and Vanuatu archipelagos, and
eventually as far east as Samoa and Hawaii. The name Polynesia refers to the shared cultural
heritage of the islands, rather than any geographic or political unity among them.
Archeologists estimate that it took hundreds The Polynesians navigated the Pacific in ingeni-
of years for the Polynesian migrants to reach the ously designed and built double-outrigger canoes.
easternmost islands, some 2,000 miles (3,200 km) These vessels consisted of two hulls connected
from their starting point off New Guinea. Hawaii with lashed crossbeams and covered with a central
was settled about C.E. 400 to 500, Easter Island platform. Although referred to as canoes, these
about C.E. 400, and New Zealand about C.E. 1100– vessels were wind-driven, using sails made of
1200. Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga seem to have had spe- natural fiber matting. The two hulls gave the craft
cial roles as the strategic points for the later voyages greater stability and resiliency in the open ocean,
of migration, as they are mentioned in local tradi- as well as the capacity to transport people and sup-
tions as points of origin. plies over long distances. A medium-size boat, 50
Except for the sweet potato, all of the crops and to 60 feet (15 to 18 m) long, could accommodate
domesticated animals of Polynesia (taro, bananas, two dozen people and their belongings, including
yams, breadfruit, sugar cane, pigs, dogs, and chick- plants and animals to introduce on the new is-
ens) came from Asia. Even the sweet potato likely lands they settled.
was brought from its native South America by so- Polynesian culture is based on family blood-
journing Polynesians. Scholars agree that the voy- lines and ranking of the different branches of an-
agers brought these foods with them, indicating cestors. Rank often is related to previous islands of
that the goal of their trip was settlement, not simply residence, and favors the earliest settlers over
random exploration. those who arrived later. Polynesians have a unique
86 | POLYNESIA

animistic religious outlook, in which sea crea- from Asia, commonly emphasize movement, he-
tures, birds, and the heavens are vital spiritual roic voyages of discovery, and observation of natural
forces. The Polynesians view these oceanic crea- signs such as the stars and ocean currents.
tures as having protected and guided the migrat-
ing voyagers in their travels. Polynesian religious See also: Micronesia; New Zealand.
tradition also celebrates a divine brother and sis-
ter, Ru and Hina, who navigate the earth to locate FURTHER READING
new islands for settlement. The sister, Hina, is Bellwood, Peter. Polynesians: Prehistory of an Island
said to remain as the moon, guiding voyagers People. London: Thames and Hudson, 1987.
across the ocean. Campbell, Ian C. History of the Pacific Islands. Berke-
Today’s Polynesian society and culture resulted ley: University of California Press, 1990.
from the mixing of populations and cultures over Irwin, Geoffrey. The Prehistoric Exploration and Col-
the centuries. These cultures and languages, which onization of the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge
developed locally rather than being transplanted University Press, 1994.
 R–T, V, Z

Religion
Although drawn from a wide variety of local sources and traditions, ancient Asian and Pacific
religions have long coexisted and influenced one another’s beliefs and practices. Ancient
practitioners of Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto existed alongside one
another as have followers of animist religions and ancestor worship cults. As a result,
traditional beliefs about humankind’s relationship with the spirits of the natural world occupy a
central role in several major Asian religions.
Although similarities exist, this intermingling of special role to the spirits of the soil, plants, and
indigenous religious beliefs throughout ancient weather, as well as to local guardian spirits asso-
Asia led most of the major religions of the region to ciated with sacred rocks, trees, or sources of water.
develop several different forms, or schools of Local agricultural productivity was believed to result
thought, with varying beliefs and practices. Faiths from a partnership between humanity and the spiri-
such as Hinduism and Shinto, which had no single tual forces of the natural realm. Similar beliefs were
founder, grew from an accumulation of beliefs and popular among the Jomon culture (ca. 10,000–300
show significant regional variation. Even Bud- B.C.E.) of Japan during the same time period.
dhism, although based on the teachings of Siddhar- Adherents of animistic faiths believed that spir-
tha Gautama (ca. 563–483 B.C.E.)—the Buddha, or its could flow from one realm of existence to an-
“enlightened one”—split into three major schools. other in ways that humans could not. Humanity oc-
In most places, local cultural notions shaped the cupied a middle realm between supernatural forces
form of the religion. that inhabited both the darker regions below the
earth and the celestial realms above it. Spirits
ANIMISM that dwelled below the earth, such as fertility spirits,
Traditional Asian animism was based on local belief could be benevolent; others were potentially dan-
in spirits that populate the realms of nature and hu- gerous evil forces. Those who lived above the earth
manity. These spirits are revealed in dreams, were generally beneficial to humans. In animist be-
trances, and a variety of supernatural experiences, lief, humans cannot eliminate evil spirits but they
including human encounters with ghosts or other can perform rituals to appease them.
spiritual presences. For example, ancient agricultu- Animistic “cults of the soil” were well estab-
ral cults among the village sites of northern China’s lished in India and China at the time settled agricul-
Yangshao culture (ca. 5000–2000 B.C.E.) assigned a tural communities appeared in both areas about

87
88 | RELIGION

2500–1800 B.C.E. In these cults, a chief or priest state religion in 206 B.C.E. Imperial officials assumed
served as the intermediary between the earth deity roles as religious leaders in an attempt to focus reli-
and ancestor spirits on the one hand and the gious practice on the state and its representatives.
human community on the other. This intermediary
performed rituals and sacrificial offerings of food, INDIAN RELIGIOUS
animals, and even humans (slaves or war captives) TRADITIONS
to assure the fertility of livestock and crops and the In India, Hinduism emerged as a result of the mix-
general good fortune of the community. Prosperity ing of Vedic influences from central Asia with exist-
was not seen as the product of human labor, but as ing Indian animistic beliefs. The Aryan nomads
the work of the gods. Economic productivity was who entered India about 1600 B.C.E. practiced a
thus the consequence of healthy relationships faith centered on the worship of male ancestors,
between humans and supernatural forces. and these ideas merged with Indian worship of fe-
male fertility spirits. For example, the stone linga, or
CHINESE ADAPTATIONS male phallus, was portrayed united with the female
In China, Daoism drew heavily on animistic ideas vulva as the focal object of ritual fertility celebra-
to promote harmonious coexistence between hu- tions in animistic pre-Hindu India. Under Hindu-
mans and nature. Lao Tzu, a semimythical scholar ism, these local divinities were transformed into
from the sixth century B.C.E., traditionally is cred- universally powerful gods and goddesses. The
ited with writing the founding text of Daoism, the linga, for example, came to symbolize the Vedic god
Tao te Ching, although various authors likely pro- Siva, who oversaw the realms of agricultural fertil-
duced the work over a period of many years. ity and human health.
Daoism is based on the Dao, or “way of nature,” a Hinduism did not develop a single tradition,
supreme natural force that produces and nurtures however, and various strains of belief developed as a
everything in the universe. Daoist teaching looks to result of debate about the earliest Hindu texts, the
nature for examples to illustrate its concepts and Rig Veda. Although most Hindus acknowledge the
stresses that all living things, including humans, ultimate authority of the Rig Veda, few Hindu sects
should strive to live in harmony with the Dao. base their ideas solely on its teachings. Most Hin-
Confucianism, meanwhile, embraced traditional dus, for example, worship a pantheon of gods,
Chinese worship of ancestral spirits but redirected while others practice monotheism, and some are
the focus to the world of the living. In Confucianism, even atheists. Local customs and culture shape indi-
observing correct familial relationships is seen to be vidual beliefs about which god or gods to worship,
key to an orderly and healthy society. This includes which ritual practices are the most important, and
not only honoring deceased ancestors but also pay- how much social freedom is accorded to females.
ing proper respect to parents and other living family Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism does not draw its
elders. In broader society, this translates into respect inspiration from existing animist beliefs; however,
for one’s social superiors, particularly government it does not prohibit its followers from practicing
officials. However, Confucius (Kungfutzu, 551–479 animism. In fact, Buddhism is unique in that it al-
B.C.E.) believed that societal leaders should be se- lows its followers to worship any god or set of gods
lected on the basis of merit, rather than on the basis they choose. The goal of the Buddhist believer is to
of wealth or noble birth. He advocated opening the seek ultimate truth; how one achieves that goal is
Chinese civil service to all qualified applicants. considered relatively unimportant. As a result, an
The Confucian state eventually appropriated many individual who sacrifices to Hindu gods can be a
aspects of Chinese animistic faiths into a state cult, practicing Buddhist as can one who worships at a
with the emperor serving a priestly role as supreme Shinto shrine or one who ritually honors deceased
intermediary between ancestral spirits and humanity. ancestors. This tolerance and inclusiveness helped
Local government officials erected over 2,000 tem- Buddhism spread widely throughout Asia after its
ples to Confucius after Confucianism became the founding in the fifth century B.C.E.
 RELIGION | 89

TURNING POINT .

Reincarnation
In Hinduism, reincarnation is believed to be the pro- higher levels of purity. India’s Jain religion, founded
cess of rebirth after death in another form. Accord- in the sixth century B.C.E., goes beyond the Hindu
ing to ancient religious tradition, reincarnation is a tradition, proclaiming that rebirth is not limited to
result of improper action during life, action that humans and animals, but might also take place
makes one’s self or “soul” too impure to unite with among inanimate objects. Thus, a stone may repre-
the ultimate divine creative force, or brahman. Im- sent a being that has a heavily polluted soul.
proper action is defined as concern for self over the Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism discounts the no-
common welfare of humanity, exemplified by ac- tion that a human personality passes on to a new ex-
tions such as incorrect thought, touch, sight, pas- istence at death. According to the Buddhist view, at
sion, material gluttony, or abuse of others. death the soul carries only the accumulated sins of
Because of these sins, the polluted soul assumes past lifetimes; one’s individual personality ceases to
various forms of life, human as well as animal, in a exist and is not retained in the next rebirth. Later fol-
series of rebirths determined by one’s accumulated lowers of Hindu and Buddhist religious traditions
negative actions over previous lifetimes. Release softened the ancient notion of reincarnation by sug-
from the cycle of rebirth can be achieved only by giv- gesting that ancestral spirits eventually go on to an
ing up sinful behavior and committing the remain- afterlife in a spiritual “heaven” as a reward for a life-
der of one’s life to nonmaterial pursuits, such as dis- time of moral and devoted service to a divine being
ciplined meditation, which might lead to even and humanity.

The earliest form of Buddhism, called Theravada inhabit all things in nature, both living and inani-
(“the teaching of the elders”) strictly follows the mate. Trees, bodies of water, and even stones have a
Buddha’s words, but later versions of the faith stray kami; deceased humans also become kami and are
farther from the original teachings of the Buddha. to be honored by their descendants. By about the
Mahayana (“the great vehicle”) Buddhism, which third century C.E., the Japanese imperial family
arose in the second century B.C.E., is more con- began to claim descent from the Shinto sun goddess
cerned with replicating the Buddha’s experience of Amaterasu. After that time, the religion became a
enlightenment and focuses less on close adherence state cult of which the emperor was the ritual head.
to his words. Mahayana Buddhism found accep- Although the seas surrounding Japan effectively
tance throughout China, Japan, Korea, and Viet- protected the islands from military invasion, they
nam, while Theravada Buddhism thrived mainly in did not prevent the inflow of new religious ideas
India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. A third wave from mainland Asia. In about C.E. 538, Buddhist
of Buddhism, Vajrayana, developed at Nalandia in monks made their way to Japan, bringing their faith
India and spread to Tibet, Java, and China in the with them. Although the imperial court rapidly
seventh century C.E. It emphasizes the power of adopted the new faith, most Japanese still practiced
rituals and sacred objects. Shinto or earlier animist religions. The court thus
felt the need to reconcile the apparent differences
ISLAND CULTURES between Shinto and Buddhism. In one explanation,
As in most regions of Asia, Japan’s earliest religious the kami were considered to be supernatural beings
cults featured animistic beliefs, and these eventually who protect Buddhism and help spread its teach-
evolved into the Shinto religion. Shinto is based on ings. Other Japanese followers viewed kami as vari-
the worship of kami, or spirits, that are believed to ous manifestations of the Buddha.
90 | RELIGION

Hinduism and Buddhism both

spread across Asia from India,
competing with and
influencing one another for
nearly 2,500 years. Although
this temple in Uttar Pradesh,
India is dedicated to the Hindu
god Siva, its architecture shows
that Buddhist influences and
the shrine itself are sacred to
followers of both faiths. (Martin
Gray/National Geographic/Getty
Images)

By this time, other Chinese creeds including were intended to support the emperor’s claims to
Confucianism and Daoism had come to Japan, and the throne, based on the imperial family’s descent
worshippers found acceptance within Shinto. In from the sun goddess, Amaterasu. Ultimately, Bud-
the early eighth century C.E., existing Japanese dhist and Shinto principles were formally com-
myths and legends were compiled into accounts bined in shinbutsu shugo, a faith that was widely
that introduced Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist popular in Japan until the mid-1800s.
themes into Japanese religion. These works also Australia and the Polynesian islands, even
 RELIGION | 91

TURNING POINT .

Indian Temples and Temple Worship

Indian temples are sacred spaces normally dedicated icon of the god. The god in theory “consumes” the
to the ancient gods Visnu or Siva or to one of their al- offering and is then thought to be spiritually present
ternate forms, or personalities, known as avatars. to receive the prayers of the worshipper.
After entering a temple, the worshipper prepares to It is at this moment that the second aspect of In-
embrace the divinity by meditating on the numerous dian temple worship takes place, in which the wor-
statues, stone carvings, and murals (or wall paint- shipper internalizes and temporarily becomes one
ings). These images are intended to help worshipers with the divine presence. In preparation for this mo-
recall sacred stories that portray the various personal- ment, the worshipper clears his or her mind of all ex-
ities associated with the divinity and prepare them to ternal thoughts. The worshiper focuses exclusively on
proceed on their individual pilgrimages. Temple wor- the aspects of the divinity as those characteristics are
ship includes prayer at several supplemental altars, portrayed in the temple iconography and stat-
culminating in entry to the innermost shrine of the uary—the depictions of the god’s hands and legs, the
temple, where the worshipper encounters the items in the god’s hands, the posture and facial expres-
temple’s most sacred icon of the divine. sion—all of which are associated with well-known oral
Temple worship is in part puja, or reciprocal ex- and written religious traditions. According to long-
change between the worshipper and the divinity. The practiced ritual, the worshipper also may intone a
worshipper normally makes a material offering, chant or hymn, ring a bronze bell, light a candle or oil
such as money or food, which is presented to the lamp, or burn incense to assure a successful prayer.

more remote and inaccessible than the islands of Dreaming” or “Dreamtime.” During this time, no
Japan, developed their own animistic religions clear differences existed between humans and ani-
that dominated local religious belief until the arri- mals, and some spirits were thought to be capable of
val of European settlers in the 1700s. Practitioners alternating between human and animal form.
of Polynesian animism viewed sea creatures, birds,
and the heavens to be the spiritual guides and pro- ASIAN RELIGION, 1000–1500 C.E.
tectors of the original inhabitants of the islands, By the second millennium C.E., Asian religious
people who migrated from Southeast Asia about practice consisted of many layers of different beliefs
1500 B.C.E. Polynesian religious traditions also and practices. In eastern Asia, Chinese religion em-
feature divine human figures personified by natu- braced and blended aspects of Buddhism, Daoism,
ral or heavenly objects. Confucianism, and traditional ancestral animism.
In Australia, animist beliefs varied among the Korean worshippers mixed their unique animistic
400 or so different indigenous language groups. religious heritage with Chinese Buddhism and
While no set of beliefs was universal to all of these Confucianism. Japanese believers practiced the
groups, their religions did share some core similar- Buddhist and Shinto religions, both of which influ-
ities. As with other animist cults, all of the Australian enced one another and also embraced elements of
beliefs were centered on nature. Many heroes of Aus- Confucianism. In the remote Pacific islands and
tralian myth are animals, such as the serpent, that the Australian archipelago, traditional animism
are common to Australia. Human spirits are also was still the sole religion.
considered tied to the earth and the natural world In northern India after C.E. 1000, Islam began to
and are associated with specific places. Indigenous gain a foothold, evident in people’s adopting a pol-
Australians all believed in a mythical past called “the icy of tolerance toward local Hindu and Buddhist
92 | RELIGION

MAJOR ASIAN RELIGIONS BEFORE C.E. 1500

Confucianism, Daoism, Shintoism, the ancient Asian and Pacific Island Southeast Asia. After about 1300, some
Hinduism, various forms of Buddhism, peoples. From about C.E 600 to 1300, regions of Asia began to convert to Islam.
and traditional animistic religions all Buddhism was widely practiced throughout
characterized the beliefs and practices of Asia, and Hinduism spread from India to

religious traditions. In this respect, Islam followed what is now Indonesia, and by C.E. 1500, it was be-
the pattern established by other religions, adapting to coming the most influential religion throughout
local conditions rather than imposing foreign beliefs most of the Indonesian islands. However, as in
by force. By C.E. 1200, Islam was making inroads into India, existing local religious traditions, including
 SHINTO | 93

Hinduism and Buddhism, remained strong. Al- FURTHER READING

though many local rulers adopted Islam as their offi- Bowker, John, ed. World Religions: The Great Faiths
cial state religion, there is little evidence that Islamic Explored and Explained. London and New York:
influences displaced local cultural practices. DK, 1997.
Kitagawa, J.M., ed. Religious Traditions of Asia. New
See also: Australia; Buddhism; China, York: Macmillan, 1989.
Confucianism; Hinduism; India; Islam, Spread of; Morgan, K. W. Reaching for the Moon: Asian Reli-
Japan; Korea; Shinto; Sri Lanka; Vietnam. gious Paths. Chambersburg, PA: Anima, 1991.

Samurai See Japan; Society; Tools and Weapons.

Sanskrit See India; Language and Writing.
Shinto
Japanese animist religion dating from roughly 300 B.C.E. and based on local gods and the
worship of nature. Shinto beliefs and practices have exercised a profound influence on Japan’s
culture, especially noted in the great reverence the Japanese accord nature.
Shinto, or “the way of the gods,” reveres collec- with local, individual kami. Among these was the
tive spirits, or kami, which are celebrated in tradi- shrine located at Izumo (C.E. 659), in western cen-
tional Japanese myth and ritual. A kami is the “spir- tral Japan, honoring the deities of the Izumo family
itual essence” that in Shinto belief is associated clan, and of Ise (C.E. 690), in eastern central Japan,
with every natural object. All living creatures have a honoring Amaterasu, the sun goddess, guardian
kami, as do specific places and objects of nature deity of the Yamato imperial clan. Although Shinto
such as trees, rocks, bodies of water, and moun- does not rank the kami in any hierarchy, Amate-
tains. Upon death, all humans become kami as rasu is one of the most widely worshipped kami be-
well. However, unlike the Western conception of di- cause of her association with the emperor’s family.
vine beings, human kami are not superhuman or In the fifth and sixth centuries C.E., the Japanese
infallible; they coexist with humans and can experi- imperial court adopted Buddhism and began to mix
ence human emotions and failings. Buddhist and Shinto practices. It was at this time that
Shinto first acquired its name, distinguishing it from
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT Buddhism. Indeed, Shinto and Buddhism share a
Shinto developed as a collection of oral traditions number of similarities. Neither religion believes in
that addresses the needs of humanity in this world— the existence of a supreme deity, and neither has a
rather than being a guide to salvation in the afterlife. fixed set of doctrines that believers are expected to
It had no single founder but evolved from the com- follow. Shinto is largely unconcerned with life after
munal rites and symbolic expressions of ancient Jap- death. It stresses appreciation for life and living in
anese society. Kami were initially worshipped and harmony with the natural world rather than antici-
presented with offerings at sites such as sacred pating an afterlife. Similarly, Buddhism focuses on
rocks and outdoor altars. Since about the sixth cen- achieving a state of perfect peace and harmony with
tury C.E., specific Shinto shrines became associated the universe during one’s earthly existence.
94 | SHINTO

The Japanese Shinto religion has its roots in traditional animistic beliefs involving nature and ancestor worship. Shinto shrines,
such as this one on Japan’s Honshu Island, feature a Torii, or gate, that symbolizes the barrier between the world of humans and
the world of spirits, or kami. (Sylvain Grandadam/Stone/Getty Images)

In Shinto cosmology, the realm of the dead ex- on his imperial successors the sword, mirror, and
ists on the same plane as the human world that oc- gem that became the sacred symbols of the em-
cupies the Japanese islands and the seas surround- peror’s authority.
ing Japan. It also envisions three levels of gods Shinto became Japan’s official state religion dur-
existing above the earth. These beliefs were re- ing the Meiji era (C.E. 1868–1912) and remained so
corded in early Shinto works such as the Kojiki through the end of World War II in 1945. Until this
(Record of Ancient Matters, C.E. 712) and the Nihon time, the Japanese worshipped their emperor as a
Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan, C.E. 720), which iden- god because of his divine bloodline. After Japan’s
tify certain kami as the guardian deities (ujigami) of defeat in World War II, Emperor Hirohito (1901–
each aristocratic Japanese clan. Japan’s imperial 1989) publicly renounced his divine status. His suc-
Yamato clan, for example, derived its royal status cessor, Emperor Akihito (r. 1989–), although no
from its privileged association with, and worship of, longer considered divine, remains the leading wor-
Amaterasu. The clan traced this association to shipper of the sun goddess on his society’s behalf.
Jimmu (ca. 711–585 B.C.E.), the legendary first Japa- The emperor worships at the sacred Ise Imperial
nese emperor, who was said to have been directly Shrine on Japan’s eastern coast, which celebrates
descended from the goddess. According to the the rising sun, thus, Japan is called the “Land of the
Nihon Shoki, Jimmu’s grandfather, Ninigi, bestowed Rising Sun.”
 SILK ROAD | 95

RITUALS AND INFLUENCE sites of personal appeals for divine assistance;

A Shinto shrine is usually simple and naturalistic in community and patriotic celebrations; as well as
style, surrounded by tall trees or set in a mountain traditional ritual places that mark certain life
location. The shrines have water ponds, fountains, achievements.
or streams, which are believed to cleanse the wor- Many Japanese secular cultural practices today
shipper as well as the ritual site. Shinto shrines are trace their roots to Shinto belief. The importance
framed by torii, simple open gateways to the sacred Japanese place on observing proper forms of greet-
grounds. The focal center of a shrine is a sacred ing or addressing others reflects the Shinto notion
space framed by a large rope that symbolically holds of kotodama, which asserts that words can have
the doors of the cave of the sun goddess open, pre- magical effects. The custom of removing one’s
venting her from reentering and thus saving the shoes before entering a structure, and the use of
world from eternal night. The shrine’s altar may wooden chopsticks as utensils, derive from Shinto’s
have a sacred object associated with the local kami, nature-oriented worldview.
in which the kami may temporarily reside at the call
of the worshiper. See also: Buddhism; Japan; Religion.
Worship includes the clapping of hands or
making other noise to summon the kami, which is FURTHER READING
followed by prayer and concludes with the offering Ellwood, Robert S., and Richard Pilgrim. Japanese
of a small gift as a symbolic sacrifice. At some time Religion: A Cultural Perspective. Englewood Cliffs,
during the year, a shrine will be the site of a com- NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1984.
munity festival with a carnival-like atmosphere Kasulis, Thomas P. Shinto. Honolulu: University of
that celebrates the relationship between the com- Hawaii Press, 2005.
munity and the divine as the basis of continuing Nelson, John K. A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine.
group success. Today, Shinto shrines remain the Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.

Silk Road
Transcontinental caravan trade routes more than 5,000 miles (8,000 km) long that connected
ancient eastern and western Eurasia beginning in the second century B.C.E. The Silk Road lay
just north of the rugged Himalaya mountain range that separates India from China, central
Asia, and southern Russia.
Westbound merchants on the route often began 59 B.C.E., its extension to the West supplied the
their journeys in China’s northern capitals and Roman elite with China’s exquisite silk. The official
traveled along a network of urban commercial cen- opening of the route is attributed to the Han em-
ters in central Asia including Bukhara, Samarkand, peror Han Wudi (r. ca. 141–87 B.C.E.), who sent his
and Tashkent in modern-day Uzbekistan. This por- envoy Zhang Qian and an army of 100 men to se-
tion of the route ended in northern Afghanistan, cure alliances with the central Asian Xiongnu and
where the route split. One fork continued west to Yuezhi tribesmen (138–126 B.C.E.). Through the re-
eastern Europe, another went south to India, while mainder of the Han dynasty (to C.E. 220), the
the main route went southwest through Persia tribesmen were well paid to keep the route open,
(modern-day Iran) to Constantinople. but Han military outposts served to remind them
The portion of the route from China to central who was in charge. When the Han dynasty fell,
Asia developed first, by the second century B.C.E., in these tribesmen collected passage fees directly from
response to China’s desire for central Asian jade. By the traders, as an alternative to seizing their goods.
96 | SILK ROAD

Thereafter, the route was periodically secured when century C.E., the volume of travelers on the route
the lands at either end were governed by strong rul- permanently declined. This was the result of several
ers in Persia and China. factors: the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in
The Silk Road reached its high point under the China in 1368; the subsequent conversions to Islam
thirteenth-century Mongols, who had virtually con- among the post-Mongol hordes who controlled the
quered the entire territory from China to modern overland passageway; and the opening of the ocean
Turkey. Marco Polo, who traveled to China from Ven- route between Western Europe and Asia in 1498.
ice and back in the late thirteenth century, was one of
many European merchants who benefited from See also: China; Golden Horde; Huns; Indian
Mongol stewardship of the Silk Road. In addition to Ocean Trade; Islam, Spread of; Mongols; Pax
bringing wealth to Europe, however, the Silk Road Sinica; Spice Trade.
brought the Black Death, which spread from central
Asian cities to Europe in the late 1340s. FURTHER READING
The Silk Road was also an important avenue of Boulnois, Luce. Silk Road: Monks, Warriors, and
cross-cultural exchange. Traders and travelers car- Merchants. Translated by Helen Loveday. New
ried ideas and technology in both directions. It was York: Norton (for Odyssey Publications, Hong
the favored route of Buddhist pilgrims passing Kong), 2006.
between China and India from the first millennium Wood, Frances. The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years
C.E., and of Christian and Muslim missionaries in the Heart of Asia. Berkeley: University of Cali-
from the West who hoped to convert Asian popula- fornia Press, 2004.
tions in the second millennium. In the fifteenth

Slavery
Economic institution in which people are owned as property, must perform labor without
compensation, and may be bought and sold at will. Different levels of servitude existed in
ancient Asia. At one end of the scale were slaves who were wholly owned by another person and
had no rights or personal freedom whatsoever. At the other end were several categories of
bondsmen who enjoyed a measure of autonomy in their personal lives and occasionally rose to
positions of power.
Both China and Japan distinguished among of their conquerors. In some cases, societies fought
slaves, general bondsmen, and retainers. Bonds- wars to acquire slaves, especially in the largely
men could serve as household domestic servants, underpopulated region of Southeast Asia, where ad-
agricultural laborers, and members of a military ditional manpower was essential to a society’s well-
retinue. Technically, a Japanese samurai, or warrior, being. There, war captives were usually placed in
was a bonded client of his lord. In China, the eu- the military service of the conqueror, or resettled to
nuch corps, resident at the royal court and consist- develop previously uncultivated lands. Coastal
ing of neutered males who were the military and Southeast Asia and southern Japan were well-
bureaucratic bondsmen of the emperor, frequently known international slave trade marketplaces.
wielded power in domestic politics. Many of the humans sold there were captured by pi-
A person might become a slave in several differ- rates in raids against shipping or agricultural com-
ent ways. Criminals, especially those guilty of vio- munities in the China Sea.
lent crimes, were enslaved as an alternative to exe- Debt slavery was widespread in ancient Asia.
cution. Prisoners of war often became the property Under this arrangement, an individual who could
 SOCIETY | 97

not repay borrowed money was obligated to per- See also: China; Japan; Society.
form services for the lender until the debt was re-
paid. It was not unusual for parents of starving chil- FURTHER READING
dren to sell their children into bondage to save Lala, Kishori Saran. Muslim Slave System in Medieval
them from certain death. The concubine contract, India. New Delhi, India: Aditya Prakashan,
for example, was a form of debt bondage in which a 1994.
woman or girl served as the sexual partner of a Reid, Anthony, ed. Slavery, Bondage and Dependency
higher-status man, but did not become his wife. in Southeast Asia. St. Lucia, Australia: University
Transfers of entire families and their lands to of Queensland Press, 1983.
wealthy patrons was a common survival strategy. Watson, Rubie, and Patricia Buckley Ebrey, eds.
Servitude could become hereditary, as an indi- Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. Berke-
vidual who owned a family might at some time ley: University of California Press, 1991.
transfer their services to someone else as a gift, or to
repay a debt.

Society
Most ancient societies in Asia and the Pacific region were distinguished by social class
groupings, or hierarchies, intended to impose order on often diverse and mobile populations.
In Confucian China, for example, the social order was defined by a highly educated and cultured
bureaucratic elite, who earned positions by passing examinations and advanced by meritorious
service rather than by right of birth. Indian society, by contrast, was based in the hereditary
Hindu caste system, which defined every person’s social rank and the codes of acceptable
behavior appropriate to it. Ancient societies in Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia were also
organized according to hereditary rank and privilege.

PREHISTORIC CHINA Such early Chinese housing sites collectively

Archeological sites in northern China’s Yellow demonstrate the importance of family as the basic
River basin provide evidence of settled agricultural work unit and source of personal identity. Differ-
communities in Asia dating from 4000 to 1900 ences in individual burial sites at these villages indi-
B.C.E. They also demonstrate the origin of later cate that the inhabitants considered adults to be
Chinese societal patterns. Each of these village more important than children, and distinguished
sites is associated with the cultivation of millet males over females. Adult graves were elaborate
(dry rice) and grain and demonstrates long-term and located outside the village walls in designated
commitment to residence at a single site rather graveyards; children’s graves were simple and
than periodic migration. Houses were grouped in nearby the residences inside the walls. Burial goods
family units, clustered around a larger house of a (pottery, weapons, animal bones) found in the gra-
headman or family clan elder, with a common open vesites of significant males demonstrate some de-
space for a variety of community gatherings. Moats gree of social stratification if not the emergence
or pounded earthen walls surrounded the villages, of a male leadership elite.
with burial grounds located outside the walls. The The prominence of defensive fortifications at
common features of these distinctive settlements early village sites suggests that villages came into
and the patterns of their pottery suggest communi- conflict with hunting and gathering neighbors.
cation among early village communities. Seminomadic bands, who had a less reliable
98 | SOCIETY

ANCIENT WEAPONS

The Japanese Samurai Sword and the Javanese Kris

Weapons used in ancient Asia occasionally served Like the samurai sword, the Javanese kris was a
both practical and ceremonial purposes. The Japa- steel dagger that served as both weapon and spiritual
nese samurai sword was one of the finest bladed object. The jagged-bladed kris was crafted by a blade
weapons of any age, renowned for its strength and smith, who was regarded to have magical powers that
superior cutting ability, but also revered by owners provided the blade with its “soul.” Each kris blade was
as an integral part of their personal identity. A thought to have a life of its own. It was once considered
samurai wore both a long and a short sword, a good idea for a new kris owner to sleep with the blade
which he believed to be the “souls” of his warrior under his or her pillow. If the owner had a bad dream,
skills, and to which he gave individual names. the blade was considered unlucky and it was taken
This very personal association between warrior away; harmony, if not a spiritual bond, was essential
and weapon made it inappropriate to fight with between the owner and the kris. The spiritual power of
the sword of a vanquished foe. The samurai be- the kris was so respected that some owners believe that
lieved that the soul of a sword could carry out ret- carelessly pointing a kris at a person might cause that
ribution for the death of its original owner; even to individual’s death or bring other misfortune. To avoid
possess the sword of a deceased samurai could be this, the kris holder touched the tip of the blade to the
potentially fatal. ground to neutralize its negative potential.

source of food than did agricultural villagers, often ilization depended on the management of the an-
raided agrarian settlements. The significance nual floodwaters of the Indus River, produced by the
given to male burials and weapon artifacts found in melting snows of the Himalayas and the annual
many of the more elaborate grave sites suggests summer monsoons. Sophisticated water manage-
that the early societal elite played a significant role ment allowed the society to cultivate substantial bar-
in defending the villages. ley and wheat crops, and rice in its southern regions.
The importance of burial among these villages Indus Valley artifacts reflect standardization in
reflects a common concern with death and a basic the society’s art forms. Its pottery and sculpted clay
sense of spirituality. Pottery remains in the buri- figurines include lifelike portrait statues of elite
als are decorated with painted humans and ani- priests, as well as icons of fertility gods. A focus on
mals, which are thought to symbolize early reli- order is also evident in urban architecture and city
gious beliefs that acknowledged the importance planning. City streets were laid out in an intersect-
of animistic and ancestral spirits. ing grid pattern, and the major thoroughfares had
underground sewage systems. Residential districts
SOUTHERN ASIA composed of brick houses surrounded a public sec-
South Asia’s most spectacular early archeological tor containing a few larger buildings, a ritual com-
sites are the remains of Indus Valley urban civiliza- plex, a large public bath, granaries, and storehouses.
tion (ca. 2500–1800 B.C.E.). The three most famous Historical interpretation and analysis
Indus civilization sites are Harappa in what is now suggests that Indus Valley society was organized as
the Pakistani Punjab, Mohenjo-Daro on the lower a theocracy led by an elite priesthood. Urban ar-
Indus river, and Kalibangan in modern Rajasthan. cheological sites are centered on a ritual complex
In addition, roughly 200 smaller town and village that included municipal granaries, which stored
sites are scattered as far east as the Ganges and as surplus agricultural production from surrounding
far south as modern Bombay (or Mumbai). The civ- villages. In times of drought or famine, the priestly
 SOCIETY | 99

elite redistributed surplus grain among the popula- bride’s family to that of the husband. The husband’s
tion. The unpredictability of the local environment family reasoned that it was doing the bride’s family
gave rise to cooperative social structures that made a favor in taking her off their hands, thus the need
group survival possible. for a dowry. Unmarried daughters were a social em-
Despite its accomplishments, Indus Valley civil- barrassment, indicating that something was seri-
ization did not endure. For unknown reasons, its ously wrong with the girl or that the family could
cities declined around 1800 B.C.E. Aryan migrants not afford to marry her.
who entered India ca. 1600 B.C.E. found its popula- Marriages were confirmations of a family’s status
tion dispersed among productive but decentralized in the community; they also fulfilled an obligation to
rural communities. the family’s ancestors to marry appropriately. An-
cestor spirits become malevolent ghosts when
INDIAN CASTE SOCIETY they were alienated by the offense of an especially
The Indian caste system had its origin in the inappropriate and socially demeaning marriage.
hierarchical Aryan varna system, which dates to Marriages would ideally take place between two
1600 B.C.E. In this system, Brahmin priests and families of similar social or caste stature.
teachers occupied the highest caste, followed by The Dharmasastra code dictated that a marriage
Ksatriya warriors and rulers, then the Vaisya (a com- could take place between families within two levels
mercial and professional “middle class”), and finally, of one another in the local caste hierarchy. If a fam-
Sudra (laborers). ily was upwardly mobile, due to its improved eco-
Early Indian codes of acceptable social conduct nomic or other socially important factors, it was im-
were collected in the Dharmasastra Hindu sacred portant to convince a family of higher stature to take
texts, which reached their final written form in the a bride (or groom) from them. For example, Indian
fourth century C.E. In the Dharmasastra-based merchants (Vaisyas) were always desirable marriage
system, local caste hierarchy was determined by partners for cash-short Brahmin or Ksatriya elites.
moral and behavioral purity, which was displayed in Merchants were held in low esteem by society be-
everyday human conduct. Individuals were ex- cause of their self-centered economic activity (artha)
pected as much as possible to engage in dharma, but were attractive marriage partners because of
dutiful service to society. By contrast, artha, or ser- their wealth and the fact that their children were usu-
vice to oneself, brought diminished stature, except ally cultured and educated. Victorious warriors also
when it was appropriate to certain professions, such might be of low social esteem, but their positions of
as among merchants. Kama, behavior that was self- power made them attractive marriage partners.
indulgent, usually involving the conscious exploita-
tion of others, was sinful and socially unacceptable. SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE
BEHAVIOR IN CHINA
FAMILY, SOCIAL STATUS, AND China’s social system was defined by duty, as ex-
MARRIAGE IN INDIA pressed in the concept of li, propriety, or proper
In early Indian society, male children reached full conduct. This meant submission to the group. In
adulthood when they married and had children. Confucian theory, innate goodness among human-
Normally, only the birth of a male child could vali- ity arose from societal order. Order brought about
date adulthood and thus confirm a marriage. Girls success; the consequence of disorder was failure.
were married outside the family and became adult The key to order was qualified leaders, who main-
members of their husband’s families upon giving tained order by setting good examples or by forcing
birth to a male heir. individuals to behave in a manner appropriate to
Marriages were generally arranged, consistent their society’s code of conduct. Leadership was
with the needs and abilities of the family to pay justified based on experience. Age qualified one to
wedding expenses or dowries. Dowries were gifts of hold power because in theory elders had more life
money and/or other valuables normally paid by the experience than did the young. Previous success in
100 | SOCIETY

Hindu society is divided into four classes (Varnas) from the ritually purest (brahmin) to the least pure (sudra) and are the basis of
the Indian caste system. Brahmin, such as the man shown in this picture, are considered spiritual leaders and are expected to
perform extensive prayers and purification rituals to benefit society. (Robert Nickelsberg/Getty Images)

judging right from wrong was thought to ensure likely to be implemented. If no consensus was
that the older leader would appropriately guide the reached, the leader dictated what he thought was in
younger dependent to become a good person. the best interests of the group. Once any group deci-
Males generally dominated rather than females. sion was reached, every group member was expected
This was not completely because of Chinese to act in a manner consistent with that decision.
patriarchal bias, but because in theory the
males had a wider range of societal interactions, CHINESE SOCIAL ORDER
and thus more experience than did the house- In China, the traditional social system placed the
bound female. Rank among male society was the scholar-gentry class at the top. These were land-
consequence of holding a position of authority, holding families in which at least one member of
such as being the head of a family, holding public each generation had passed the Confucian civil ser-
office, or similar public leadership. vice exams. These annually administered examina-
In the Chinese system, successful leadership was tions tested one’s understanding of the classical
not based on authoritarianism but on discussions Confucian texts. They featured written essays in
that ideally led to group consensus, implemented by which the candidate had to apply his knowledge to
the leader. In principle, participation in the decision- resolve specified problems he might encounter as a
making process was healthy in that it brought differ- public servant. Passing these exams was a prerequi-
ing opinions into the discussion. In addition, deci- site for government office, as well as confirmation
sions in which everyone participated were more of a family’s literacy. Only those who demonstrated
 SOCIETY | 101

literacy by passing the initial level of the exams favored a household consisting of the nuclear
could communicate directly with government. family, in contrast to Indian and Chinese ex-
Thus, the literate were in a strong position to act as tended families, in which male relatives share a
advocates on behalf of their dependents. common household. In the Japanese nuclear
Below the scholar gentry in the Chinese social family system, only one male in each generation
order were the peasants, considered loyal and settled succeeded his parents as head of the family
dependent clients of the elite. Artisans were lower household. Other males moved to homes on
in rank: because their work was somewhat self- other family property or on frontier land that they
serving and they were potentially mobile, artisans would bring under cultivation.
were thought to be less likely to submit to the In Southeast Asia, women traditionally had a
gentry’s leadership. On the bottom of the social higher degree of personal autonomy than was the
system were the merchants, whose interests were case in the Chinese, Indian, and Japanese societies.
more focused on personal profit than on community This was in part the consequence of matrilineal
service. They were the group least likely to follow the and bilateral (equal value to both the maternal and
gentry’s wishes, or to take on the acceptable lifestyle paternal lines) family networks, in contrast to In-
of the gentry. Social mobility might be achieved by dian, Chinese, and Japanese patrilineal systems.
marriage, or by passing the examinations, which
were in theory open to all but in practice were limited See also: Archeological Discoveries; China;
to those who could afford to pay for their education. Confucianism; Hinduism; India; Japan; Korea.

THE WIDER ASIAN FURTHER READING

COMMUNITY Bellwood, Peter S. First Farmers: The Origin of Agri-
The Chinese social system was adopted in neigh- cultural Societies. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
boring Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with modifica- Bellwood, Peter S. Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian
tions relative to existing local cultural values. The Archipelago. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1985.
Indian social system influenced societal develop- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Peter N. Gregory, eds.
ment in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia relative to Religion and Society in Tang and Sung China.
notions of social behavior and ritual hierarchy Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
but without the acceptance of the Indian caste Inden, Ronald B. Imagining India. Cambridge, MA:
system. Japan and several other Asian societies Blackwell, 1990.

Spice Trade
Indian Ocean–based trade in spices, a system in existence by the first millennium B.C.E. Broadly,
spices were rare items used in culinary, aromatic, and medicinal applications, with their
medicinal value initially overshadowing their culinary use. Because virtually all spices were very
expensive and imported in small quantities, only aristocrats could afford to buy them.
The most prized spices were pepper, ginger, cin- evergreen tree grown on five small islands in the
namon, turmeric, cardamom, cloves, nutmeg, and Moluccas; nutmeg and mace are parts of the fruit of
mace. The Spice Islands (in modern-day Indone- a rare evergreen tree native to the Banda Islands.
sia), in Southeast Asia’s eastern archipelago, Borneo and Sumatra jungles were the source of
were the source of the most valuable spices because benzoin and camphor barks, which were consid-
cloves, nutmeg, and mace grew exclusively there. ered vital in preparations of Chinese medicines.
Cloves are the dried, unopened flower bud of an Benzoin was also a demanded aromatic in Chinese
102 | SPICE TRADE

and Indian religious ritual, as were aloewood and blowing from southwest to northeast from roughly
sandalwood from Southeast Asia and frankincense June through August and then reversing to blow
and myrrh from the Arabian Peninsula and eastern from northeast to southwest from December
coast of Africa. India’s southwestern Malabar Coast through March. Captains found themselves regu-
was considered the source of the best pepper as early larly laying over in a port, where they might take on
as Roman times; northern Sumatra pepper was a wives and raise families, until the next monsoon
less expensive alternative after about C.E. 1000. season allowed their return voyage. Because it took
These commodities made their way from their two to three years to make the complete east-west
point of origin to Eastern and Western markets passage, traders would specialize in one sector of
via the Indian Ocean trade routes. The Strait of the route. For example, a merchant might trade
Melaka, separating the Malay Peninsula from Su- only between the Middle East and India, India and
matra, was a key passageway from Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, or Indonesia and China. In most
to the western marketplaces of India and the Mid- ports of trade, both populations and trading activi-
dle East. The South China Sea was equally impor- ties fluctuated widely, depending on the seasonal
tant in the transit of spices from Java to Vietnam, travels of the merchants.
China, Japan, and Korea. An alternative route Open marketplace competition was the norm in
from the Spice Islands to China passed through the early spice trade network. Ports of trade competed
the Sulu Sea by way of the Philippines. to provide the most agreeable conditions; favored
As the trade developed in the first century B.C.E., ports offered the security, products (whether their
Indonesian seamen monopolized direct access to own or acquired from secondary marketplaces),
the sources of spice; India-based and Middle Eastern and provisions demanded by the traders.
mariners were the most common in the western In-
dian Ocean. By C.E. 800, Middle Eastern seamen See also: Indian Ocean Trade; Melaka; Monsoons.
were sailing all the way to China. Chinese navigators
participated actively in the spice trade after C.E. 1100, FURTHER READING
depending on the Chinese government’s restric- Dulby, Andrew. Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices.
tions on the navigators’ maritime activities. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
Traders bought deck and cargo space from a ship Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Com-
owner or captain. The timing of their travels de- merce. 2 vols. New Haven, CT: Yale University
pended on the seasonal monsoons, with winds Press, 1990, 1995.

Sri Lanka
Island off the southeast coast of India that became the international center of Theravada
Buddhist scholarship in the second millennium C.E. and, from the beginning of the first
millennium, was a critical step in the maritime trade network that stretched from eastern Asia
to the Middle East. Ancient Sri Lanka was the exclusive global source of cinnamon, and also
supplied pearls and black pepper to international traders.
By 900 B.C.E., aboriginal groups called Veddas Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle called the Maha-
were living in small urban settlements centered vamsa, the Sinhalese conquered the Anuradha-
on Anuradhapura in the northern Sri Lanka dry pura region.
zone and growing dry rice, or millet. In the sixth By 300 B.C.E., the Sinhalese had developed an
century B.C.E., Indo-Aryan Sinhalese from north- elaborate irrigation system consisting of water
ern India migrated to Sri Lanka. According to the tanks (reservoirs) and irrigation canals that enabled
 SRI LANKA | 103

year-round cultivation in northern Sri Lanka. The 1070, retaining Polonnaruwa as their capital. The
remains of this early irrigation system are still im- Polonnaruwa-based state reached its height in the
pressive and once consisted of sophisticated valve reign of Parakramabahu (r. C.E. 1153–1186), but by
pits (sluices) associated with massive dams and C . E . 1200 his realm had fragmented as southern
long-distance canals that crisscrossed northern Sri Indian Tamils regained a foothold in Sri Lanka
Lanka. In that same era, the Sinhalese converted to and began raiding their Sinhalese neighbors.
Theravada Buddhism, the oldest of the main Bud- By the fifteenth century C.E., there were two
dhist traditions. Buddhist monks and their monas- new Sinhalese political centers, one at Kandy in
teries partnered with Sri Lanka’s Anuradhapura- the hills of central Sri Lanka (which remains the
based kings in the development of the critical home of the Buddha’s Tooth Relic) and the second
irrigation systems. In C.E. 371, Anuradhapura be- at Kotte, inland from modern Colombo on the
came the home of a holy relic said to be the tooth of tropical southeastern coast, which was the center
Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. The Buddha’s of Sri Lanka’s international trade. Kotte eventually
Tooth Relic was smuggled to Sri Lanka from India became the foothold from which the Portuguese
at the initiative of the reigning king, and has since extended their authority over the island after their
been the sacred symbol of political authority. arrival in C.E. 1505.
Anuradhapura, which became internationally
famous for the massive stupas (dome-shaped tow- See also: Art and Architecture; Buddhism; India;
ers that represented ancient earthen mounds Indian Ocean Trade.
used to cover relics of the Buddha) of its temples,
remained the Sri Lankan capital city until C.E. FURTHER READING
1000. At that time, invading Tamil Cola armies DeSilva, K. M. A History of Sri Lanka. New York:
from southern India plundered the city and estab- Penguin Books, 2005.
lished a new capital at Polonnaruwa to the south- Peebles, Patrick. The History of Sri Lanka. Westport,
east. Sri Lankan forces retook the island in C.E. CT: Greenwood Press, 2006.

Sukhothai and Ayudhya

Centers of early Thai (Siamese) political development that eventually merged into a unified
Ayudhya state (C.E. 1351–1767) that became the precursor of present-day Thailand. The territory
brought under control by Ayudhya rulers in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries C.E.
remains roughly similar to the borders of the modern Thai nation.

EARLY HISTORY that were also arising in opposition to Khmer rule.

Until C.E. 1238, the city of Sukhothai was part of the By the late thirteenth century C.E., Sukhothai had
great Khmer Empire centered in what is now Cam- conquered the western portions of the Khmer Em-
bodia. In that year, Thai chieftains Pho Khun Pha pire and become a regional power.
Muang and Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao declared Ayudhya was founded in the early eleventh cen-
their independence from the Khmer and estab- tury C.E. on the western edge of the Khmer realm.
lished the Sukhothai realm in present-day north- Originally part of a Thai kingdom based in the city
western Thailand. The rebellion marks the tradi- of Lopburi, Ayudhya became the capital in C.E. 1350,
tional founding of the Thai state. Sukhothai when an outbreak of smallpox in Lopburi forced
subsequently formed alliances with many smaller king U Thong (Ramathibodi; r. 1351–1369) to move
Thai states, such as the northern kingdom of Lanna, his court. By this time, the former Lopburi state had
104 | SUKHOTHAI AND AYUDHYA

grown to challenge Sukhothai for political domi- of the upper Malay Peninsula. It shared in the re-
nance over the Thai people. In the late fourteenth gionwide prosperity that followed the establish-
century, Ayudhya forced a declining Sukhothai to ment of the Melaka sultanate at the beginning of
pay tribute. By the early fifteenth century C.E., the the fifteenth century. Ayudhya annexed the Tenas-
ruler of Ayudhya determined who sat on the Sukho- serim (1460s) and Tavoy (1488) regions on the
thai throne. Ayudhya’s King Trailok (Borommatrai- northwestern Malay Peninsula, which provided it
lokanat, r. 1448–1488) finally annexed the rem- with direct access to the international trade of the
nants of the Sukhothai kingdom in C.E. 1431. Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. The Ayudhya
realm continued to prosper until raiding Burmese
POLITICAL CULTURE forces destroyed its capital in C.E. 1767.
Like the Sukhothai kings before them, the rulers of
Ayudhya embraced Theravada Buddhism as the state See also: Buddhism; Indian Ocean Trade; Khmer
religion. The aggressive and patronizing Theravada Empire.
church, or sangha, evolved into a hierarchical
network of monastic communities throughout the FURTHER READING
Thai realm that established close relations with the Lieberman, Victor. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia
royal court. The ties between Thai secular and reli- in Global Context, c. 800–1830. Cambridge: Cam-
gious leaders were underscored by the construction bridge University Press, 2003.
of a central monastic and temple complex that was Tarling, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge History of
within the royal court. The Ayudhya state’s political Southeast Asia. Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Cam-
network, which depended on fragile personal alli- bridge University Press, 1991.
ances with small tributary kingdoms, was thus rein- Wyatt, David. Thailand: A Short History. New
forced by the stable structure of the church. Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984.
By the C.E. 1460s, Ayudhya dominated the affairs

Technology and Inventions

Asian scholars and inventors prior to c.e. 1500 far outstripped their European contemporaries in
most areas of technological progress. Innovations that were pioneered in Asia often did not
appear in the West until hundreds of years later.

AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY pulleys and winding gears to carry mined materials
The Chinese developed the ox-drawn plow in about to the earth’s surface. China boasted the first
300 B.C.E. and followed this in the Han era (206 system of canal locks, the first gear system used for
B.C.E.–C.E. 220) with a new collar that allowed draft milling grain, and the first water-powered mills
animals to pull plows and wagons. The latter did used for manufacturing. The Chinese talent for
not appear in Europe until some time after C.E. 500. industrial innovation included the invention of
The Chinese also invented the first wheelbarrow coke, a key ingredient in iron smelting.
and were the first culture to resolve the problem of Gunpowder, not introduced to Europe until the
insect control; by C.E. 300, Chinese citrus growers late fourteenth century C.E., was invented in
in southern China were using “red tree ants” to pro- China during the Song era (C.E. 960–1279). At
tect their fruit from insects. first, the Chinese used gunpowder for fireworks
The Chinese invented a variety of sophisticated featured in ritual displays and public celebrations.
mechanical systems, including the first system of They later applied the technology to produce the
 TECHNOLOGY AND INVENTIONS | 105

TECHNOLOGY AND INVENTIONS

444 B.C.E. Chinese develop accurate solar calen- of pi, accurately measures length of the year and
dar based on 365.5-day year circumference of the earth

300 B.C.E. Chinese develop ox-drawn plow 800–1000 Chinese Song dynasty
CA . C.E.

pioneers new Indian Ocean shipbuilding and

206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220 Han-era Chinese invent im-
navigation technology
proved collar for draft animals
CA . C.E. 1000–1100 Chinese invent gunpowder
C.E. 320–550 Indian scholars develop bone-
setting, plastic surgery, administer the C.E. 1161 Chinese use explosives for the first
first inoculations time in warfare

CA . C.E. 500 Indian mathematician Aryabhata de- CA . C.E. 1300 Printing press invented in Korea
velops theory of gravitation, asserts that Earth
CA . C.E.1400 Chinese develop moveable type
and the planets circle the Sun, calculates value
for printing press

first cannons, handguns, land mines, hand gre- system, called “Arabic” because Europeans imported
nades, and rockets. The first recorded use of gun- it secondhand from the Middle East in the tenth cen-
powder in battle occurred in China in C.E. 1161. tury C.E. This system, universally used today, was
much simpler and easier to use than the cumber-
ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATIC S, some system of Roman numerals used in Europe.
AND MEDICINE Indians are also credited with developing the concept
Chinese astronomers had developed an accurate of zero, devising the decimal system, and calculating
calendar by 444 B.C.E., based on a year of 365.5 square roots and trigonometric functions.
days. The Indian astronomer Aryabhata (C.E. Indian scholars based in Gupta-era hospitals (ca.
476–550) used his astronomical and mathematical C.E. 320–550) invented bonesetting and plastic sur-
calculations of the rotation of the earth to deter- gery and administered the first inoculations, using
mine a year to be 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, an injection of cowpox serum to prevent smallpox.
and 30 seconds (the precise value is 365 days and 6 Chinese scholars developed their own precise ana-
hours). Aryabhata, whose studies were collected in tomical knowledge and studied the principles of hy-
his Aryabhatiya manuscript, made other signifi- giene to promote longer life. The Chinese also stud-
cant discoveries. He was the first to explain the ied pharmaceutical uses of plants and minerals.
lunar and solar eclipses, he calculated pi at 3.1416, Chinese researchers were the first to write texts on
and he determined that the earth’s circumference forensic medicine and the first to propose that fin-
was 24,835 miles (39,970 km; just 0.2 percent off gerprints might be used as a form of identification.
the precise distance). He was the first to develop a
theory of gravity and he theorized that the earth PRINTING
and planets revolve around the sun—1,000 years Scholars credit the Chinese with producing the first
before Nicolaus Copernicus (who knew of paper during the Han era, and with developing
Aryabhata’s prior studies) proposed the same the- moveable type, which they were using by the four-
ory in the West. teenth century C.E. By the tenth century C.E., Chinese
In addition to Aryabhata’s calculation of pi, Indian could buy woodblock-printed copies of the Confu-
mathematicians produced the Indian numbering cian and Buddhist classics, printed on bamboo
106 | TECHNOLOGY AND INVENTIONS

TURNING POINT .

The Concept of Zero

Although Indian mathematicians had developed a the name for zero. In C.E. 628, the Indian mathema-
decimal system that used zero as a number and tician Brahmagupta (C.E. 598–668) provided the
placeholder by C.E. 600, the concept of zero is much rules for arithmetic involving zero and negative
older. Some scholars argue that the need for the numbers. He explained that subtracting a number
mathematical zero arose in the Gupta era (C.E. from itself resulted in zero; he also established that a
320–550) because of the introduction at that time of number multiplied by zero was zero, and that mathe-
the Chinese abacus, a device for mathematical calcu- matical calculations could produce both positive and
lations. The abacus contained several columns, most negative numbers.
strung with beads for counting, but one left empty; The earliest document to use zero is an inscrip-
scholars who embrace this theory argue that zero tion from Gwalior, south of Delhi, which dates to
provided a written symbol for the empty column. C.E. 876 and records the dimensions of a garden and

Others argue that the use of zero arose as a response the total production of flowers that it could be ex-
to the need for more accurate written calculations. pected to produce. The inscription includes the
The Indian mathematician Aryabhata (C.E. 476– numbers 270 and 50, written as they would be today,
550) used the number system that became known as although the zero in both cases is smaller than the
“Arabic numerals,” adding the word kha to differen- other numbers.
tiate numerical position, and his word would become

paper that had special additives to repulse insects. such as playing cards, almanacs, and calendars, in
These were in high demand among those studying black or in color on printing presses, which the Ko-
for the Confucian exams. The Chinese printed reans had previously invented around C.E. 1300.
books, paper currency, and popular consumables, Thanks to moveable type, by the early fourteenth

The Chinese Song dynasty (C.E.

960–1279) was the first state in the
world to issue paper currency. By the
time this Ming dynasty (C.E. 1368–
1644) banknote was circulated in C.E.
1375, inflation had greatly eroded its
value; the Ming ended the use of paper
money in C.E. 1455. (HIP/Art Resource,
NY)
 TECHNOLOGY AND INVENTIONS | 107

THE SPREAD OF TECHNOLOGY

Many noteworthy achievements took place place in ancient Asia. Among the long list seismograph, the magnetic compass, and
in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, of inventions that were passed to the West the decimal system.
chemistry, printing, and navigation took were paper, the printing press, the

•
•
•
•
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
•
•
•
•
•
• ’s
•
•
• “ ”
•

•
•

•
•

•
•
•
•
•

century C.E., a wide variety of printed books were NAVIGATION

available to the Chinese public. These included pub- Asian navigation responded to the opportunities of
lic records written in the formal Chinese language the Indian Ocean trade routes. During the ninth
used by the government as well as inexpensive publi- and tenth centuries C.E., the Song dynasty spon-
cations written in local languages. However, the large sored efforts to help exploit these routes, such as
number of Chinese language characters (between the creation of detailed maps of routes, and the de-
45,000 and 75,000) discouraged use of this early velopment of the magnetic compass to assist in nav-
moveable type. One fourteenth-century C.E. gazetteer igation. This was also the era in which the Chinese
printed using this method needed 60,000 pieces of began to develop the ship that would become
type and took two years to produce. known as the junk. By the late eleventh century C.E.,
108 | TECHNOLOGY AND INVENTIONS

TURNING POINT .

The First Seismograph

In C.E. 132, Zhang Heng (C.E. 78–139), royal astrono- show that an earthquake had occurred in the direc-
mer to the Chinese emperor, invented the world’s tion of the frog receiving the ball.
first device to warn of earthquakes. Zhang’s inven- This was especially vital information in ancient
tion, which preceded the first such development in China, which was subject to many devastating earth-
the West by more than 1,600 years, consisted of a quakes. As a consequence of Zhang Heng’s inven-
cast bronze vase 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter with drag- tion, the imperial government was able to provide
ons projecting from its sides in eight directions, more rapid assistance to earthquake victims in an
their heads facing upward, each holding a ball in its age in which rapid communication was not avail-
mouth. Bronze frogs sat with their mouths open able. Chinese legend relates that once the members
under each dragon. When the ground shook, a pen- of the court thought the device had failed when they
dulum hanging inside the vase would swing in the felt nothing, only to find out from a messenger sev-
direction in which the earthquake occurred. The eral days later that there had been an earthquake
pendulum moved a rod that would cause a dragon to 400 miles (645 km) away.
release a ball into the waiting mouth of a frog, to

Chinese commercial fleets were sailing as far as in the pre-1500 era, when regular exchange of ideas
northern Sumatra, and by the mid-thirteenth cen- and technology followed in the wake of trade. As Eu-
tury C.E. Chinese junks and traders were widely ropeans made their way into Asia from the thir-
active in the entire Indian Ocean. teenth century C.E. onward, they were surprised by
By C.E. 1500, the typical ship constructed in the the variety of Asian technology that was significantly
ports of southern China and Southeast Asia had a ahead of their own. Accounts from these travelers
carrying capacity of 350 to 500 tons (320 to 455 m captured the European public’s imagination, and re-
tons). Some, such as those used by the Chinese inforced the popular belief that Asia was a far more
commander Zheng He in his Indian Ocean voyages civilized place that had much to teach the West.
(C.E. 1405–1433), had a capacity of 1,000 tons (905
m tons). Many Asian ships were built without the See also: Agriculture; Society; Tools and Weapons;
use of iron, instead held together by wooden dowels Zheng He.
inserted into the seams between the planks. Nor-
mally, these ships had multiple layers of hull planks FURTHER READING
(two to three layers were typical) so that if the outer Chow, Kai-Wing. Publishing Culture and Power in
layer was damaged, the inner layers would main- Early Modern China. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
tain the ship’s buoyancy. A hybrid ship design, University Press, 2004.
called junco, had planking that was fastened to the Needham, J. Science in Traditional China. Cam-
frame by iron nails, but which was also dowelled to- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981.
gether by wooden pegs. Rahman, A. Development of Philosophy, Science, and
These “hybrid” vessels demonstrate the success Technology in India and Neighboring Civilizations.
of cross-cultural communication common in Asia New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
 TOOLS AND WEAPONS | 109

Tools and Weapons

Early Asian civilizations advanced rapidly from the use of stone, wood, and bone tools to
implements of bronze, iron, and steel. Highly organized early societies such as Zhou-era China
(1122/1027–403 B.C.E.) developed innovative tools and weapons that allowed them to exploit the
country’s natural resources and defend it from invaders. By C.E. 1500, Asian tools and weapons
included innovations such as looms and kilns that were critical to local productivity and
gunpowder weaponry that was as advanced as that of the contemporary West.

EARLY CHINESE that further improved cultivation and brought about

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS rapid growth in China’s population. Paired with the
The Banpo Village archeological site near modern- breast harness, developed around 200 B.C.E., the
day Xian provides an example of early Asian agricul- new Tang plow allowed draft animals to breathe
tural tool culture (ca. 4000 B.C.E.), which depended more easily while pulling heavier loads. The plow,
on spadelike farm tools made of stone or bone. which both crushed and plowed the soil, could turn
Other sites from this earliest era of settled agricul- both left and right, and even turn around easily. An-
ture also include millstones that were used for husk- other new Tang-era tool was the wheelbarrow, which
ing millet. The era from 770 to 476 B.C.E. marks the could carry both people and cargo. Large self-
beginning of Chinese use of iron tools and beasts of powered bucket carriage waterwheels allowed the
burden to pull plows. Previously, humans pulled lifting of water over riverbanks into adjacent irriga-
primitive plows made of wood, which limited farm- tion canals.
ing to easily plowed areas. New iron plows pulled by
cattle were able to plow deeper and thus opened pre- CHINESE INDUSTRIAL TOOL
viously uncultivated lands to agriculture. This same INNOVATIONS
era produced better dam-building and water man- During the Han dynasty, Chinese craftsmen pro-
agement techniques, as in the Dujiang Dam near duced the first metal calipers, made of bronze. This
modern-day Chengdu in the Sichuan Province and invention allowed much more precise measurement
the Canal of the State of Zheng in the Shanxi Prov- of small distances, enabling the development of
ince, which supported the opening of new cultivated more intricate innovations in metallurgy and craft
lands in northwestern China. production. Some of this new capacity to measure
By the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220), iron was applied to weaving technology. Although the
tools were common, including pliers that are very Chinese had woven silk on locally produced looms
similar to the same type of tool used today. Han-era since roughly 4000 B.C.E., in the Han era new twilled
metallurgy involved a bellows system made of spinning wheels powered by foot peddles were the
leather and powered by humans to increase the most advanced weaving apparatus in the world.
temperature of an iron furnace. This produced a Yuan dynasty (C.E. 1279–1368) weavers modified
higher quality iron that was less likely to break the traditional spinning wheel into a new three-
under stress when plowing fields. One beneficiary spindle cotton spinning frame. This increased the
was the triangular iron plowshare, which had a U- production of cotton yarn and supported a major in-
shaped board fixed to the rear of the plow to turn crease in China’s cotton production, both in terms
over and crush the earth. of the growth of cotton as well as in the weaving of
Tang dynasty (C.E. 618–907) innovations in- cotton cloth.
cluded the curved-shaft plow and other new tools The Tang dynasty marked a significant increase
110 | TOOLS AND WEAPONS

Warrior-nobles called
samurai used their superior
weaponry and tactics to
exercise control over Japan
from the late twelfth to the
mid-nineteenth centuries
c.e. The samurai armor
shown here was made
during the sixteenth century
c.e. but actually is modeled
after a style popular in the
fourteenth century c.e.
(Werner Forman/Art Resource,
NY)

in the production of porcelain, which the West employing metal double stirrups. These allowed cav-
would later call “china,” using new color glazes and alrymen to better control their horses and provided a
more efficient kilns to fire the ceramics. Another stable base from which they might shoot arrows at
new Tang dynasty “tool” was the brass mirror, their opponents while on horseback.
which was a byproduct of new metallurgy develop- Bows and arrows and spears were the chief ar-
ments using a mixture of silver and tin. Tang maments of the earliest Asian armies. Infantry-
bronze mirrors came in a variety of shapes and men fought with spears; unlike their early Roman
sizes, and there were other mirrorlike implements, legion contemporaries, they did not fight in close
including one that was able to start a fire by reflect- battle formations. Spearmen instead provided a
ing the sun’s rays. forward defense for archers and crossbowmen
standing behind them, shooting arrows or fire ar-
WEAPONS rows at the enemy. The Han crossbow trigger
India’s Aryan warriors introduced the chariot to Asia mechanism was the best available in that age.
about 1600 B.C.E., and it had spread to China by 1100 Later, the Han would arm their cavalrymen with
B.C.E. The Aryans also introduced the shaft-hole axe, compound bows that used simple pulleys to draw
which was made of cast iron with an opening for the or pull them back. The mace, besides being a sym-
insertion of a wooden handle. By the twelfth century bol of authority, was also used as a weapon in bat-
B.C.E., Chinese elite were being buried dressed in cer- tle, for jabbing or hurling and to break the helmets
emonial bronze armor, which they would have worn of enemies. Fireballs, missiles, and bombs, used to
in battle. By the Era of Warring States (403–222 set fire to enemy camps, were special features of
B.C.E.), Asian warriors were increasingly using sad- traditional Indian warfare.
dles and wooden stirrups more than chariots. The de- Daggers were the so-called personal weapons of
velopment of better metal technology in the Han dy- soldiers that were carried with them at all times,
nasty (206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220) led to Asian cavalries both on and off the battlefield. They were as much
 TOOLS AND WEAPONS | 111

ceremonial weapons as they were fighting weapons, arm warfare, combined with the rebuilt Great
as demonstrated in their regular inclusion among Wall, to defend China against steppe troops until
the ritual items contained in the Chinese dynastic the seventeenth century C.E.
tombs. In terms of design and style, they were un- The Song and Ming also developed effective bat-
doubtedly the most creative and colorful of all Asian tle fleets to engage in combat and patrol against pi-
weapons and rank with the Southeast Asian kris rates in the South China Sea. The Ming were able
jagged daggers and Japanese samurai swords as to make calculations about how many fighting
uniquely Asian military artifacts. forces were necessary, considering the weaponry
Military strategy in the time of China’s Song dy- necessary for battle success, and had the ability to
nasty (C.E. 960–1279) focused on conquering and deploy troops in smaller or larger numbers with
defending cities; thus, an extensive science of for- the correct number of weapons. The West would
tification and siegecraft developed. Use of rockets not have similar battle efficiency until the eigh-
and other weapons employing gunpowder were teenth century C.E.
common at this time. Following his conquest of
China in C.E. 1276–1279, the victorious Mongol See also: Archeological Discoveries; China; Huns;
leader Genghis Khan, impressed with the techno- India; Japan; Java; Mongols; Technology and
logical advantages of the Song army, adopted Song Inventions.
battle technology, adding infantry and naval units to
complement his efficient steppe cavalry tactics. FURTHER READING
The Ming dynasty (C.E. 1368–1644) warriors Draeger, Donn F. The Weapons and Fighting Arts of
made effective use of cannons and other firearms. Indonesia. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 2001.
They learned about firearm warfare from Vietna- Friday, Karl F. Samurai, Warfare, and the State in
mese who opposed their brief occupation of Viet- Early Medieval Japan. New York: Routledge, 2004.
nam in the early fifteenth century C.E. Ming rulers Graff, David A. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900.
subsequently hired Vietnamese instructors to New York: Routledge, 2002.
teach Chinese soldiers at a new firearms training King, W. L. Zen and the Way of the Sword. New York:
facility in Beijing. The Ming effectively used fire- Oxford University Press, 1993.

Vietnam
Located on the southern border of China, country that has been a vital link between China and
Southeast Asia since ancient times. The earliest Vietnamese rice culture developed in the Red
River system of northern Vietnam and southern China and culminated in what is popularly
called the Dongson culture (ca. 500 B.C.E.–C.E. 43). This culture, which was dominated by
regional Sino-Vietnamese family clans, is known for its engraved bronze drums that were widely
distributed through the South China Sea region.
A Chinese military victory in C.E. 43 established nese culture, including Chinese written language
Vietnam as a government outpost under the Han and artistic, philosophical, and political forms.
dynasty (206 B.C.E.–C.E. 220). Chinese officials A civilization that the Chinese called “Funan”
forced Vietnam’s landholding elite to abandon their emerged in the first century C.E. in the Mekong
traditional matriarchal culture, which favored fe- delta region of southern Vietnam. This civilization
male leadership and inheritance, in favor of Chinese survived until the early sixth century C.E. Funan’s
patriarchal family practices. Vietnam’s Hanoi- development and eventual fall were tied to the activ-
centered civilization acquired a heavy overlay of Chi- ities of maritime traders who traveled between
112 | VIETNAM

India and China, making stopovers in Funan’s 1225–1400), as well as the subsequent Le dynasty
ports. This trade reached its height after the fall of (C.E. 1428–1527), began to recruit newly trained
the Han dynasty in C.E. 220, but Funan’s ports Confucian scholars from among their Vietnamese
quickly declined after the route shifted south to the landed aristocracy to replace Buddhist monks as
Strait of Melaka passage between Sumatra and the state bureaucrats. Vietnam’s emperors imple-
Malay Peninsula in the fifth century C.E. mented their own version of the Chinese Confucian
By the sixth century C.E., the ports of the Cham examination system. Unlike the Chinese exams,
civilization located along the central Vietnam coast which were open to all qualified applicants, the
(known collectively as Champa) took over Funan’s Vietnamese system admitted only the sons of
position as the favored stopovers of merchants Vietnam’s landed elite.
traveling between China and Java and the Strait of From the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries
Malacca. The Cham realm included ports populated C.E., the Vietnamese repelled repeated Chinese
by multiethnic seagoing populations. Upstream annexation attempts, as well as periodic raids by
rice farmers and highland tribesmen provided food their Cham neighbors. The multiple wars between
and exotic jungle products to international traders. the Vietnamese and the Chams eventually resulted
The Cham culture is noted for the impressive in the fall of Champa to victorious Vietnamese
Hindu and Buddhist temples it built at Mi-son forces in C.E. 1471. The Vietnamese seized Champa’s
near modern-day Danang. resources and carried off significant numbers of the
Northern Vietnam remained under Chinese sov- Cham population as slaves to settle and develop
ereignty until the fall of the Tang dynasty (C.E. 907), new northern Vietnam rice lands. Shortly thereaf-
when Vietnamese armies prevented the restoration ter, in C.E. 1527, the Le state fragmented into re-
of Chinese rule. Leaders of the newly independent gional courts ruled by rival factions of the royal fam-
Vietnam Ly state (C.E. 960–1225) partnered with ily. As a result, Vietnam would lack effective central
China-trained Mahayana Buddhist monks to estab- authority until 1800.
lish and administer new government institutions.
Minor officials were chosen by examination for the See also: China; Confucianism; Indian Ocean
first time in C.E. 1075, and a civil service training in- Trade; Khmer Empire; Mongols; Slavery.
stitute and an imperial academy were set up in C.E.
1076. In C.E. 1089, a fixed hierarchy of Buddhist FURTHER READING
and secular state officials was established, with Lieberman, Victor. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia
nine degrees of civil and military scholar officials. in Global Context, c. 800–1830. Cambridge: Cam-
By the thirteenth century C.E., however, the Bud- bridge University Press, 2003.
dhist church had become a threat to Vietnamese Taylor, Keith W. The Birth of Vietnam. Berkeley: Uni-
secular leadership. Vietnam’s Tran dynasty (C.E. versity of California Press,

Zheng He (ca. C.E. 1371–1433)

Military commander and leader between C.E. 1405 and 1433 of seven major Chinese maritime
expeditions into the Indian Ocean during the reign of the Ming dynasty (C.E. 1368–1644).
Zheng He’s expeditions asserted China’s political, cultural, and commercial interests through
Southeast Asia and beyond, to Arabia and the east coast of Africa.
Zheng He, from a Muslim family living in south forces when he was 10 years old. He was trained to
China’s Yunnan Province, was captured by Ming enter the Ming court’s exclusive eunuch military
 ZHENG HE | 113

guard. By the time he reached adulthood, he is said reached Aden on the Saudi Arabian Peninsula and
to have been 7 feet (2.1 m) tall and, with his boom- several eastern African coast ports. Among the ex-
ing voice, was a natural leader. otic commodities he brought back were two gi-
Zheng He rose to power as a military com- raffes, which became the prized residents of a new
mander of the emperor Yongle (r. 1402–1424), who court zoo at Beijing.
ordered Zheng He to build a fleet of ships to sail into After the death of Emperor Yongle, the court of
the South China Sea region to project Chinese the new emperor, Xuande (r. 1425–1435), argued
power there. His first voyage, which departed in C.E. that Zheng He’s voyages were overly expensive.
1405, consisted of 27,870 men (soldiers, scholars, Court officials also expressed concern that the voy-
scientists, and artisans) traveling on 317 ships, in- ages yielded advantages to the commercial classes,
cluding supply ships and troop ships, some as large who might gain sufficient power to challenge the
as 1,000 tons (910 m tons). After leaving the South authority of the Confucian gentry. Also, in their
China Sea region, Zheng He’s fleet passed through view, China needed to shift its financial resources to
the Strait of Melaka that separates the Malay Penin- build up its troop strength on its northern border to
sula from Sumatra, and sailed west to Sri Lanka and defend against a potential invasion from the steppes.
to Calicut, on the southwestern India coast. After Zheng He’s death in C.E. 1433, China’s naval
On this and subsequent voyages, the Ming fleet expeditions abruptly ended.
rarely intervened militarily in local affairs; the display Today Zheng He is hailed by the Chinese. Be-
of Zheng He’s massive fleet of ships was sufficient to cause Zheng He was popularly deified after his
impress upon locals the power of the Chinese em- death as a great hero of China’s past, he is still por-
peror. Zheng He’s mission was to promote peace and trayed in regional ancestral temple icons as a poten-
to eliminate the regional piracy that threatened the tial spirit who might be appealed to in hopes of re-
flow of international luxury products (such as spices, solving modern-day problems.
rare woods, incense, ivory, and cotton) to China in ex-
change for China’s silks, porcelain, and horses. He See also: China; Confucianism; Indian Ocean
returned to the Ming court two years after his depar- Trade; Melaka; Pax Sinica.
ture with diplomatic gifts, political hostages, and
tribute collected from foreign rulers. FURTHER READING
Zheng He was so successful that the emperor Levathes, Louise. When China Ruled the Seas: The
commissioned him to make six subsequent voy- Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–33. New
ages. On his second (C.E. 1407–1409) and third voy- York: Simon and Schuster, 1994.
ages (C.E. 1409–1411), he returned to southern Asia, Ptak, Roderich. China and the Asian Seas: Trade,
but on the fourth voyage (C.E. 1413–1415), he sailed Travel, and Visions of the Others (1400–1750).
beyond India to Hormuz (in Persia) on the Persian Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1998.
Gulf. On his fifth voyage (C.E. 1417–1419), he
Glossary
The following words and terms, including those in “The Historian’s Tools,” also appear in context in bold-
face type throughout this volume.

The Historian’s Tools

These terms and concepts are commonly used or referred to by historians and other researchers and writ-
ers to analyze the past.
cause-and-effect relationship A paradigm for history, cultural An analysis of history in terms of a
understanding historical events where one result or people’s culture, or way of life, including
condition is the direct consequence of a preceding investigating patterns of human work and thought
event or condition
history, economic An analysis of history in terms of
chronological thinking Developing a clear sense the production, distribution, and consumption of
of historical time—past, present, and future goods

cultural history See history, cultural history, political An analysis of history in terms of
the methods used to govern a group of people
economic history See history, economic
history, social An analysis of history in terms of the
era A period of time usually marked by a characteristic personal relationships between people and groups
circumstance or event
history of science and technology Study of the
historical inquiry A methodical approach to evolution of scientific discoveries and technological
historical understanding that involves asking a advancements
question, gathering information, exploring
hypotheses, and establishing conclusions patterns of continuity and change A paradigm
for understanding historical events in terms of
historical interpretation and analysis An institutions, culture, or other social behavior that
approach to studying history that involves applying a either remain constant or show marked differences
set of questions to a set of data in order to over time
understand how things change over time
periodization Dividing history into distinct eras
historical research An investigation into an era or
event using primary sources (records made during political history See history, political
the period in question) and secondary sources
(information gathered after the period in question) radiocarbon dating A test for determining the
approximate age of an object or artifact by measuring
historical understanding Knowledge of a the number of carbon 14 atoms in that object
moment, person, event, or pattern in history that
links that information to a larger context social history See history, social
 GLOSSARY | 115

Key Terms Found in A to Z Entries

absolutism The exercise of complete and city-state A city and the area immediately around it
unrestricted power by a ruler or government
cosmology One’s beliefs about the nature and
agrarian Related to agriculture or farming structure of the universe

alluvial Associated with sediment deposited by rivers courtier Person who attends a sovereign at a royal court
in flood plains or deltas
deified Worshiped as a god
annex To incorporate or make part of
doctrine A set of principles presented for acceptance
animism General belief that everything possesses a or belief, such as by a religious, political, or
soul or a spirit philosophical group

antiquity The ancient past, particularly referring to dynasty Succession of rulers, usually from several
the history of the Western world before the fall of the generations, from the same line or family
Roman Empire in C.E. 476
egalitarian Characterized by social equality
archeologist A scientist who studies prehistoric
people and their culture equinox Literally “equal night”; an astronomical term
referring to the two days each year in which daylight
archipelago A group of islands and darkness are approximately equal; usually
March 21 (spring equinox) and September 21
aristocracy The nobility or ruling class in a society (autumnal equinox)

aristocratic In a society, belonging to the nobility or excavate To dig out of the earth; uncover
the ruling class, whose wealth is generally based on
land and whose power is passed on from one hereditary Passed from one generation to another
generation to another
hierarchical Describing an organization, especially
artifact In archeology, any material object made by of persons, that ranks people by authority or
humans, especially a tool, weapon, or ornament; importance; societies that are hierarchical have
archeologists study artifacts of ancient cultures to try distinct social classes, some of which are considered
to learn more about them to be superior to others

artisan A skilled craftsperson or worker who practices hierarchy Ranking by authority or importance
a trade or handicraft
humanoid Creature possessing human characteristics
assimilate To conform or adjust to the customs or
attitudes of a group or society Ice Age An extended period of extremely low
temperatures; there have been many ice ages in the
autonomous Independent; self-governing history of the earth

Bronze Age Historical period marked by introduction icon A religious image or portrait
of bronze for tools and weapons
iconography The use of pictorial images to represent
celestial Relating to heaven or the divine gods or divinities
116 | GLOSSARY

indigenous Native to a particular place pictograph A pictorial representation of a word or idea

inscription Writing carved or engraved on a surface polytheism Worship of a number of deities, often
such as a coin, tablet, or stone monument representations of natural forces, such as the rain or
the wind
Iron Age Historical period, following the Bronze Age,
and marked by the introduction of ironworking relief A type of sculpture in which partially raised
technology figures project from a flat background, giving the
appearance of dimension
maritime Relating to the ocean or ocean travel
Sanskrit Indo-European tongue that is the language
matriarchal A type of society ruled by female leaders of Indian religion and classical literature

matrilineal Tracing of descent through the mother secular Related to worldly things, as opposed to
religion and a church
monarch A hereditary sovereign or ruler
seminomadic People who travel seasonally to follow
monarchy Form of government in which power is in sources of food but also practice limited agriculture
the hands of a hereditary ruler
shaman Human intermediary between the natural
monotheism Belief in a single deity and supernatural worlds

Neolithic Period Also known as the New Stone Age, solstice The longest (summer solstice, June 21) and
an interval in human culture from about 10,000 to shortest (winter solstice, December 21) days of the
3000 B.C.E., starting with the introduction of year
agriculture and ending with the introduction of the
first metal implements and weapons staple Basic or necessary item of food

nomads People who travel seasonally to follow sources stratification Division into different levels or orders
of food based on rank

pantheon All the gods of a particular people, or, a textiles Items made of cloth or fabric, or the fibers
temple dedicated to all the gods of a particular people used to weave a fabric

pastoral Characterized by a rural life; peaceful, theocracy Form of government in which power is
simple, and natural held by a priestly class

patriarchal A type of society ruled by male leaders, tribute Payment from one nation or group to another
where men typically possess sole religious, political, as a sign of respect or to acknowledge submission
and domestic authority
urbanization The growth and development of cities
patrilineal Tracing descent through the father
vassal A person who owes loyalty or service to a more
patron One who supports or sponsors a person or powerful individual in a social system or context
activity
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Index
A Song dynasty, 32 Buddha Tooth Relic, 103
Aboriginal peoples, 1–2, 18–22, 21m urban, 14 Buddhism
Abu Said, 75 Hindu, 17, 90p art and architecture, 15–18, 48, 90p
Agrarian raids, 98, 115 India, 15–16, 17 doctrine, 24, 88–89
Agriculture Indus Valley, 98 Hinduism compared with, 24–25, 88
aboriginal peoples, 1 Japan, 57, 58p, 94p literature and, 67–69
animism and, 87–88 Java, 17 reincarnation, 89
dry rice, 2–3, 3p Maori, 82, 83p restriction of, 63
early communities, xiii, 2, 8–9 Micronesia, 72 sects and splits, 24, 25–26, 89
irrigation, 4–5, 8, 60, 98, 103 rock paintings, 19p, 20 Shinto and, 89–91, 93
monsoons and, 3–4, 76 Southeast Asia, 17 Siddhartha Gautama, 16, 22, 25
sawah cultivation, 2, 4, 54 Sri Lanka, 17 spread of, 22–24, 30, 54–55, 89–90, 92m
shifting cultivation, 2–3 Yi dynasty, 63 See also Buddha statues
social systems and, 4, 5, 82, 97 See also Pottery; Statues; Temples/shrines Burial objects
swidden cultivation, 2, 8 Artha, 99 China, 9t, 12, 15, 98, 110
technology and inventions, 1, 5, 103, 105t, Arthasastra, 42, 65t, 67 Japan, 13
107m, 109 Aryabhata, 106 Korea, 13
terraced farming, 3p, 4, 5 Aryans, 41, 42t, 47–48, 110 statues, 10, 10p, 13, 15
wet rice, 3–5, 3p, 54, 60 Ashikaga Shotunate, 57 See also Burial sites and tombs
See also specific country/region Asoka (Mauryan king), 15–16, 48, 64 Burial sites and tombs
Aibak, Qutb-ud-din, 49, 53 Astronomy, 105 China, 10, 10p, 12, 14–15, 98
Akhmar, 40 Attila the Hun, 45–46, 45p Japan, 13, 54
Akihito, 94 August Ones, 78 Korea, 13
Alexander the Great, xiv, 16, 48 Australia Micronesia, 72
Alluvial soil, 3, 115 aboriginal peoples, 1 paintings, 15
Alphabet. See Language archeological discoveries, 8 Thailand, 8
Amaterasu, 89, 94 art, 19p, 20 See also Burial objects
Analects (Confucius), 34 early peoples and civilizations, xv, 18–22
Angkor, 60–61 European colonization, 21–22 C
Angkor Thom Bayon, 6, 17, 60–61 fossils, 20 Calendar, 105t, 106
Angkor Wat, 6–7, 7p, 17, 60 geographic and climate change, 18 Calligraphy, 65
Animism, 87–88 migratory routes, 21m Cambodia. See Khmer Empire
aboriginal peoples, 1 myths, 91 Canals, 72, 103
Australia, 91, 93 religion, 20, 91, 93 agricultural, 5, 60
burial objects and, 98 society and culture, 19–20 Grand Canal, 29p, 30
Hinduism and, 43p timeline, 22t Cannons, 73, 105, 111
Indo-Aryan, 48 Ayudhya (Thailand), 61, 104 Canoes, 85
Polynesia, 86, 91 Caste system, 41, 42–43, 48, 97, 99
Shinto . See Shinto B Cham, 60, 112
Anuradhapura, 103 Bamiyan (Afghanistan), 17, 24 Chan Buddhist sect, 24
Archeological discoveries, 8–13, 10p, 11m Banpo, 8–9, 9t, 109 Chariots, 10, 110
Architecture. See Art and architecture Battle fleets, 111 China
Aristocrats Bayon, 6 aboriginal peoples, 1
China, 12–13, 27, 28, 37 Beijing Man, 8, 9t agriculture, xiii, 8–9, 26
Japan, 56 Bhagavad Gita, 44 archeological discoveries, 8–13
Korea, 13, 62, 63 Bhakti devotionalism, 17, 44 aristocrats, 12–13, 27, 28, 37
spice trade and, 101 Bodhisattvas, 6, 26 art and architecture . See Art and archi-
Vietnam, 112 Bone-rank system, 62 tecture
Arjuna, 44 Bonesetting, 105t, Beijing Man, 8, 9t
Art and architecture Borobudur, 17 civil service exams, 28, 30, 34, 101
Angkor Wat, 6–7, 7p Bows, 73, 110 classical age, 27, 32
Australia, 19p, 20 Bradshaw Cave (Australia), 20 dynasties
Buddhist, 15–18, 48, 90p Brahmagupta, 106 fat cat syndrome, 35
China Brahman, 42, 43, 66 Han, 29–30, 67, 96
canals, 29p, 30 Brahmin class, 41–42, 48, 100p Mandate of Heaven, 69–70, 77
feng shui, 14 Bronze map of, 31m
Great Wall, 12, 13 drums, 8, 9t Ming, 32–33, 70, 85, 111
imperial tombs, 14–15 mirrors, 110 Pax Sinica, 84–85
landscape painting, 15 tools, 8, 13, 26, 110 Period of Five, 32
Longmen Grotto complex, 18 Buddha statues, 16, 17, 23p, 24, 48 Qin, 13, 28–29
 INDEX | 123

Shang, xiii–xiv, 12, 26 Aryan, 41, 42 aboriginal, 1

Song, 32, 69, 111 Australia, 20 China, 36–37, 100–101
Sui, 30 China, 80 India, 36–37
Tang . See Tang dynasty Japan, 77, 80 Islam and, 53
timelines, 27t Maori, 82–83 Micronesia, 71
Xia, 26 See also Myths and epics Mongol, 74
Yuan, 32, 69, 75 Cremation, 8, 9t Southeast Asia, 101
Zhou, xiv, 26–28, 69 Culture. See Society and culture Genghis Kahn, 73–75, 111
early peoples and civilizations, xiv, 26–28 Currency. See Money Goa, xvi
family life, 35, 36–37, 97–98, 101 Golden Horde, 40–41, 52, 74m, 75
foot binding, 36–37 D See also Mongols
gender roles, 36–37, 100–101 Daggers, 98, 110 Gracile populations, 8, 22t
government, 28–29, 30, 32 Daibutsu (Great Buddha), 16 Grand Canal, 29p, 30
law, 37–38 Dams, 109 Great Wall of China, 12, 13
literature, 67–69 Daoism, 27, 30, 88 Greek culture, 17, 48
material culture, 39 Death sentences, 38 Greek epics, 78
Mongol conquest of, 32, 73, 75 Deities, folk, 77–79 Guanyin, 78–79
myths and epics, 77–80 Delhi Sultanate, 49, 53 Gunpowder, 105, 111
religion Dharma, 41, 42, 99 Gupta Empire (India), xiv, 36, 46, 49, 67
animism, 87, 88 Dharmasastra, 37, 41, 42, 99
blend of, 92 Dingo, domestication of, 19, 22t H
Buddhism, 24, 30 Divine wind, 57 Han dynasty (China), 27t, 29–30, 31m, 67,
Confucianism, xiv, 27, 30, 33–35, 88 Dongson culture, 8 95
Daoism, 27, 30, 88 Dowries, 99 Han Gazou. See Gazou
folk deities, 77–79 Dreamtime, 19p, 20, 91 Han Wudi. See Wudi
Islam, 52, 53 Dynasties Harappa (Indus Valley), 98
slavery, 96–97 China . See China Harsa, 49
social systems, 14, 97–98, 100–101 India, 49 Henna, 37p
technology and inventions, 30, 32, Java, 59 Hierarchical social systems, 97
105–110, 107m, 109–110 Korea, 62–63 agriculture and, 4
timeline, 27t Mandate of Heaven, 69–70, 77 China, 14, 28
tombs/burial sites, 10, 10p, 12, 14–15, 98 Turk, 49, 53 Confucianism, 33, 97
trade, 50–51, 84–85, 96 Vietnam, 112 creation myths and, 80
Vietnam and, 112 India, 41, 42–43, 48
warlords, 30 E Korea, 62
weapons and military strategy, 110–111 Eightfold Way, 24 Hinduism
written language, 64–65 Epics. See Myths and epics art and architecture, 17, 90p
Zheng He, xv, 32, 51, 70, 112–113 Eunuch corps, 112 Buddhism compared with, 24–25, 88
Choe family (Korea), 62 Executions, 38 caste system, 97, 99
Choson (Korea), 62 doctrine, 42–44, 88
City-states, 27 F Gupta Empire, 49
Civil service exams Family life literature and, 67
China, 28, 30, 34, 101 aboriginal, 1 marriage rituals, 37p
Korea, 62, 63 China, 35, 36–37, 97–98, 101 origins, 41, 43p, 88
Vietnam, 112 India, 36–37 reincarnation, 42, 43, 89
Classical age Japan, 101 spread of, 92m
China, 27, 32 Fat cat syndrome, 35 timeline, 42t
India, 49 Feng shui, 14 Vedic era, 41–42
Colonization, xvi, 21–22, 48 Firearms training, 111 Hirohito, 94
Concubines, 36, 97 Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, 27t, 31m, Homo erectus, 8, 9t
Confucian Classics, 67 32 Homo sapiens, 8
Confucian Legalism, 29 Five Emperors, 78 Human habitation, earliest evidence of, xiii,
Confucianism, xiv, 27, 30, 88 Folk deities, 77–79 8
architecture and, 14 Foot binding, 36–37 Huns, 44–46, 45p
beliefs and traditions, 33, 34–35 Fossils, 20 Hunter-gatherers
Korea and, 62, 63 Four Noble Truths, 24 aboriginal, 1, 18–19, 54
literature and, 68–69 Fujiwara clan, 56 Maori, 81
schools of thought, 33–34 Funan, 112 Micronesian, 71
social order, 97 Hwarang, 62
spread of, 84, 112 G Hydraulic society, 4, 8
Confucius, 14, 34, 70 Gautama, Siddhartha, 16, 22, 25
Cook, James, 21, 22t Gazou, 29 I
Creation myths, 80 Gender roles Icon worship, 48
124 | INDEX

Iconography, 16, 17, 91 timeline, 55t literature, 64, 66–69

Inari, 77 tombs, 13, 54 timeline, 65t
India weapons, 98, 111p women’s, 36
aboriginal peoples, 1 written language, 65–66, 66p written, 64–66
art and architecture, 15–17, 48 Java See also Myths and epics; specific coun-
caste system, 41, 42–43, 48, 97, 99 agriculture, 59 try/region
classical age, 49 art and architecture, 17 Lao Tzu, 88
cultural influences, 36, 47–49 early peoples and civilizations, 59–60 Law
dynasties, 49 epics, 81 China, 37–38
early peoples and civilizations, xiv–xv, religion, 24, 53, 59–60 Hindu, 41, 42
46–48 temples, 17, 59 India, 38–39
gender and family life, 36–37 trade, 51, 59 Mongol, 73–74
Gupta Empire, xiv, 36, 46, 49, 67 weapons, 98 Le dynasty (Vietnam), 112
language and literature, 49, 64, 65t, Java Man, 8, 9t Legalists, 34
66–69 Jayavarman II, 60 Li, 99
law, 38–39 Jayavarman VII, 6, 60 Li Sao (The Lament), 65t, 67
marriage, 36, 37p, 99 Jimmu, 94 Li Si, 28–29
material culture, 39 Jomon culture, 9t, 13, 54, 87 Li Yuan, 30
Mauryans, 15–16, 48 Junks, 107–108 Literature. See Language
myths and epics, 78, 80–81 Longmen Grotto (China), 18
religion K Longshan culture, 9, 9t, 11–12
Aryan, 48 Kalibangan (Indus Valley), 98 Luoyang (China), 24
Buddhism, 15–17, 24, 48, 88–89, Kalinga (India), 48
92–93 Kama, 99 M
folk deities, 78 Kamakura Shogunate, 57 Magnetic compass, 107
Hinduism, 49, 88, 93 Kamatari, 55–56 Mahabharata, 44, 65t, 67, 78, 80
Islam, 52–53, 93 Kami, 54, 89, 93–95 Mahabodhi temple complex (India), 16
technology and inventions, 106, 107m Kamikaze (“divine wind”), 57 Mahayana Buddhism, 25–26, 89
temples, 17, 91 Khmer Empire, xv Majapahit state (Java), 59–60
timeline, 47t agriculture, 3, 60 Mandate of Heaven, 69–70, 77
trade, 50–51 Angkor Wat, 6–7, 7p, 17, 60 Maori, 81–83
Indian Ocean trade. See Trade decline of, 61 Maps
Indus Valley, 47, 98–99 Sukhothai and, 103 aboriginal migratory routes, 21m
Inoculations, 105t, 105 temples, 60–61 archeological sites, 11m
Inscriptions, 15, 48, 60, 64, 106 Kofun period (Japan), 54 Chinese dynasties, 31m
Iron tools, 110–111 Koguryo kingdom (Korea), 62 linguistic groups, 68m
Irrigation systems. See Agriculture Korea Mongol empire, 74m
Ise (Japan), 93, 95 agriculture, 13 religions, 92m
Islam, spread of, xv, 52–53, 59–60, 71, 92m, archeological sites, 13 technological spread, 107m
93 civil service exams, 62, 63 trade routes, 50m
Izumo shrine (Japan), 93 dynasties, 62–63 Marae, 82
epics, 79 Maritime trade. See Trade
J Mongol conquest, 62, 75 Marriage
Jade Emperor, 78 origins, 61–62 Australia, 19–20
Japan religion, 63, 92m China, 36
aboriginal peoples, 1 technology and inventions, 107m India, 36, 37p, 99
agriculture, 13, 54 tombs, 13 Yi dynasty (Korea), 63
archeological sites, 13 warlords, 62 Material culture, 1, 39
art and architecture, 57, 58p, 94p written language, 65 Mathematics, 105t, 106
early peoples and civilizations, xv, 54–56 Koryo dynasty (Korea), 62 Mauryan era (India), 15–16, 48
imperial rule, 56 Kosrae (Micronesia), 72 Medicine, 105t, 106
literature, 65–66, 79 Kris, 98, 111 Melaka, 70–71
myths and epics, 77, 79, 80, 91 Krisna, 44 Mencius, 33
religion Kublai Khan, 32, 57, 75 Metallurgy, 109–110
animism, 87 Kupe, 81 Micronesia, xv, 71–72
blend of, 58p, 91, 93, 94 Kyoto (Japan), 56 Middle East, trade, 50, 51
Buddhism, 24, 54–55, 56, 89–90, 94 Military strategy, 72, 111
folk deities, 77 L Ming, concept of, 70
Shinto . See Shinto Lake Mungo, xiii, 8, 9t, 22t Ming dynasty (China), 27t, 32–33, 70, 85, 111
samurais . See Samurais Lament, The, 65t, 67 Mohenjo-Daro (Indus Valley), 98
shoguns, 56–58 Land bridges, xiii Money
slavery, 96–97 Language dowries, 99
social system, 101 Korean alphabet, 63 paper currency, 106p
temples/shrines, 16, 55, 56, 58p, 94p linguistic groups, 68m shells, 12
 INDEX | 125

Mongols burial objects, 98 folk deities, 77

culture, 72–73, 75 early Korean, 13 kami, 54, 89–90, 93–94
Genghis Kahn, 73–75, 111 Indus Valley, 98 origins, 89, 93–95
Golden Horde, 40–41, 52, 74m Jomon culture, 54 regions, 92m
invasions/conquests, 32, 57, 62, 73, 75 Longshan culture, 9 rituals, 95
Kublai Khan, 32, 57, 75 porcelain, 110 shrines, 93, 94p, 95
law, 73–74 Printing, 105t, 106–107, 107m uji clans and, 54
legacy, 75 Pulley systems, 104 Ship construction, 105t, 109
Ogedei, 75 Shoguns, xv, 56–58
regions, 74m, 74–75 Q Shomu, 16
religion, 40, 75 Qin dynasty (China), 13, 27t, 28–29, 31m Shotoku, 54–55
trade, 75, 96 Qin Shihuangdi. See Shihuangdi Siddhartha, 16, 22, 25
weapons, 72–73, 111 Qin wall. See Great Wall of China Silk Road. See Trade
Monsoons, 3–4, 51, 76 Qu Yuan, 67 Silla era (Korea), 62
Moveable type, 105t, 107 Sinhalese, 102–103
Murasaki Shikibu, 66 R Slave dynasty (India), 49
Myths and epics Ramayana, 67, 78, 80 Slavery, 96–97
Bhagavad Gita, 44 Reincarnation, 42, 43, 89 Society and culture
China, 77–80 Religion, 87–93 aboriginal, 1
folk deities and spirits, 77–78 aboriginal peoples, 1, 20 agriculture and, 4, 5, 82, 97
Greek, 78 literature and, 66–67, 94 hierarchical. See Hierarchical social
India, 78, 80–81 map of, 92m systems
Japan, 77, 79, 80 myth and, 77 Islam and, 53
Li Sao, 65t, 67 See also Animism; Buddhism; Confucian- Maori, 82
Mahabharata, 44, 65t, 67, 78, 80 ism; Daoism; Hinduism; Islam; Myths Micronesia, 71
Maori, 81, 82–83 and epics; Shinto; Temples/shrines; Mongol, 73–74, 75
Ramayana, 67, 78, 80 specific country/region Polynesia, 85–86
Rig Veda, 41, 42t, 77, 88 Rig Veda, 41, 42t, 77, 88 social class, 97, 99, 101
Samguksagi, 79 Ritual cremation, 8, 9t theocracies, 98
Tale of Genji, 65–66, 65t, 79, 79p Romance of the Three Kingdoms, 79 trade and, 96
Tale of Heike, 79 village, 72, 97–98
See also Creation myths S See also Family life; Gender roles; Law;
Salvation, 42–43 Marriage; Material culture; specific
N Samguksagi, 79 country/region
Nan Madol (Micronesia), 72 Samurais Song dynasty (China), 27t, 31m, 32, 69, 111
Nara (Japan), 16, 55t, 56 armor, 110p Soul
Navigation, 105t, 107m, 108 bonded, 96 rebirth of, 42, 43, 89
New Zealand, 81–83 decentralization of, 56, 57 of weapons, 98
Noa, 82 religion, 24 Southeast Asia
Nyungar people (Australia), 20 swords, 98 agriculture, 3, 8
Sanjaya, 59 art and architecture, 17
O Sanskrit, 16, 48, 64 early peoples and civilizations, xv
Observatories, 11 Sanskritization, 48 law, 37
Ogedei, 75 Saudeleurs, 72 religion, 24, 52, 53
Ox-drawn plow, 104, 105t Sawah cultivation, 2, 4, 54 social system, 101
Secularism, xvi, 36 trade, 50–51, 102
P Seismographs, 108 written language, 64
Paekche kingdom (Korea), 62 Sejong, 63 Spears, 110
Pagodas, 18 Seminomadic peoples Spice trade, 51, 102
Pali, 64 agrarian raids, 11, 97–98 Spirit worship, 77, 87, 89
Pan Gu, 80 cultural influence of, xiv Sri Lanka, 17, 23, 51, 101, 103
Paper, 105–106 Golden Horde, 40 Sri Maharaja, 70–71
Paper currency. See Money Huns, 45 Statues
Pax Sinica, 84–85 indigenous Australians, 18 Buddhist, 16–18, 23p, 24, 48
Pi, 105t Mongols, 72 burial, 10, 10p, 13, 15
Pictograms, 66p Shang dynasty (China), xiii–xiv, 12, 26, 27t, Daibutsu (Great Buddha), 16
Pictographs, 64, 65t 31m India, 16–17
Plastic surgery, 105t, 106 Shihuangdi Japan, 16
Pliers, 109 first Qin emperor, 28 Longmen Grotto, 18
Plows, 105t, 109 Great Wall, 12, 13 Sri Lanka, 17
Pohnpei (Micronesia), 72 tomb of, 10, 10p, 15 terra-cotta soldiers, 10, 10p
Polynesia, xv, 81, 85–86, 91 See also Qin dynasty (China) Thailand, 23p
Porcelain, 110 Shinto Storytelling, 20
Pottery Buddhism and, 89–90, 93 Stupas, 16, 17, 18, 103
126 | INDEX

Sufism, 53 Three August Ones, 78 agriculture, 3–4, 8

Sui dynasty (China), 27t, 30, 31m Three Collections, 24 archeological sites, 8
Sukhothai (Thailand), 104 Three Jewels, 24 firearm warfare, 111
Suryavarman I, 60 Timelines Village societies, 72, 97–98
Suryavarman II, 6, 60 archeological discoveries, 9t
Swidden cultivation, 2, 8 Australia, 22t W
Swords, samurai, 98 China, 27t Wagyl, 20
Hinduism, 42t Wang Kon, 62
T India, 47t Wang Mang, 30
Taiho Code, 56 Japan, 55t Warlords
Tale of Genji, 65–66, 65t, 79, 79p Khmer Empire, 61t China, 30
Tales of Heike, 79 language and writing, 65t Korea, 62
Tamerlane, 40, 75 technology and inventions, 105t Warring States, Era of the, 27t, 28
Tang dynasty (China), 27t, 31m Todaiji temple (Japan), 16, 56 Water management, 109
art and architecture, 14–15 Tokugawa Shogunate, 58 Weapons
collapse of, 31 Tombs. See Burial sites and tombs aboriginal Australians, 19
Cosmopolitan Age, 30 Tools aboriginal peoples, 1
law, 38 aboriginal peoples, 1, 19 battle fleets, 111
literature, 68–69 agricultural, 109 bows, 73, 110
technology and inventions, 110 bronze, 8, 13, 26, 110 bronze, 8, 13, 110
Tantra, 26 Homo erectus, 8 cannons, 73, 105, 111
Tao te Ching, 88 iron, 13, 109–110 chariots, 10, 110
Taosi, 9t, 12 Japan, 13 daggers, 98, 110
Tapu, 82 Mongols, 72 early Southeast Asia, 8
Technology and inventions See also Technology and inventions; Javanese Kris, 98
aboriginal peoples, 1 Weapons Mongols, 72–73
agricultural, 1, 5, 103, 105, 107m, 109–110 Torii, 94p, 95 rockets, 111
astronomy, 106 Torres Strait Islanders, 18, 22t samurai swords, 98
canals, 5, 29p, 30, 72, 103 Tosho-gu Shrine, 58p spears, 110
canoes, 85 Trade, xv–xvi See also Military strategy; Technology and
gunpowder, 105, 111 Buddhism and, 23–24 inventions; Tools
irrigation systems, 103 Indian Ocean, xv, 49–51, 70–71 Weaving, 109
mathematical, 106 Islam and, 52, 71 Wet rice. See Agriculture
medical, 106 map of routes, 50m Wheelbarrows, 104, 109
navigation, 108 maritime, 24, 30, 49–51 Women. See Gender roles
observatories, 12 Melaka, 70–71 Woomera, 19
printing, 106–107 Ming dynasty, 33 Writing. See Language, written
pulleys, 105 navigation and maps, 107–108 Wu Ding, 12
seismographs, 108 Silk Road, 23–24, 50m, 74m, 95–96 Wudi, 29–30, 62, 95
ship construction, 109 spice, 51, 102
spread of, 107m See also specific country/region X
timeline, 105t Tran dynasty (Vietnam), 112 Xia dynasty (China), 26, 27t, 31m
weaving, 110 Tribute
See also Tools; Weapons; specific country/ to Ayudhya, 104 Y
region to China, 63, 84 Yamato clan (Japan), xv, 54–55, 55t, 94
Temples/shrines to Huns, 46 Yangban, 63
Cambodia (Angkor Wat), 6–7, 7p, 17, 60 to Mongols, 73 Yangshao culture, 9, 9t, 87
India, 16, 17, 18, 90p, 91 to Zheng He, 113 Yap (Micronesia), 71, 72
Japan, 16, 55, 56, 58p, 94p, 95 Turkish dynasties, 49, 53 Yayoi period (Japan), 13, 54
Java, 17, 59 Yi dynasty (Korea), 63
Maori, 83p U Yi Song-gye, 62–63
Temuchin, 73 Uji clans (Japan), 54–55 Yin and yang, 80
Terra-cotta soldiers, 10, 10p Upanishads, 42–43, 65t, 66–67 Yin (China), 12, 26
Terraced farming. See Agriculture Urbanization, 5, 14 Yoga, 43, 44
Thailand Uttar Pradesh temple (India), 90p Yuan dynasty (China), 27t, 31m, 32, 69, 75
agriculture, 3, 8
archeological sites, 8 V Z
attack on Angkor, 61 Vajrayana Buddhism, 26, 89 Zen Buddhism, 24
Buddha statue, 23p Vedas, 41, 66 Zero, concept of, 106
Sukhothai and Ayudhya, 104 Vedic era, 41 Zhang Heng, 108
Theocracy, 98 Vegetarianism, 43 Zheng He, xv, 32, 51, 70, 112–113
Theravada Buddhism, 25, 89, 103, 104 Vietnam, 111–112 Zhou dynasty (China), xiv, 26–28, 27t, 69