Relational Algebra:

Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by

step process to obtain the result of the query. It uses operators to
perform queries.

Types of Relational Operation:

1. Select Operation:
o The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.
o It is denoted by sigma (σ).

Notation: σ p(r)
Where:

σ is used for selection prediction

r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors
like: AND OR and NOT. These relational can use as relational
operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.
Example: LOAN Relation
BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT
Downtown L-17 1000
Redwood L-23 2000
Perryride L-15 1500
Downtown L-14 1500
Mianus L-13 500
Roundhill L-11 900
Perryride L-16 1300

Input:
σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)
Output:
BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT
Perryride L-15 1500
Perryride L-16 1300

2. Project Operation:
o This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to
appear in the result. Rest of the attributes are eliminated from
the table.
o It is denoted by ∏.

Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)

Where
A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.
Example: CUSTOMER RELATION
NAME STREET CITY
Jones Main Harrison
Smith North Rye
Hays Main Harrison
Curry North Rye
Johnson Alma Brooklyn
Brooks Senator Brooklyn

Input:
∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)
Output:
NAME CITY
Jones Harrison
Smith Rye
Hays Harrison
Curry Rye
Johnson Brooklyn
Brooks Brooklyn

3. Union Operation:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation

It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.

contains all the tuples that are either in R or S or both in R & S.
o

Notation: R ∪ S
A union operation must hold the following condition:
o R and S must have the attribute of the same number.
o Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

Example:
DEPOSITOR RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO
Johnson A-101
Smith A-121
Mayes A-321
Turner A-176
Johnson A-273
Jones A-472
Lindsay A-284

BORROW RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO
Jones L-17
Smith L-23
Hayes L-15
Jackson L-14
Curry L-93
Smith L-11
Williams L-17
Input:
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME
Johnson
Smith
Hayes
Turner
Jones
Lindsay
Jackson
Curry
Williams
Mayes

4. Set Intersection:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection
operation contains all tuples that are in both R & S.
o It is denoted by intersection ∩.

Notation: R ∩ S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME
Smith
Jones

5. Set Difference:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection
operation contains all tuples that are in R but not in S.
o It is denoted by intersection minus (-).

Notation: R - S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) - ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME
Jackson
Hayes
Willians
Curry
6. Cartesian Product:
o The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table
with each row in the other table. It is also known as a cross
product.
o It is denoted by X.

Notation: E X D

Example:
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT

1 Smith A
2 Harry C
3 John B

DEPARTMENT

DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME
A Marketing
B Sales
C Legal

Input:

EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT
Output:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

1 Smith A A Marketing
1 Smith A B Sales
1 Smith A C Legal
2 Harry C A Marketing
2 Harry C B Sales
2 Harry C C Legal
3 John B A Marketing
3 John B B Sales
3 John B C Legal

7. Rename Operation:
The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is
denoted by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to

STUDENT1.

ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)
Join Operations:

and only if a given join condition is satisfied. It is denoted by ⋈.

A Join operation combines related tuples from different relations, if

Example:
EMPLOYEE

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME
101 Stephan
102 Jack
103 Harry
SALARY

EMP_CODE SALARY
101 50000
102 30000

Operation: (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

103 25000

Result:

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME SALARY

101 Stephan 50000
102 Jack 30000
103 Harry 25000
Types of Join operations:

1. Natural Join:
o A natural join is the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S

It is denoted by ⋈.
that are equal on their common attribute names.
o

Example: Let's use the above EMPLOYEE table and SALARY table:
Input:
∏EMP_NAME, SALARY (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

Output:

EMP_NAME SALARY
Stephan 50000
Jack 30000
Harry 25000

2. Outer Join:
The outer join operation is an extension of the join operation. It is
used to deal with missing information.

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_NAME STREET CITY

Ram Civil line Mumbai
Shyam Park street Kolkata
Ravi M.G. Street Delhi
Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad
FACT_WORKERS

EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY

Ram Infosys 10000
Shyam Wipro 20000
Kuber HCL 30000
Hari TCS 50000

Input:

(EMPLOYEE ⋈ FACT_WORKERS)

Output:

EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil Mumbai Infosys 10000
line
Shyam Park Kolkata Wipro 20000
street
Hari Nehru Hyderabad TCS 50000
nagar

An outer join is basically of three types:

a. Left outer join
b. Right outer join
c. Full outer join
a. Left outer join:
o Left outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R
and S that are equal on their common attribute names.

It is denoted by ⟕.
o In the left outer join, tuples in R have no matching tuples in S.
o

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table

Input:

EMPLOYEE ⟕ FACT_WORKERS
EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY
Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000
Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000
Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000
Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL

b. Right outer join:

o Right outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in
R and S that are equal on their common attribute names.

It is denoted by ⟖.
o In right outer join, tuples in S have no matching tuples in R.
o

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS Relation

Input:

EMPLOYEE ⟖ FACT_WORKERS
 Output:

EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY STREET CITY

Ram Infosys 10000 Civil line Mumbai
Shyam Wipro 20000 Park street Kolkata
Hari TCS 50000 Nehru street Hyderabad
Kuber HCL 30000 NULL NULL

C. Full Outer Join:

o Full outer join is like a left or right join except that it contains all
rows from both tables.
o In full outer join, tuples in R that have no matching tuples in S
and tuples in S that have no matching tuples in R in their

It is denoted by ⟗.
common attribute name.
o

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table

Input:

EMPLOYEE ⟗ FACT_WORKERS

Output:

EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000
Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000
Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000
Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL
Kuber NULL NULL HCL 30000

3. Equi Join:
It is also known as an inner join. It is the most common join. It is
based on matched data as per the equality condition.
The equi join uses the comparison operator(=).

Example:
CUSTOMER RELATION

CLASS_ID NAME
1 John
2 Harry
3 Jackson

PRODUCT

PRODUCT_ID CITY
1 Delhi
2 Mumbai
3 Noida

Input:

CUSTOMER ⋈ PRODUCT

Output:

CLASS_ID NAME PRODUCT_ID CITY

1 John 1 Delhi
2 Harry 2 Mumbai
3 Harry 3 Noida