★​IGCSE Physics Notes

★​1. Forces + Motion

★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Define scalar and vector quantities.
○​ Understand the concept of force and its units.
○​ Describe different types of forces.
○​ Apply Newton's laws of motion to explain the motion of objects.
○​ Calculate speed, velocity, and acceleration.
○​ Interpret distance-time and velocity-time graphs.
○​ Understand the concept of momentum and its conservation.
○​ Describe the effects of forces on motion, including friction and air resistance.
○​ Understand the concept of work done and energy transfer.
★​ 1.1 Scalar + Vector Quantities
○​ Scalar Quantities:
■​ Defined by magnitude only.
■​ Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, energy.
○​ Vector Quantities:
■​ Defined by both magnitude and direction.
■​ Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum.
★​ 1.2 Force
○​ Definition: A push or pull that can change the motion of an object.
○​ Unit: Newton (N).
○​ Types of Forces:
■​ Contact Forces:
●​ Require physical contact between objects.
●​ Examples: friction, tension, normal force, air resistance.
■​ Non-Contact Forces:
●​ Do not require physical contact.
●​ Examples: gravitational force, electrostatic force, magnetic force.
★​ 1.3 Newton's Laws of Motion
○​ Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):
■​ An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with a
constant velocity, unless acted upon by a net force.
○​ Newton's Second Law:
■​ The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on
it and inversely proportional to its mass.
■​ Equation: F = ma (Force = mass x acceleration).
○​ Newton's Third Law:
■​ For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
★​ 1.4 Speed, Velocity, + Acceleration
○​ Speed:
 ■​ The rate at which an object covers distance.
■​ Equation: Speed = distance / time.
○​ Velocity:
■​ The rate at which an object changes its displacement.
■​ Velocity is a vector quantity.
○​ Acceleration:
■​ The rate at which an object changes its velocity.
■​ Equation: Acceleration = (change in velocity) / time.
★​ 1.5 Distance-Time + Velocity-Time Graphs
○​ Distance-Time Graphs:
■​ Slope represents speed.
■​ A straight line indicates constant speed.
■​ A curved line indicates changing speed.
○​ Velocity-Time Graphs:
■​ Slope represents acceleration.
■​ Area under the graph represents displacement.
■​ A horizontal line indicates constant velocity.
★​ 1.6 Momentum
○​ Definition: A measure of an object's mass in motion.
○​ Equation: Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v).
○​ Unit: kg m/s.
○​ Conservation of Momentum:
■​ In a closed system, the total momentum before a collision is equal to the total
momentum after the collision.
★​ 1.7 Effects of Forces on Motion
○​ Friction:
■​ A force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.
■​ Converts kinetic energy into thermal energy.
○​ Air Resistance:
■​ A force that opposes the motion of an object through the air.
■​ Increases with the speed of the object.
○​ Terminal Velocity:
■​ The constant velocity reached by an object falling through a fluid, occurring
when the force of gravity is balanced by the drag force.
★​ 1.8 Work Done + Energy Transfer
○​ Work Done:
■​ The energy transferred when a force causes an object to move.
■​ Equation: Work Done (W) = Force (F) x Distance (d) x cos(θ), where θ is the
angle between the force and the direction of motion.
○​ Unit: Joule (J).
○​ Energy Transfer: The process of energy moving from one object or system to
another.
★​2. Electricity
★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Understand the concept of electric charge and current.
○​ Describe the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.
○​ Apply Ohm's law to solve circuit problems.
○​ Analyse series and parallel circuits.
○​ Understand the concept of electrical power and energy.
○​ Describe the characteristics of alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC).
○​ Explain the function of common electrical components.
★​ 2.1 Electric Charge + Current
○​ Electric Charge:
■​ A fundamental property of matter that can be positive or negative.
■​ Unit: Coulomb (C).
○​ Electric Current:
■​ The rate of flow of electric charge.
■​ Equation: Current (I) = Charge (Q) / Time (t).
■​ Unit: Ampere (A).
★​ 2.2 Voltage, Current, + Resistance
○​ Voltage (Potential Difference):
■​ The energy required to move a unit of electric charge between two points.
■​ Unit: Volt (V).
○​ Resistance:
■​ The opposition to the flow of electric current.
■​ Unit: Ohm (Ω).
★​ 2.3 Ohm's Law
○​ Statement: The voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided the temperature remains constant.
○​ Equation: Voltage (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R).
★​ 2.4 Series + Parallel Circuits
○​ Series Circuits:
■​ Components are connected end-to-end.
■​ Current is the same through all components.
■​ Total resistance is the sum of individual resistances (R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...).
■​ Voltage is divided among the components.
○​ Parallel Circuits:
■​ Components are connected across the same two points.
■​ Voltage is the same across all components.
■​ Current is divided among the branches.
■​ Total resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance (1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +
1/R3 + ...).
★​ 2.5 Electrical Power + Energy
○​ Electrical Power:
 ■​ The rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms of energy.
■​ Equations: Power (P) = Voltage (V) x Current (I) = I2 x R = V2 / R.
■​ Unit: Watt (W).
○​ Electrical Energy:
■​ The energy transferred by an electric current.
■​ Equation: Energy (E) = Power (P) x Time (t) = V x I x t.
■​ Unit: Joule (J) or kilowatt-hour (kWh).
★​ 2.6 Alternating Current (AC) + Direct Current (DC)
○​ Direct Current (DC):
■​ Current flows in one direction only.
■​ Examples: Batteries, solar cells.
○​ Alternating Current (AC):
■​ Current changes direction periodically.
■​ Examples: Mains electricity.
■​ Frequency: The number of complete cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz).
★​ 2.7 Common Electrical Components
○​ Resistor: Limits current flow.
○​ Variable Resistor (Rheostat/Potentiometer): Allows the resistance to be adjusted.
○​ Diode: Allows current to flow in one direction only.
○​ Light-Emitting Diode (LED): Emits light when current passes through it.
○​ Thermistor: Resistance changes with temperature.
○​ Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR): Resistance changes with light intensity.
○​ Fuse: A safety device that melts and breaks the circuit if the current exceeds a
certain value.
○​ Circuit Breaker: A switch that automatically interrupts the flow of current in an
overload.
★​3. Waves
★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Understand the basic properties of waves, including amplitude, wavelength,
frequency, and period.
○​ Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves.
○​ Apply the wave equation to solve problems related to wave speed, frequency, and
wavelength.
○​ Describe the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference.
○​ Understand the electromagnetic spectrum and the properties of different types of
electromagnetic waves.
○​ Explain the uses and applications of different types of electromagnetic waves.
★​ 3.1 Basic Properties of Waves
○​ Wave: A disturbance that transfers energy through a medium or space without
transferring matter.
○​ Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a point on a wave from its equilibrium
position.
 ○​ Wavelength (λ): The distance between two corresponding points on consecutive
waves (e.g. crest to crest or trough to trough).
○​ Frequency (f): The number of complete waves that pass a point in one second.
■​ Unit: Hertz (Hz).
○​ Period (T): The time taken for one complete wave to pass a point.
■​ Equation: T = 1/f.
★​ 3.2 Transverse + Longitudinal Waves
○​ Transverse Waves:
■​ The particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of energy
transfer.
■​ Examples: Light waves, water waves.
○​ Longitudinal Waves:
■​ The particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer.
■​ Examples: Sound waves.
★​ 3.3 The Wave Equation
○​ Relates wave speed, frequency, and wavelength.
○​ Equation: Wave speed (v) = Frequency (f) x Wavelength (λ).
★​ 3.4 Wave Phenomena
○​ Reflection:
■​ The bouncing back of a wave when it strikes a boundary.
■​ Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.
○​ Refraction:
■​ The bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another, due to a
change in wave speed.
○​ Diffraction:
■​ The spreading out of a wave as it passes through an opening or around an
obstacle.
■​ More pronounced when the wavelength is comparable to the size of the
opening or obstacle.
○​ Interference:
■​ The superposition of two or more waves, resulting in a new wave pattern.
■​ Constructive interference: Waves combine in phase to produce a larger
amplitude.
■​ Destructive interference: Waves combine out of phase to produce a smaller
amplitude or cancellation.
★​ 3.5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
○​ A continuous range of electromagnetic waves, ordered by frequency and
wavelength.
○​ All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
○​ From lowest frequency to highest frequency:
■​ Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation,
X-rays, gamma rays.
★​ 3.6 Properties + Applications of Electromagnetic Waves
○​ Radio Waves:
■​ Longest wavelength, lowest frequency.
■​ Applications: Broadcasting, communication.
○​ Microwaves:
■​ Applications: Cooking, satellite communication, radar.
○​ Infrared Radiation:
■​ Applications: Thermal imaging, remote controls, heating.
○​ Visible Light:
■​ The portion of the spectrum that is visible to the human eye.
■​ Applications: Photography, illumination, optical instruments.
○​ Ultraviolet Radiation:
■​ Higher energy than visible light.
■​ Applications: Sterilisation, tanning, medical treatments.
■​ Can be harmful to living tissue.
○​ X-rays:
■​ High energy can penetrate many materials.
■​ Applications: Medical imaging, industrial inspection.
■​ Can be harmful to living tissue.
○​ Gamma Rays:
■​ Highest energy, shortest wavelength.
■​ Applications: Sterilisation, cancer treatment.
■​ Very harmful to living tissue.
★​4. Energy Resources + Energy Transfer
★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Understand the concept of energy and its different forms.
○​ Describe various energy resources, including renewable and non-renewable
sources.
○​ Explain the processes of energy transfer, including conduction, convection, and
radiation.
○​ Understand the concept of thermal conductivity.
○​ Describe methods of reducing energy transfer.
○​ Understand the concept of efficiency and how it applies to energy transfer.
★​ 4.1 Energy + Its Forms
○​ Energy: The capacity to do work.
○​ Unit: Joule (J).
○​ Forms of Energy:
■​ Kinetic energy (energy of motion).
■​ Potential energy (stored energy, including gravitational and elastic potential
energy).
■​ Thermal energy (energy associated with the random motion of particles).
■​ Chemical energy (energy stored in chemical bonds).
 ■​ Electrical energy (energy associated with the flow of electric charge).
■​ Nuclear energy (energy stored in the nucleus of an atom).
■​ Light energy (electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye).
■​ Sound energy (energy associated with the vibration of particles in a medium).
★​ 4.2 Energy Resources
○​ Renewable Energy Resources:
■​ Replenished naturally and can be used repeatedly.
■​ Examples: Solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric energy, tidal energy,
geothermal energy, biomass energy.
○​ Non-Renewable Energy Resources:
■​ Finite and cannot be replenished at the same rate they are used.
■​ Examples: Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), nuclear fuels (uranium).
★​ 4.3 Energy Transfer
○​ The movement of energy from one place to another or its conversion from one
form to another.
○​ Methods of Energy Transfer:
■​ Conduction: The transfer of thermal energy through a material by the vibration
of particles and the transfer of energy from particle to particle.
■​ Convection: The transfer of thermal energy in fluids (liquids and gases) by the
movement of the fluid itself.
■​ Radiation: The transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.
★​ 4.4 Thermal Conductivity
○​ A measure of a material's ability to conduct thermal energy.
○​ Materials with high thermal conductivity transfer heat quickly (e.g. metals).
○​ Materials with low thermal conductivity are good insulators (e.g. wood, plastic).
★​ 4.5 Reducing Energy Transfer
○​ Insulation: Materials that reduce the rate of energy transfer.
■​ Examples: Double-paned windows, cavity wall insulation, loft insulation.
○​ Vacuum: A space with very few particles, used to reduce energy transfer by
conduction and convection (e.g. in a vacuum flask).
○​ Shiny surfaces: Reflect thermal radiation, reducing energy transfer by radiation.
★​ 4.6 Efficiency
○​ The proportion of energy input that is converted into useful energy output.
○​ Equation: Efficiency = (Useful energy output / Total energy input) x 100%.
○​ Efficiency is expressed as a percentage.
○​ No energy transfer is 100% efficient, some energy is always lost to the
surroundings, usually as thermal energy.
★​5. Solids, Liquids, + Gases
★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Describe the particle model of matter.
○​ Compare the properties of solids, liquids, and gases.
○​ Explain the processes of melting, boiling, freezing, and condensation.
 ○​ Understand the concept of density and its units.
○​ Apply the concept of density to solve related problems.
○​ Describe Brownian motion and its significance.
○​ Understand the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature in gases.
★​ 5.1 Particle Model of Matter
○​ Matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms, molecules, or ions).
○​ The arrangement and motion of these particles determine the state of matter.
★​ 5.2 Properties of Solids, Liquids, + Gases
○​ Solids:
■​ Particles are closely packed in a regular arrangement.
■​ Strong intermolecular forces.
■​ Fixed shape and volume.
■​ Particles vibrate in fixed positions.
○​ Liquids:
■​ Particles are close together but in a random arrangement.
■​ Weaker intermolecular forces than solids.
■​ Fixed volume but variable shape.
■​ Particles can move past each other.
○​ Gases:
■​ Particles are far apart and in random motion.
■​ Very weak intermolecular forces.
■​ Variable shape and volume.
■​ Particles move rapidly and randomly.
★​ 5.3 Changes of State
○​ Melting: Solid to liquid (energy is absorbed).
○​ Boiling/Evaporation: Liquid to gas (energy is absorbed).
○​ Freezing: Liquid to solid (energy is released).
○​ Condensation: Gas to liquid (energy is released).
○​ Sublimation: Solid to gas (energy is absorbed).
○​ Deposition: Gas to solid (energy is released).
★​ 5.4 Density
○​ Definition: A measure of how much mass is contained in a given volume.
○​ Equation: Density (ρ) = Mass (m) / Volume (V).
○​ Unit: kg/m³ or g/cm³.
★​ 5.5 Applications of Density
○​ Floating and sinking: An object floats if its density is less than the density of the
fluid it is placed in.
○​ Calculating the mass or volume of a substance.
○​ Identifying materials.
★​ 5.6 Brownian Motion
○​ The random movement of particles in a fluid (liquid or gas), caused by collisions
with other particles.
 ○​ Provides evidence for the particle model of matter.
★​ 5.7 Pressure, Volume, + Temperature in Gases
○​ Gas Pressure: The force exerted by gas particles colliding with the walls of a
container.
○​ Boyle's Law: At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely
proportional to its volume (P₁V₁ = P₂V₂).
○​ Charles's Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature (V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂).
○​ The Pressure Law: At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature (P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂).
○​ Ideal Gas Law: Combines Boyle's, Charles's, and the Pressure Law (PV = nRT).
★​6. Magnetism + Electromagnetism
★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Understand the properties of magnets and magnetic fields.
○​ Describe the interaction between magnets.
○​ Understand the concept of electromagnetism.
○​ Describe the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire and a solenoid.
○​ Explain the factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet.
○​ Understand the motor effect and its applications.
○​ Describe the principles of electromagnetic induction.
★​ 6.1 Magnets + Magnetic Fields
○​ Magnet: A material that produces a magnetic field.
○​ Magnetic Field: A region around a magnet where magnetic forces can be observed.
○​ Magnetic Poles: The ends of a magnet, called the north pole and the south pole.
★​ 6.2 Interaction Between Magnets
○​ Like poles repel each other (north-north or south-south).
○​ Unlike poles attract each other (north-south).
★​ 6.3 Electromagnetism
○​ The interaction between electricity and magnetism.
○​ A magnetic field is produced by an electric current.
★​ 6.4 Magnetic Field Around a Current-Carrying Wire + a Solenoid
○​ Current-Carrying Wire:
■​ Produces a circular magnetic field around the wire.
■​ The direction of the magnetic field can be determined using the left-hand rule.
○​ Solenoid:
■​ A coil of wire carrying an electric current.
■​ Produces a magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet.
■​ The magnetic field inside a solenoid is strong and uniform.
★​ 6.5 Factors Affecting the Strength of an Electromagnet
○​ Current: Increasing the current increases the strength of the magnetic field.
○​ Number of Turns: Increasing the number of turns in the coil increases the strength
of the magnetic field.
 ○​ Core Material: Using a ferromagnetic core (e.g. iron) increases the strength of the
magnetic field.
★​ 6.6 The Motor Effect
○​ A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force.
○​ The direction of the force is perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic
field.
○​ Fleming's left-hand rule is used to determine the direction of the force.
○​ Applications: Electric motors, loudspeakers.
★​ 6.7 Electromagnetic Induction
○​ The process of generating an electric current in a conductor by changing the
magnetic field around it.
○​ A changing magnetic field induces a voltage (electromotive force) in a conductor.
○​ Faraday's Law: The magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux.
○​ Lenz's Law: The induced current flows in a direction that opposes the change that
produced it.
○​ Applications: Generators, transformers.
★​7. Radioactivity + Particles
★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Understand the structure of the atom.
○​ Describe the phenomenon of radioactivity.
○​ Describe the properties of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
○​ Understand the concept of half-life and its applications.
○​ Explain the process of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
○​ Describe the uses and dangers of radioactive materials.
○​ Understand the sources and effects of background radiation.
★​ 7.1 The Structure of the Atom
○​ Atom: The basic building block of all matter.
○​ Nucleus: The dense, positively charged center of an atom, containing protons and
neutrons.
○​ Protons: Positively charged particles in the nucleus.
○​ Neutrons: Neutrally charged particles in the nucleus.
○​ Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in shells.
★​ 7.2 Radioactivity
○​ The spontaneous decay of unstable atomic nuclei, resulting in the emission of
radiation.
○​ Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) have unstable nuclei.
★​ 7.3 Properties of Alpha, Beta, + Gamma Radiation
○​ Alpha (α) Radiation:
■​ Consists of alpha particles (helium nuclei).
■​ Charge: 2+.
■​ Mass: Relatively large.
 ■​ Penetration: Weak (stopped by paper or a few centimeters of air).
■​ Ionisation: Strong.
○​ Beta (β) Radiation:
■​ Consists of beta particles (high-speed electrons or positrons).
■​ Charge: 1- or 1+.
■​ Mass: Negligible.
■​ Penetration: Moderate (stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum).
■​ Ionisation: Moderate.
○​ Gamma (γ) Radiation:
■​ Consists of high-energy electromagnetic waves.
■​ Charge: 0.
■​ Mass: 0.
■​ Penetration: Strong (stopped by several centimeters of lead or thick concrete).
■​ Ionisation: Weak.
★​ 7.4 Half-Life
○​ The time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay.
○​ A constant for a given radioisotope.
○​ Used to determine the age of ancient artifacts (radiocarbon dating) and rocks
(radioactive dating).
★​ 7.5 Nuclear Fission + Nuclear Fusion
○​ Nuclear Fission:
■​ The splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei,
releasing a large amount of energy.
■​ Used in nuclear power plants.
○​ Nuclear Fusion:
■​ The combining of two light atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing an
even larger amount of energy.
■​ Occurs in stars.
★​ 7.6 Uses + Dangers of Radioactive Materials
○​ Uses:
■​ Medical: Cancer treatment (radiotherapy), medical imaging (tracers).
■​ Industrial: Sterilisation, gauging thickness, smoke detectors.
■​ Scientific: Radiocarbon dating.
○​ Dangers:
■​ Ionising radiation can damage living cells, causing mutations, cancer, and
radiation sickness.
■​ The degree of danger depends on the type of radiation, its intensity, and the
duration of exposure.
★​ 7.7 Background Radiation
○​ Low-level radiation that is present everywhere.
○​ Sources:
■​ Natural sources: Cosmic rays, rocks and soil, radon gas.
 ■​ Artificial sources: Medical procedures, nuclear weapons testing, nuclear power
plants.
★​8. Astrophysics
★​ Learning Objectives:
○​ Understand the structure of the solar system.
○​ Describe the life cycle of stars.
○​ Understand the concept of gravitational forces and orbits.
○​ Explain the evidence for the Big Bang theory.
○​ Understand the concept of red-shift and its implications.
○​ Describe the use of telescopes in observing space.
★​ 8.1 The Solar System
○​ A system of planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and dust,
gravitationally bound to the Sun.
○​ The Sun: A star at the center of the solar system, providing light and heat.
○​ Planets: Large objects that orbit a star and have cleared their orbits of debris.
■​ Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (rocky planets).
■​ Outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (gas giants).
○​ Dwarf Planets: Smaller objects that orbit a star but have not cleared their orbits of
debris (e.g. Pluto).
○​ Moons: Natural satellites that orbit planets.
○​ Asteroids: Rocky objects that orbit the Sun, mainly found in the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter.
○​ Comets: Icy objects that orbit the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
★​ 8.2 The Life Cycle of Stars
○​ Stars form from clouds of gas and dust called nebulae.
○​ Protostar: A contracting cloud of gas and dust that is the early stage of a star's life.
○​ Main Sequence Star: A stable star that is fusing hydrogen into helium in its core (e.g.
the Sun).
■​ The length of a star's main sequence depends on its mass (more massive stars
have shorter lives).
○​ Red Giant: A star that has exhausted the hydrogen in its core and has expanded and
cooled.
○​ White Dwarf: The hot, dense core of a star that remains after it has shed its outer
layers.
○​ Supergiant: A very massive star that expands to an enormous size.
○​ Supernova: The explosive death of a massive star.
○​ Neutron Star: The dense core of a massive star that remains after a supernova.
○​ Black Hole: A region of spacetime with such strong gravity that nothing, not even
light, can escape.
★​ 8.3 Gravitational Forces + Orbits
○​ Gravity: The force of attraction between objects with mass.
○​ The force of gravity between two objects is proportional to the product of their
 masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
○​ Orbits: The path of an object around another object due to gravity.
■​ Planets orbit the Sun due to its gravity.
■​ Moons orbit planets due to their gravity.
★​ 8.4 The Big Bang Theory
○​ The prevailing cosmological model for the universe's earliest known period and
subsequent evolution.
○​ States that the universe expanded from an extremely hot, dense state about 13.8
billion years ago.
○​ Evidence:
■​ Redshift of distant galaxies.
■​ Cosmic microwave background radiation.
■​ Abundance of light elements.
★​ 8.5 Red-Shift
○​ The stretching of light waves from distant galaxies as they move away from us.
○​ Provides evidence for the expansion of the universe.
○​ The greater the redshift, the faster the galaxy is moving away.
★​ 8.6 Telescopes
○​ Instruments used to observe distant objects in space.
○​ Types:
■​ Optical telescopes: Use lenses or mirrors to collect and focus visible light.
■​ Radio telescopes: Detect radio waves emitted by celestial objects.
■​ Space telescopes: Located in space to avoid atmospheric distortion.