Eafih physics

1 ó.1 Sou.né waves

In this topic you will:

COFÍt IFt @FOU|D9 tO dl9Cuss the answers to these questions.

Give two examples of things that make very loud
sounds. Give two examples of things that make
very quiet sounds. Give two examples of high-
pitched sounds.
Give two examples of Iow-pitched sounds.
 é.1 Sound waves

Where does sound

come from?
Things that vibrate make sounds. To vibrate
means to move backwards nail forwards
very quickly.
The men in the picture are hitting drums to
make them vibrate. When the drums vibrate,
the drums make a sound.
If you hit a drum with more force, it vibrates
more. This makes a louder sound.
If you touch the front of your neck while you
are speaking, you can feel a vibration. The
vibration comes from your vocul cords, which
make the sound when you speak.
Loudspeakers produce sounds from
television, radio and music players. lf you put
small objects into the paper cone of a
loudspeaker, the objects will bounce around.
This shows that the paper cone in the
loudspeaker is vibrating.
Not all sounds are the same.
Sounds can vary in both loudness and pitch.
Thunder makes a sound with a low pitch.
A baby crying makes a sound with a high pitch.

Questions
1 A guitar is a musicai
instrument with strings.
Which one of these is needed to
make a sound from the guitar?
Write the letter.
A The guitar is macle from wood.
B The guitar strings vibrate.
C There is air inside the guitar.
D There are metal parts on the guitar.
2 Zara is playing the guitar by plucking a string.
Which statement describes a way that Zara can make the sound loudef?
Write the letter.
A Pluck the string with more force.
B Pluck the string with less force.
C Make the string tighter.
D Make the string looser.
3 Some flying insects make a buzzing sound.
Describe what causes this sound.

Sound waves
Sound travels from a vibrating object to our
ears. This is called a set d wave.

What is a sound wave?

When an object vibrates, it moves backwards and forwards.
Every time the object vibrates forward, the air in front of
the object gets pushed forward.
The pnrtlcles in the air are
made to vibrate backwards vibrating cone direction of sound wave
end forwards in time with
the vibrating object.
When the particles in front
of the objecl vibrate, those
particles make other particles
in front of them vibrate.
This makes a sound waye.
The speed of s‹ntod
waves in air is about 143
metres per second.
vlbratlon ofalr particles
Thcpictuwshowsho In sound weve
w a vibrating cone
in a loudspeaker A sound wave travels to your ear by the vibration of air particles
makes a sound wave.
 Sofia is watching television.
The sound from the television is travelling direction of sound
across the room, as shown in the
diagram.
Which of these arrows shows how the particles in
air vibrate?
Write the letter.
dlrectlon of sound

Thunder can make objects inside a room vibrate.

Explain what causes the objects to vibrate.
A fly is walking up a grass window. The fly's feet make vibrations.
Explain why people cannot hear the sound of the fly walking.

Sound waves on the move

Sound waves travel by making particles vibrate.
Sound will travel though anything that has
particles: gas, liquid or solid.
You can demonstrate this by tapping on a table.
Ask another person to listen to the sound. Then
ask them to put their ear on the table and listen
again.
The first part of this demonstration shows that
sound travels through air, which is a gas.
The second part shows that sound travels though
the table, which is a solid.
Sound also travels through liquids.

Soun¢l vibrations travel easily through solids

 6,1 Sound wsvoc

Animals such as whales and dolphins

communicate with sounds.
Sound waves move the same way in gases, liquids
and solids. The sound wave makes the partieles
vibrate backwards and forwards.
The substance that the sound wave moves
through is called the medium. Therefore,
solids, liquids and gases can all be a medium
for sound.

Vibrations in a vacuum
To hear a sound, there must be:
• a vibration to make the sound
• a medium containing particles through These dolphins can uae eound to communicate under water.
which the sound wave can travel.
You saw in Topic 3.3 that a vacuum is a space where
there are no particles.
As there are no particles in a vacuum, there is nothing
to vibrate to make a sound wave.
Therefore, sound will not travel in a vacuum.
Space is a vacuum. If sound waves could travel
through space, we would be able to hear the Sun!
Scientists think that the Sun would make a high-pitched
humming sound, with louder, low-pitched
sounds from time
to time. electrlc bell
You can demonstrate that
sound does not travel in a
vacuum. If you put an electric
bell in a glass jar, you can
see it vibrate as it makes
the sound. vacuum
If the air is pumped out of
the jar to make a vacuum, you
can see the bell vibrating to vacuum pump
but you cannot hear the
sound
of the bell,
Sound wav•s cannot travel in a vacuum as thare ara no particles to vibrate.
 Earth physics

B Which of these can sound travel through?

Select all the correct z:nswers. Write the letters.

The Moon has no atmosphere. People who went to the Moon wore
suits that contained air.
The people who went to the Moon worked close
together. They did work such as hammering and
digging.
Explain why the people doing this work could not hear it happening.
10 Science fiction films are made in studios on Earth.
These films often show explosions in space.
There is usually a loud bang when the explosion happens.
Explain whether you would really hear an explosion in spaoe.

Work in groups or as a whole class.

Do not suddenly release a spring that has been stretched.

1 Stretch the spring across a smooth, flat surface such as a long bench or the floor.
2 Use chalk or small pieces of paper to mark positions on the spring. These
represent particles.
3 One person holds one end of the spring and keeps it still.
 d.1 Sound waves

4 Another person holds the opposite end and moves the end of the spring backwards
and forwards, as shown in the diagram. This will make a wave in the spring.

movement of hand

Questions
In your groups, discuss the answers to these questions.
1 In which direction does the wave in the spring move?
2 Does the whole spring move in that direction?
3 In which direction do the marks that represent particles move?
4 What did the person holding the fixed end of the spring feel from the spring?

Think Iike a scientist

Sound and vibration
You are going to investigate whether sound requires vibrations to travel.
Work in groups of three.

You will need:

• 2 disposable cups, a sharp object to make a small hole in the bottom of each cup,
a string long enough to go across the classroom, scissors to cut the string
Safety
Take care when using the sharp object to make a hole in the cups.
1 Pass the string through the holes in the cups so that the open ends of the cups
face away from each other. Make the string as long as possible.
2 Secure the string inside each cup by tying a knot.
3 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram. This is sometimes called a
string telephone.

4 Pull the string tight between the cups.

5 The person speaking puts the cup over their mouth.
6 The person listening puts the cup over their ear.
7 Speak as quietly as possible, so that the person hears the sound of your voice
through the string.
8 Let the string go slack. Say the same thing, with the same loudness, when the string is slack.
9 Pull the string tight again. The third member of the group should grip the string
in their hand. Do this around the middle of the string and then in different
places.
10 Say the same thing, with the same loudness, when the string is being gripped.
Ouestions
1 State what the sound wave passes through to travel between the cups.
2 Describe the difference in what you heard when the string was tight and when the
string was slack.
3 Describe what happened when the string was gripped in the middle.
4 State whether the position that the string was gripped made any difference to
the sound that you heard.
C on I nued

Explain what you can conclude from these observations.

It is very difficult to speak with the same loudness each time. Suggest an
improvement for this so that the investigation is a fair test.

Swap your answers with a partner.

• Do your partner’s answers agree with your observations in"the investigation?
• Oo you agree with your parlziar's conclusion?
• Do you agree witk your perl:ner’s suggestion for making this a fair test7

Summary checklist
 Earth physics

7 6.2 Reflections of sound

In t his t op'c yoI› w II

• learn that sound waves can be reflected

• discover what can happen when sound is reflected.

Work in groups. echo

Discuss how you would describe the movement of particles in a effect on the
sound wave. sound
For a challenge, try to do this without a diagram and without property
moving your hands.
reflected
unwanted
 d.2 Reflections of sound

Railactlona
One pnqanty of all waves is that they can be reflected
from surfaces. Therefore, sound waves can be reflected.
Reflection is like bouncing a ball off a wall. When a
wave is reflected, the wave behaves like the ball. The
only differenoe is that a wave is not affected by gravity.
A sound wave travelling towards a wall will hit the
wall and come back.
Sound waves reflect best from large, smooth, flat
surfaoes. Surfaces such as glass, tiles, flat metal
and smooth concrete give good reflections of
sound.
If you stand between two flat walls you can hear
the reflection from sound. You can do this in an
empty room.
When you clap your hands, you hear a strange
effect on the sound. An effect on a sound means
the sound is changed.
The sound of the clap seems to last longer than
usual, then fade away.
Clapping your hands makes a sound wave. The sound
wave will travel away from your hands in all directions.
When the sound wave hits a , it is reflected back. RelieCtion Of a snund wave is like bouncing a ball—
the wave comes back off the wall.
The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo.

Stand between two flat walls and clap your hands once. This roam would give good reflections of sound.
What do you hear?

203
 Earth Physics

Useful echoes sound waves from bat reflected sound waves bat

Echoes can be useful.

Bats use echoes to find insects for food. The bat
makes a sound. The sound wave reflects off the
insect — there is an echo. The bat can work out
where the insect is from the time taken for the
echo to reach the bat, and the direction the echo
comes from.
Boats can use echoes to find the depth of water
under the boat.
The sound wave from the bat (thin lines) echoes off the
A sound is sent from the bottom of the boat. insect (wider lines).
The sound travels through the water and reflects
off the solid ground. The echo comes back to the
boat. The time taken for the echo to come back
can be used to work out the depth.
Notice that the distance travelled by the sound
is double the distance from the object making
the sound to the reflecting surface. The sound sound waves
has to travel from the object to the reflecting Odt
surface and back again. You can see this in the
picture of the bat and insect, and in the picture reflected
of the boat. R sound waves

Echoes can also be used to make images from

inside the body. Sounds sent into the mother's
body echo back out of her body. This method is
used to make the image of the unborn baby.
 d.2 Re'flactions of sound

Unwanted echoes
Sometimes echoes are imwanted. For example, when recording music,
echoes change the sound. A musical note that is played once will repeat
with an echo. This effect will spoil the recording.
A room with large flat walls would give many echoes.
The picture below shows how the walls of a room are changed to
stop echoes. This room can now be used to record music without the
effect of echoes.
In a theatre, the audience needs to hear the voices of people on the stage.
If there were echoes in a theatre, the voices would not be clear. Theatres
are designed to stop echoes. Theatres usually have no large flat surfaces
that could cause echoes.

The ehapes on the we lls of this room are mode to The design of this theatre will stop echoes.
stop echoes.

Questions
1 Which statement describes what happens to a sound to mnke
an echo?
Write the letter.
A The pitch of the sound increases.
8 The pitch of the sound decreases.
C The sound gets reflected.
D The sound gets louder.

205
Earth Physics

Which one of these will give the best echo in a room?

All of the materials have the same area.
Write the letter.
A soft curtains
B glass window
C thick carpet
D wool blanket
Arun goes to the same music concert in two different theatres, A and
B. The theatres are shown in the pictures.

A B
Arun says the music sounded better in theatre B.
Use information in the pictures to explain why the music sounded
better in theatre B.
Zara has an empty room where she can practise playing her
drums. Which one of these materials could she put on the
walls to stop echoes when she plays?
Write the letter.
flat wood sheets
B shiny metal sheets
C soft thick
curtains large flat
mirrors
 Extension guesftoa:

A fishing boat Uses an echo to find the

distance from the boat to some fish.
A sound is sent from the ship to the fish.
The sound reflects back to the ship.
The sgeed oF aound in water is t500 metres
per second.
The time taken for the sound to go from the
ship and back to the ship is 0.2 seconds.
Use this equation to calculate the distance
from the boat to the fish:
distance - speed x time
Remember that the distance travelled by the sound wave in
0.2 seconds is from the ship to the fish end beck sgcH.

Modelling echo location

Some animals, such as bats and dolphins, use echo location to find food. In this activity,
you will use light and a mirror to model echo location.

You need to work in pairs, as learner A and learner B. Then swap roles.
Learner A
1 Place the mirror vertically on a desk without letting your partner see.
 Earth physics

Cont inued

2 Place the card over the mirror. Support it so that the mirror cannot be
seen, as shown in the diagram.
light front flashlight or ray box

light souice ' ! "* ”

sheet of card
moved to '' position of mirior
locate mirror ’ ” under card

Learner B
1 Look at the apparatus from above, so that you cannot see where the mirror
is.
2 Use the flash light or ray box to locate the mirror.
3 Attempt to find:
• where the mirror is, as accurately as possible
• what direction the mirror is
facing. Questions
1 In this model, the light represents the sound made by the dolphin or bat.
State what the mirror represents.
2 Make a list of:
a strengths of this model in representing echo location
b limitations of this model in representing echo location.

208
 d.3 Structure of the
Earth

7 6.3 Structure of the

Earth
In this topic you will:

continental drift
Draw ana laDel a diagram to show what the Earth
core
vvou Id if it were cut through. crust
agm
mantl
e
molte
n
tectonic plates
 Earth physics

What do we know about the Earth?

Scientists have worked out that the Earth is about 4500 million years
old. They have also worked out what is inside the Earth.
The Earth has a crust of solid rock.
Under the crust is the mantle, which is molten (hot liquid) rock that
can flow.
In the centre of the Earth is the cure. It is made of the metals nickel
and iron. The outer part of the core is molten. The inner part of the
core is solid.
The rocks found in the crust contain metals and non-metals. The pie
chart below on the right shows the approximate proportions of the
most common elements in the Earth's crust.

crust (solid rock)

outer core (molten

metals, mostly iron and
nlctet)

Inner core (solld

Questions
1 State the name of the part of the Earth that forms the centre.
2 Name the metals found in this part.
5 Name the most common non-metal in the Earth's
crust. I Name the most common metal in the
Earth's crust.
People used to think that the Earth was only a few thousand years old.
They thought the Earth had never changed.
In 1912, a German scientist called Alfred Wegener suggested that,
millions of years ago, all the land was one large continent. Over
millions of years the land broke up and drifted apart. This idea is called
cnndnental drlft.

212
His evidence for this idea was that:
• the shapes of the continents fit together
• the types of rock on the different continents match up where
they fit together
• the fossils on the different continents match up where they
fit together.
Wegencr could not explain how continental drift happened,
so not everyone believe his ideas.

225 million years ago T SO million years ago

I% million yeari a9o

These drawings show how the continents have drifted apart over a ver long time

We now know that the Earth's crust is made up of large tcctouk plates.
Some of the plates are under the oceans: they are called oceanic plates.
Some of the plates form the continents: they are called continental plates.
These tectonic plates move slowly on the liquid rock called magma
beneath them. This is how continental drift occurs.
The plates only move about 4 cm each year, which is about same speed
as your fingernails grow.
Ouestions
5 What evidence did Wegener have for la is idea of eo ntineii tal d rift?
6 Why did some people reject his ideu?
7 Which tectonic plate do you live on?
B What causes the tectonic plates to move?

Drifting plates
You are going to m odel continental d rift.

• some pieces of polystyrene, water, e laige heet•ptoof dish.

something No heal tha water, such aea Bunsen bumar and
glassy

safety
Take care when h eating the water, as the dish may get very hot. Wear safety glasses.
Do not tou ch equipment until it has had time to cool.
1 Pour some water into the heat-proof dish.
2 Place the pieces of polystyrene on the water. Wait for them to stop moving.

214
 é.3 Structure of the Earth

Heat the water

gently. Observe
what happens. polystyrene
pieces
heat-proofdish

Questions
In your model for continental drift, state what is represented by:
the polystyrene
b the heat
source the
water.
2 Explain the strengths and weaknesses of this model of continental drift.
 Earth physics

› 6.4 Changes in the Earth

In this top ic you will:

* explain how.fold mountaihB and volcanoes a”re f•rrr›ed’

• explain how earthquakea happen.

Work with a partner. active

Make a list of ways that mountains and volcanoes dormant
are: the same earthquake
different. extinct
fold
mountains
geological
change

magnitude
plate
boundary
sulocJuction
volc no
 é.4 Changes in the Ear th

Geological change
The places where tectonic plates meet are called plate boundaries.
Geological etange happens most frequently at plate bo undaries. This is
because the tectonic plates are always moving. Some of the geological
change is very slow— it happens over millions of years. But some of the
geological change is very sud den and violent.
This illu stration shows the plate boundaries aro und the edge of the
Pacific Ocean. There are many geological changes and events, such as
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, Lere. This area is often called the
Pacific King of Fire.

Movement of plates
The movement of tectonic plates creates t la ree types of plu te boundaries
 Plates moving apart
As tectonic plates drift away
from each other, they break and
crack when they become too
thin. Lava (liquid rock) erupts
from the mantle and hardens to
form new crust with new rocks.
This causes a volcano.

Plates sliding past

Because the plates are
very large and heavy,
there is a lot of friction
between the plates. Over
the years, this makes the
plates stick together.
There is always
force on the tectonic plates,
so the pressure builds up and
eventually the pressure causes
violent movement. This is an
earthquake.

Fold mountains
Sometimes, when tectonic places move
together, the rocks crumple and fold
upwards. The mountains tHat this produces
are called lad moeotats.
This can happen under the ocean
or on land.
The newest Fold mounfains are between
10 and 25 million years old. These include
the Himalayas in As*a and the Rocky
Mountains in North America. The
oldest fold mountains are more that
20£t mil lion years old. These include
the Ural Mountains in R ussia.
 6.4 Chaogas In the Earth

The H ima ta yae, R a cky M a unta ink and UraI M ounta \ns were aII formed when lemon ic pt a tes p ushed a ga \net e ach a the r

Volcanoes
Volcanoes are usually formed at the plate
boundaries when magma from the
mantle rises up through cracks in the
Earth's crust.
At the Earth's surface, magma erupts to
form lava flows and ash deposits. Magma
is the name for liquid rock when it is
underground. Lava is the name for liquid
rock when it is on the surface. The lava
and ash harden as they cool to form
new rocks. So each time the volcano
erupts, it gets bigger.
Sometimes, if the magma is really thick,
and contains dissolved gas, pressure builds
up and the eruption is violent. Gases and
rock shoot up ttirougfi the opening. Violent
eruptions can even cause avalanches and
earttiqua kes — and tsuoamis if the volcano
is close to the sea.
Some volcaooes are settle and may erupt
at any time. Some volcanoes are Inactive or
dormant, which means ttiey have not erupted
for a very long time. Other volcanoes are
extlnri, wtiich means they will not

A powe Jul erupt ion at Anal Krakatau Volcano, lndonesia Part of

 Earth physics

Earthquakes
Some earthquakes are extremely violent and
cause a lot of damage. Some are so slight that
they only register on scientific instruments.
The size or magnitude of the earthquake
depends on the size of the faults at the plate
boundaries, and how far the rocks move
when the earthquake happens. In the largest
earthquakes, the rocks can move tens of
metres in seconds.
ouestions
Earthquakes can cause damage to roads and buildings
1 Which statement is true about tectonic plates?
Write the letter.
A They never move.
B They move in different ways.
C They always move towards each other.
D They always move away from cach other.
Explain how tectonic plates can cause fold mountains to
form. Which word is used to describe the strength of an
earthquake?
Write the letter.
A force
B energy
C magnitude
D destruction
Explain what causes an earthquake.
Mode4 for mgUng tectonic pTatec
Try out these models to show what happens where tectonic plates meet.

Do not aWmpt to est chocol•ta that haa been uaed in a classroom or labomtory.

Place a large piece of cloth on the teble.

Place your hands flat on the cloth, about 30 cm apart. Push your hands together.
Model B
Place two piecee of paper flat on the table so that they are touching. Push them together.
Can you make them elide so that one piece goes over the other one? This is similar to
what happens when one tectonic plate slides over another. Can you make the pieces of
paper form mountains?
Model C
Use modelling clay and make two flat pieces. Place them on the table and then push
them together. What happens?
Med•l D
Push the two chocolate-covered bars together. What happens7
o•••u•••
For each of the models you used:
1 Describe what happened.
2 Explain what it was modelling.
3 Discuss the strengths and limitations of the model.
4 Could you improve that particular model in any way?
5 Which do you think was the best model? Why?
 Earth physics

7 6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses

In this topic you will:

Discuss the answers to these questions. Work in groups of

three r fo
Which of these describes how light travels?
in curved paths In straight lines in
circles randomly in straight and curved
paths
2 Explain how a shadow is formed.
Decide whether each of these statements is true or false.
The Moon gives out its own light.
The Sun gives out its own light.
Shadows

Light travels in stra i h t lines en lled rays. Ligh I rays from the Sun can not
pass th rough the aeropl a nc, so ligla I rays that reach the i croplane can not
reach the ground.
Imagine you were stcnrling on the s'•• When the shadow of the
a croplane passes you, it will seem to go du rk. When the shadow has
go ne, it wi11 get bri gh ter a ga in.
A solar erII happens when the Moon
comes between the Sun and the Earth.
Su
The Moon is made from rock, so is an
opaque object. The Moon blocks the
rays of ligh t coming from the Sun. Earth

The diagram shows how the shadow of the Earth

the Moon is tormed on the Earth. I n the
middle of the shadow, all the light rays
from the Sun are blocked. People in the
middle of the ehadow observe a total
solar eclipse.
The left picture shows what a total solar

Away from the middle ot the shadow of

the Moon, some of the light rays from
the Sun can reach the Earth. Away from
the middle of the shadow there is a
partial solar eclipse. the middle of the away from the middle of
Moon’¥ shsdow. the hadow of the iyioon
The right picture shows what a
partial solar eclipse looks like.
The picture below shows a series of photographs taken as the Moon
passes between the Earth and the Sun.
The picture on the next page shows what a solar eclipse looks like From
space. The dark part of tfie Earth is in the shadow of the Moon. At the
centre of tfie shadow, there is a total solar eclipse. Away from the centre,
tfiere is a partial solar eclipse.

Th e Moon is pass in9 betwee n the 8un and the (a rth in the•• photo9ra phs
 b.5 God end lunar •dlpees

You must never look directly at the Sun, even when there is an
eclipse. The light from the Sun is very bright and can ea use
permanent damage to your eyes.

Lunar eclipse The dark part of the Earth is in the shadow of

A Inner ectlpee happens when the Earth comes between
the Sun and the Moon.
The Earth is also an opaque object, so the Earth blocks the light from
the Sun. The shadow of the Earth is formed on ttie Moon.
The diagram below shows bow the shadow of the Earth forms on
the Moon.

eclipse when
Moon Is here

rays of llght from the Sun total lunar

eclipse when

.. ecllpse when

A lunar eclipse happen* when the Eanh comee between the Bun and the Moon

The picture on the next page shows a series of three ptiotograptis of the
shadow of the Earth passing ecross the Moon.
You might thin k that solar and lunar eclipses should happen every
month , Ttie Moo n takes 27 days to orbit the Earth, but the orbit of the
Moon is ti]ted sligh tly. The orbit of the Moon is not exactly in the same
plane as the orbit of the Earth around the Sun.
It is o+i ly when the Sun, Earth and Moon ere in the same stre igh t line
tljat eeli pses can happen.
 Earth physics

Questions
4 Which of these describes how a solar eclipse
happens? Write the letter.
A The Sun comes between the Moon and the Earth.
B The Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun.
C The Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun.
2 Which of these describes how a lunar eclipse happens?
Write the letter.
A The Sun comes between the Moon and the Earth.
B The Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun.
C The Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun.
Explain why a solar eclipse can only ever be seen in the daytime.
Write true or false for this statement.
A (o(n1 tunes eclipse €An on12 even be been in (he doqtirne .
Explain your answer.

22é